Introduction to computer network

A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware

components and computers interconnected by communication channels that allow sharing of
resources and information.
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Where at least one process in one device is able to send/receive
data to/from at least one process residing in a remote device, then the two devices are said to
be in a network.
Networks can be categorized in several different ways. One approach defines the type of
network according to the geographic area it spans. Local area networks (LANs), for example,
typically reach across a single home, whereas wide area networks (WANs), reach across cities,
states, or even across the world. The Internet is the world's largest public WAN.
Why we need computer networks?
Computer networks help users on the network to share the resources and in communication.
Can you imagine a world now without emails, online news papers, blogs, chat and the other
services offered by the internet?
The following are the important benefits of a computer network.
File sharing: Networking of computers helps the users to share data files.
Hardware sharing: Users can share devices such as printers, scanners, CD-ROM drives, hard
drives etc.
Application sharing: Applications can be shared over the network, and this allows to implement
client/server applications
User communication: Networks allow users to communicate using e-mail, newsgroups, and
video conferencing etc.
Network gaming: Lot of games are available, which are supports multi-users.
Properties of Computer Networks
Facilitate communications
Using a network, people can communicate efficiently and easily via email, instant
messaging, chat rooms, telephone, video telephone calls, and video conferencing.
Permit sharing of files, data, and other types of information
In a network environment, authorized users may access data and information stored on
other computers on the network. The capability of providing access to data and
information on shared storage devices is an important feature of many networks.
Share network and computing resources
In a networked environment, each computer on a network may access and use
resources provided by devices on the network, such as printing a document on a shared
network printer. Distributed computing uses computing resources across a network to
accomplish tasks.
May be insecure
A computer network may be used by computer hackers to deploy computer viruses or
computer worms on devices connected to the network, or to prevent these devices
from normally accessing the network (denial of service).
May interfere with other technologies
Power line communication strongly disturbs certain forms of radio communication, e.g.,
amateur radio.
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It may also interfere with last mile access technologies such as ADSL
and VDSL.
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May be difficult to set up
A complex computer network may be difficult to set up. It may also be very costly to set
up an effective computer network in a large organization or company.
Advantages of Computer Networks
File Sharing: The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing
and remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation of a network can easily see
the files present on the other workstation, provided he is authorized to do so. It saves
the time which is wasted in copying a file from one system to another, by using a
storage device. In addition to that, many people can access or update the information
stored in a database, making it up-to-date and accurate.
Resource Sharing: Resource sharing is also an important benefit of a computer network.
For example, if there are four people in a family, each having their own computer, they
will require four modems (for the Internet connection) and four printers, if they want to
use the resources at the same time. A computer network, on the other hand, provides a
cheaper alternative by the provision of resource sharing. In this way, all the four
computers can be interconnected, using a network, and just one modem and printer can
efficiently provide the services to all four members. The facility of shared folders can
also be availed by family members.
Increased Storage Capacity: As there is more than one computer on a network which
can easily share files, the issue of storage capacity gets resolved to a great extent. A
standalone computer might fall short of storage memory, but when many computers
are on a network, memory of different computers can be used in such case. One can
also design a storage server on the network in order to have a huge storage capacity.
Increased Cost Efficiency: There are many software available in the market which are
costly and take time for installation. Computer networks resolve this issue as the
software can be stored or installed on a system or a server and can be used by the
different workstations.
Disadvantages of Computer Networks
Security Issues: One of the major drawbacks of computer networks is the security issues
involved. If a computer is a standalone, physical access becomes necessary for any kind
of data theft. However, if a computer is on a network, a computer hacker can get
unauthorized access by using different tools. In case of big organizations, various
network security software are used to prevent the theft of any confidential and
classified data.
Rapid Spread of Computer Viruses: If any computer system in a network gets affected
by computer virus, there is a possible threat of other systems getting affected too.
Viruses get spread on a network easily because of the interconnectivity of workstations.
Such spread can be dangerous if the computers have important database which can get
corrupted by the virus.
Expensive Set Up: The initial set up cost of a computer network can be high depending
on the number of computers to be connected. Costly devices like routers, switches,
hubs, etc., can add up to the bills of a person trying to install a computer network. He
will also have to buy NICs (Network Interface Cards) for each of the workstations, in case
they are not inbuilt.
Dependency on the Main File Server: In case the main File Server of a computer
network breaks down, the system becomes useless. In case of big networks, the File
Server should be a powerful computer, which often makes it expensive.
Types of Network
A network consists of two or more computers that are linked in order to share resources (such
as printers and CD-ROMs), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The computers
on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio waves, satellites, or infrared
light beams.
The three basic types of networks include: LAN, MAN and WAN.
LOCAL AREA NETWORK (LAN)
A network is said to be Local Area Network (LAN) if it is confined relatively to a small area. It is
generally limited to a building or a geographical area, expanding not more than a mile apart to
other computers.
LAN configuration consist of:
o A file server - stores all of the software that controls the network, as well as
the software that can be shared by the computers attached to the network.
o A workstation - computers connected to the file server (Mac or PCs). These are
less powerful than the file server
o Cables - used to connect the network interface cards in each computer.
METROPOLITAN AREA NETWORK (MAN)
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) covers larger geographic areas, such as cities. Often used by
local libraries and government agencies often to connect to citizens and private industries.
WIDE AREA NETWORK (WAN)
Wide Area Networks (WANs) connect larger geographic areas, such as London, the UK, or the
world. In this type of network dedicated transoceanic cabling or satellite uplinks may be used.
INTERNETWORKING
Internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by intermediate networking
devices, that functions as a single large network.
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Different Network Technologies Can Be Connected to Create an Internetwork
Internetworking devices have many advantages and they are:
Increases the number of nodes that can connect to the network thus limitations on
the number of nodes that connect to a network relate to the cable lengths and
traffic constraints.
Extends the physical distance of the network.
They localize traffic within a network.
Merge existing networks.
Isolate network faults.
Typical internetworking devices are:
Repeater. Operate at Layer 1 of the OSI
Bridges. Passes data frames between net-works using the MAC address (Layer 2 address).
Hubs. Allow the interconnection of nodes and create a physically attached network.
Switches. Allow simultaneous communication between two or more nodes, at a time.
Routers. Passes data packets between connected networks, and operate on network addresses
(Layer 3 address).
Network Topologies
The topology of a network describes the logical layout of the network, i.e. the way in which
network devices are connected together via the transmission medium. The topology usually
(though not always) describes the way the devices are connected together electronically. A
network having a ring topology in terms of the way in which devices are connected
electronically, for example, will usually be laid out physically using a star topology. A
combination of different topologies of this kind is called a hybrid topology. The network
topologies that are found in computer networks are:
Bus
Ring
Star
Tree
Mesh
The bus topology
This network configuration is based on a single network cable (sometimes called a backbone or
segment) to which all devices are attached. A device on a bus network can transmit to any
other device at any time, so collisions can and do occur, and some form of arbitration must be
implemented to deal with them. Data frames are usually addressed to a specific destination
device using that device' MAC address. Although data frames will propagate in both directions
along the bus, and will thus be received by all devices on the network, only the device to which
the data is addressed will actually read it. The cable segment must be correctly terminated at
each end to prevent signal reflection. The bus topology, illustrated below, is rarely employed in
modern LANs of any size, although backbone cables may be used to link together a number of
smaller network segments.
The bus topology
The ring topology
In a ring network, data frames are transmitted from device to device around a closed loop in
one direction only. Each device in the loop communicates directly only with the device that
transmits to it, and the device that it transmits to. Each device in the loop is responsible for
relaying received data frames to the next device in the loop, often regenerating the signal
before passing it on. Ring networks control medium access using a system known as token
passing, in which a small data frame known as a token is transmitted around the ring from
device to device. A device with data to transmit must wait until it receives the token and, if the
token is not already in use, may then add the data and control information to the token,
effectively turning it into a data frame. When the acknowledged data frame is received back
from the destination device, the token is released for use by other stations.
The star topology
In a star topology, each device is connected to a wiring centre of some kind that is responsible
for relaying data to other devices on the network segment. Most modern networks use some
variation of the star topology, even if electronically they behave like a bus or a ring. One big
advantage of star networks is that the ease with which additional devices can be added to the
network, facilitating network expansion. Because each device has its own dedicated connection
to the wiring centre, problems are easier to isolate, and a break in a cable affects only one
node. If the central device develops a fault, of course, all nodes may be affected.
The tree topology
This is essentially a branching version of the bus topology. Each branch must be terminated to
prevent signal reflection, and data frames are propagated to all devices attached to the
network.
The mesh topology
In a mesh topology, each device is connected to several other devices. Reliability is increased
because there are alternative routes by which data frames can reach their destination in the
event of one link failing. The main disadvantage is the number of connections required, with
each device added to the network requiring several additional connections. If every device is
connected to every other device on the network, the total number of connections required can
be calculated using the following formula: Number of connections = n x (n - 1) / 2
Local Area Networks
A local area network (LAN) covers a limited geographical area (typically a single building or
campus), and is usually wholly owned and maintained by a single organisation. LANs are widely
used to connect personal computers and workstations in homes, company offices and factories
in order to share resources and exchange information. They are distinguished from other kinds
of network by their size, their transmission technology, and their topology. Because of their
(relatively) small size, management of the network is comparitively straightforward, and LANs
generally enjoy high data rates, small propagation delays, and low error rates. The diagram
below shows some of the elements you could expect to find in a typical local area network.
Wide Area Networks
A wide area network (WAN) spans a large geographical area. Large organisations may have
offices in different cities, different countries or even on different continents, each with its own
LAN. The individual LANs are often linked to form a much larger wide area network.
Workstations on WANs are traditionally called hosts, although they are also often referred to as
end systems. The networks that make up the WAN are interconnected by a communications
subnet.
The subnet consists of transmission lines and switching elements. The switching elements are
specialised computers used to interconnect two or more networks. When a data packet arrives
on an incoming transmission line, the switching element must select an outgoing transmission
line on which to forward it. If the required output line is not immediately available, the packet
will be stored until the line becomes free. These switching elements are also known as
intermediate systems, and more commonly as routers. If two routers are not directly connected
but need to communicate, they must do so indirectly via other routers. The diagram below
illustrates the relationship between the subnet and the individual LANs.
The OSI Model
The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a product of the Open Systems
Interconnection effort at the International Organisation for Standardisation. It is a prescription
of characterising and standardising the functions of a communications system in terms of
abstraction layers. Similar communication functions are grouped into logical layers. A layer
serves the layer above it and is served by the layer below it.
Layer 1: physical layer
The physical layer defines electrical and physical specifications for devices. In particular, it
defines the relationship between a device and a transmission medium, such as a copper or fiber
optical cable. This includes the layout of pins, voltages, cable specifications, hubs, repeaters,
network adapters, host bus adapters (HBA used in storage area networks) and more.
The major functions and services performed by the physical layer are:
Establishment and termination of a connection to a communications medium.
Participation in the process whereby the communication resources are effectively
shared among multiple users. For example, contention resolution and flow control.
Modulation, or conversion between the representation of digital data in user equipment
and the corresponding signals transmitted over a communications channel. These are
signals operating over the physical cabling (such as copper and optical fiber) or over a
radio link.
Parallel SCSI buses operate in this layer, although it must be remembered that the logical SCSI
protocol is a transport layer protocol that runs over this bus. Various physical-layer Ethernet
standards are also in this layer; Ethernet incorporates both this layer and the data link layer.
The same applies to other local-area networks, such as token ring, FDDI, ITU-T G.hn and IEEE
802.11, as well as personal area networks such as Bluetooth and IEEE 802.15.4.
Layer 2: data link layer
The data link layer provides the functional and procedural means to transfer data between
network entities and to detect and possibly correct errors that may occur in the physical layer.
Originally, this layer was intended for point-to-point and point-to-multipoint media,
characteristic of wide area media in the telephone system. Local area network architecture,
which included broadcast-capable multiaccess media, was developed independently of the ISO
work in IEEE Project 802. IEEE work assumed sublayering and management functions not
required for WAN use. In modern practice, only error detection, not flow control using sliding
window, is present in data link protocols such as Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP), and, on local
area networks, the IEEE 802.2 LLC layer is not used for most protocols on the Ethernet, and on
other local area networks, its flow control and acknowledgment mechanisms are rarely used.
Sliding window flow control and acknowledgment is used at the transport layer by protocols
such as TCP, but is still used in niches where X.25 offers performance advantages.
The ITU-T G.hn standard, which provides high-speed local area networking over existing wires
(power lines, phone lines and coaxial cables), includes a complete data link layer which provides
both error correction and flow control by means of a selective repeat Sliding Window Protocol.
Both WAN and LAN service arrange bits, from the physical layer, into logical sequences called
frames. Not all physical layer bits necessarily go into frames, as some of these bits are purely
intended for physical layer functions. For example, every fifth bit of the FDDI bit stream is not
used by the layer.
WAN protocol architecture
Connection-oriented WAN data link protocols, in addition to framing, detect and may correct
errors. They are also capable of controlling the rate of transmission. A WAN data link layer
might implement a sliding window flow control and acknowledgment mechanism to provide
reliable delivery of frames; that is the case for Synchronous Data Link Control (SDLC) and HDLC,
and derivatives of HDLC such as LAPB and LAPD.
IEEE 802 LAN architecture
Practical, connectionless LANs began with the pre-IEEE Ethernet specification, which is the
ancestor of IEEE 802.3. This layer manages the interaction of devices with a shared medium,
which is the function of a media access control (MAC) sublayer. Above this MAC sublayer is the
media-independent IEEE 802.2 Logical Link Control (LLC) sublayer, which deals with addressing
and multiplexing on multiaccess media.
While IEEE 802.3 is the dominant wired LAN protocol and IEEE 802.11 the wireless LAN
protocol, obsolescent MAC layers include Token Ring and FDDI. The MAC sublayer detects but
does not correct errors.
Layer 3: network layer
The network layer provides the functional and procedural means of transferring variable length
data sequences from a source host on one network to a destination host on a different network
(in contrast to the data link layer which connects hosts within the same network), while
maintaining the quality of service requested by the transport layer. The network layer performs
network routing functions, and might also perform fragmentation and reassembly, and report
delivery errors. Routers operate at this layer, sending data throughout the extended network
and making the Internet possible. This is a logical addressing scheme values are chosen by the
network engineer. The addressing scheme is not hierarchical.
The network layer may be divided into three sublayers:
1. Subnetwork access that considers protocols that deal with the interface to networks,
such as X.25;
2. Subnetwork-dependent convergence when it is necessary to bring the level of a transit
network up to the level of networks on either side
3. Subnetwork-independent convergence handles transfer across multiple networks.
An example of this latter case is CLNP, or IPv6 ISO 8473. It manages the connectionless transfer
of data one hop at a time, from end system to ingress router, router to router, and from egress
router to destination end system. It is not responsible for reliable delivery to a next hop, but
only for the detection of erroneous packets so they may be discarded. In this scheme, IPv4 and
IPv6 would have to be classed with X.25 as subnet access protocols because they carry interface
addresses rather than node addresses.
A number of layer-management protocols, a function defined in the Management Annex, ISO
7498/4, belong to the network layer. These include routing protocols, multicast group
management, network-layer information and error, and network-layer address assignment. It is
the function of the payload that makes these belong to the network layer, not the protocol that
carries them.
Layer 4: transport layer
The transport layer provides transparent transfer of data between end users, providing reliable
data transfer services to the upper layers. The transport layer controls the reliability of a given
link through flow control, segmentation/desegmentation, and error control. Some protocols are
state- and connection-oriented. This means that the transport layer can keep track of the
segments and retransmit those that fail. The transport layer also provides the
acknowledgement of the successful data transmission and sends the next data if no errors
occurred.
OSI defines five classes of connection-mode transport protocols ranging from class 0 (which is
also known as TP0 and provides the least features) to class 4 (TP4, designed for less reliable
networks, similar to the Internet). Class 0 contains no error recovery, and was designed for use
on network layers that provide error-free connections. Class 4 is closest to TCP, although TCP
contains functions, such as the graceful close, which OSI assigns to the session layer. Also, all
OSI TP connection-mode protocol classes provide expedited data and preservation of record
boundaries. Detailed characteristics of TP0-4 classes are shown in the following table:
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Feature Name TP0 TP1 TP2 TP3 TP4
Connection oriented network Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Connectionless network No No No No Yes
Concatenation and separation No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Segmentation and reassembly Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
Error Recovery No Yes Yes Yes Yes
Reinitiate connection (if an excessive number of PDUs are
unacknowledged)
No Yes No Yes No
Multiplexing and demultiplexing over a single virtual circuit No No Yes Yes Yes
Explicit flow control No No Yes Yes Yes
Retransmission on timeout No No No No Yes
Reliable Transport Service No Yes No Yes Yes
Perhaps an easy way to visualize the transport layer is to compare it with a Post Office, which
deals with the dispatch and classification of mail and parcels sent. Do remember, however, that
a post office manages the outer envelope of mail. Higher layers may have the equivalent of
double envelopes, such as cryptographic presentation services that can be read by the
addressee only. Roughly speaking, tunneling protocols operate at the transport layer, such as
carrying non-IP protocols such as IBM's SNA or Novell's IPX over an IP network, or end-to-end
encryption with IPsec. While Generic Routing Encapsulation (GRE) might seem to be a network-
layer protocol, if the encapsulation of the payload takes place only at endpoint, GRE becomes
closer to a transport protocol that uses IP headers but contains complete frames or packets to
deliver to an endpoint. L2TP carries PPP frames inside transport packet.
Although not developed under the OSI Reference Model and not strictly conforming to the OSI
definition of the transport layer, the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User
Datagram Protocol (UDP) of the Internet Protocol Suite are commonly categorized as layer-4
protocols within OSI.
Layer 5: session layer
The session layer controls the dialogues (connections) between computers. It establishes,
manages and terminates the connections between the local and remote application. It provides
for full-duplex, half-duplex, or simplex operation, and establishes checkpointing, adjournment,
termination, and restart procedures. The OSI model made this layer responsible for graceful
close of sessions, which is a property of the Transmission Control Protocol, and also for session
checkpointing and recovery, which is not usually used in the Internet Protocol Suite. The
session layer is commonly implemented explicitly in application environments that use remote
procedure calls. On this level, Inter-Process_(computing) communication happen (SIGHUP,
SIGKILL, End Process, etc.).
Layer 6: presentation layer
The presentation layer establishes context between application-layer entities, in which the
higher-layer entities may use different syntax and semantics if the presentation service
provides a mapping between them. If a mapping is available, presentation service data units are
encapsulated into session protocol data units, and passed down the stack.
This layer provides independence from data representation (e.g., encryption) by translating
between application and network formats. The presentation layer transforms data into the
form that the application accepts. This layer formats and encrypts data to be sent across a
network. It is sometimes called the syntax layer.
The original presentation structure used the basic encoding rules of Abstract Syntax Notation
One (ASN.1), with capabilities such as converting an EBCDIC-coded text file to an ASCII-coded
file, or serialization of objects and other data structures from and to XML.
Layer 7: application layer
The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end user, which means that both the OSI
application layer and the user interact directly with the software application. This layer
interacts with software applications that implement a communicating component. Such
application programs fall outside the scope of the OSI model. Application-layer functions
typically include identifying communication partners, determining resource availability, and
synchronizing communication. When identifying communication partners, the application layer
determines the identity and availability of communication partners for an application with data
to transmit. When determining resource availability, the application layer must decide whether
sufficient network or the requested communication exist. In synchronizing communication, all
communication between applications requires cooperation that is managed by the application
layer. Some examples of application-layer implementations also include:
The TCP/IP Model
The Internet protocol suite is the set of communications protocols used for the Internet and
similar networks, and generally the most popular protocol stack for wide area networks. It is
commonly known as TCP/IP, because of its most important protocols: Transmission Control
Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first networking protocols defined in
this standard. It is occasionally known as the DoD model due to the foundational influence of
the ARPANET in the 1970s (operated by DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of
Defense).
CP/IP is based on a four-layer reference model. All protocols that belong to the TCP/IP protocol
suite are located in the top three layers of this model.
As shown in the following illustration, each layer of the TCP/IP model corresponds to one or
more layers of the seven-layer Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model proposed
by the International Standards Organization (ISO).
types of services performed and protocols used at each layer within the TCP/IP model are
described in more detail in the following table.
Layer Description Protocols
Application
Defines TCP/IP application protocols and how
host programs interface with transport layer
services to use the network.
HTTP, Telnet, FTP,
TFTP, SNMP, DNS,
SMTP, X Windows,
other application
protocols
Transport
Provides communication session management
between host computers. Defines the level of
service and status of the connection used
when transporting data.
TCP, UDP, RTP
Internet
Packages data into IP datagrams, which
contain source and destination address
information that is used to forward the
datagrams between hosts and across
networks. Performs routing of IP datagrams.
IP, ICMP, ARP, RARP
Network
interface
Specifies details of how data is physically sent
through the network, including how bits are
electrically signaled by hardware devices that
interface directly with a network medium,
such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted-
pair copper wire.
Ethernet, Token Ring,
FDDI, X.25, Frame
Relay, RS-232, v.35
Comparison between TCP/IP and OSI
Like OSI network model, TCP/IP also has a network model. TCP/IP was on the path of
development when the OSI standard was published and there was interaction between the
designers of OSI and TCP/IP standards. The TCP/IP model is not same as OSI model. OSI is a
seven-layered standard, but TCP/IP is a four layered standard. The OSI model has been very
influential in the growth and development of TCP/IP standard, and that is why much OSI
terminology is applied to TCP/IP. The following figure compares the TCP/IP and OSI network
models.
Comparison between seven layer OSI and four layer TCP/IP Models
As we can see from the above figure, presentation and session layers are not there in OSI
model. Also note that the Network Access Layer combines the functions of Datalink Layer and
Physical Layer.
Layer 4. Application Layer
Application layer is the top most layer of four layer TCP/IP model. Application layer is present
on the top of the Transport layer. Application layer defines TCP/IP application protocols and
how host programs interface with transport layer services to use the network.
Application layer includes all the higher-level protocols like DNS (Domain Naming System), HTTP
(Hypertext Transfer Protocol), Telnet, FTP (File Transfer Protocol), TFTP (Trivial File Transfer
Protocol), SNMP (Simple Network Management Protocol), SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Protocol) , DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), X Windows, RDP (Remote Desktop
Protocol) etc.
Layer 3. Transport Layer
Transport Layer is the third layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. The position of the Transport
layer is between Application layer and Internet layer. The purpose of Transport layer is to
permit devices on the source and destination hosts to carry on a conversation. Transport layer
defines the level of service and status of the connection used when transporting data.
The main protocols included at Transport layer are TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) and
UDP (User Datagram Protocol).
Layer 2. Internet Layer
Internet Layer is the second layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. The position of Internet layer
is between Network Access Layer and Transport Layer. Internet layer pack data into data
packets known as IP datagrams, which contain source and destination address (logical address
or IP address) information that is used to forward the datagrams between hosts and across
networks. The Internet layer is also responsible for routing of IP datagrams.
Packet switching network depends upon a connectionless internetwork layer. This layer is
known as internet layer, is the linchpin that holds the whole design together. Its job is to allow
hosts to insert packets into any network and have them to deliver independently to the
destination. At the destination side data packets may appear in a different order than they
were sent. It is the job of the higher layers to rearrange them in order to deliver them to proper
network applications operating at the Application layer.
The main protocols included at Internet layer are IP (Internet Protocol), ICMP (Internet Control
Message Protocol), ARP (Address Resolution Protocol), RARP (Reverse Address Resolution
Protocol) and IGMP (Internet Group Management Protocol).
Layer 1. Network Access Layer
Network Access Layer is the first layer of the four layer TCP/IP model. Network Access layer
defines details of how data is physically sent through the network, including how bits are
electrically or optically signaled by hardware devices that interface directly with a network
medium, such as coaxial cable, optical fiber, or twisted pair copper wire.
The protocols included in Network Access layer are Ethernet, Token Ring, FDDI, X.25, Frame
Relay etc.
The most popular LAN architecture among those listed above is Ethernet. Ethernet uses an
Access Method called CSMA/CD (Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection) to access
the media. An Access Method determines how a host will place data on the medium.
IN CSMA/CD Access Method, every host has equal access to the medium and can place data on
the wire when the wire is free from network traffic. When a host wants to place data on the
wire, it will check the wire to find whether another host is already using the medium. If there is
traffic already in the medium, the host will wait and if there is no traffic, it will place the data in
the medium. But, if two systems place data on the medium at the same instance, they will
collide with each other, destroying the data. If the data is destroyed during transmission, the
data will need to be retransmitted. After collision, each host will wait for a small interval of time
and again the data will be retransmitted.
In this lesson, you have learned about the four layers of TCP/IP model and the comparison
between four layered TCP/IP model and seven layered OSI model
Network Interconnection Devices
Many interconnection device are required in a modern network, from the interface that allows
a single computer to communicate with other computers via a LAN cable or a telephone line, to
the large and complex switching devices that interconnect two or more entire networks. The
main categories of interconnection device used in computer networks are listed below.
Network Interface Card (NIC)
Every device on a network that needs to transmit and receive data must have a network
interface card (NIC) installed. They are sometimes called network adapters, and are usually
installed into one of the computer's expansion slots in the same way as a sound or graphics
card. The NIC includes a transceiver, (a transmitter and receiver combined). The transceiver
allows a network device to transmit and receive data via the transmission medium. Each NIC
has a unique 48-bit Media Access Control (MAC) address burned in to its ROM during
manufacture. The first 24 bits make up a block code known as the Organisationally Unique
Identifier (OUI) that is issued to manufacturers of NICs, and identify the manufacturer. The issue
of OUIs to organisations is administered by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
(IEEE). The last 24 bits constitute a sequential number issued by the manufacturer. The MAC
address is sometimes called a hardware address or physical address, and uniquely identifies the
network adapter. It is used by many data link layer communications protocols, including
Ethernet, the 802.11 wireless protocol and Bluetooth. The use of a 48-bit adress allows for 2
48
(281,474,976,710,656) unique addresses. A MAC address is usually shown in hexadecimal
format, with each octet separated by a dash or colon, for example: 00-90-47-03-B6-C4.
Repeater
As signals travel along a transmission medium there will be a loss of signal strength (
attenuation ). A repeater is a non-intelligent network device that receives a signal on one of its
ports, regenerates the signal, and then retransmits the signal on all of its remaining ports.
Repeaters can extend the length of a network (but not the capacity) by connecting two network
segments. Repeaters cannot be used to extend a network beyond the limitations of its
underlying architecture, or to connect network segments that use different network access
methods. They can, however, connect different media types, and may be able to link bridge
segments with different data rates.
A repeater connecting network segments
Hub
Hubs are used in Ethernet networks. A signal received at any port on the hub is retransmitted
on all other ports. Network segments that employ hubs are often described as having a star
topology, in which the hub forms the wiring centre of the star.
A hub in a star network configuration
Using a hub provides a degree of fault tolerance, because each network device has its own
connection to the hub, and if a connection fails, only a single device is affected. Expanding the
network is also easier, because many additional devices can be added to the network using a
single hub, which is itself often connected to a network backbone. Hubs can be either active or
passive. An active hub has its own power supply, and regenerates incoming frames before
retransmitting them. Because signals are regenerated, each output port can connect a channel
of up to 100 metres (the maximum allowed for twisted pair cables). Passive hubs simply relay
the signal without regenerating it. Managed hubs allow administrators to enable or disable
individual ports remotely, while intelligent hubs can autonomously close ports down if the
occurrence of errors in transmitted packets exceeds a certain threshold.
Bridge
Bridges can be used to connect two or more LAN segments of the same type (e.g. Ethernet to
Ethernet, or Token-Ring to Token-Ring). Like repeaters, bridges can extend the length of a
network, but unlike repeaters they can also extend the capacity of a network, since each port
on a bridge has its own MAC address. When bridges are powered on in an Ethernet network,
they start to learn the network's topology by analysing the source addresses of incoming
frames from all attached network segments (a process called backward learning ). Over a
period of time, they build up a routing table . Unless the source and the destination are on
different network segments, there is no need for the bridge to transfer an incoming frame to
another network segment. If the source and the destination are on different segments, the
bridge needs to be able to determine which segment the destination device belongs to.
Bridges learn about the network segments they are connected to
The bridge monitors all traffic on the segments it connects, and checks the source and
destination address of each frame against its routing table. When the bridge first becomes
operational, the routing table is blank, but as data is transmitted back and forth, the bridge
adds the source MAC address of any incoming frame to the routing table and associates the
address with the port on which the frame arrives. In this way, the bridge quickly builds up a
complete picture of the network topology. If the bridge does not know the destination segment
for an incoming frame, it will forward the frame to all attached segments except the segment
on which the frame was transmitted. Bridges reduce the amount of traffic on individual
segments by acting as a filter, isolating intra-segment traffic. This can greatly improve response
times.
Because Ethernet bridges determine whether or not to forward frames on the basis of the
desination MAC address, they are said to operate at the data link layer of the OSI Reference
Model. Etherenet bridges are sometimes referred to as transparent , because their presence
and operation are transparent to network users, although they successfully isolate
intrasegment traffic, reducing network traffic overall and improving network response times.
Switch
The switch is a relatively new network device that has replaced both hubs and bridges in LANs.
A switch uses an internal address table to route incoming data frames via the port associated
with their destination MAC address. Switches can be used to connect together a number of
end-user devices such as workstations, or to interconnect multiple network segments. A switch
that interconnects end-user devices is often called a workgroup switch. Switches provide
dedicated full-duplex links for every possible pairing of ports, effectively giving each attached
device its own network segment This significantly reduces the number of intra-segment and
inter-segment collisions.
Workgroup switches connect together a number of enduser devices
A number of network segments on the same floor of a building (or on the same campus), each
having thier own workgroup switch switch, may themselves be connected together by a higher
level switch known as a floor switch. Much more powerful switches are often used to connect
together a number of high-level network devices, such as floor switches, workgroup switches
and routers. These devices are often called core switches, and they should have sufficient
capacity to cope with the volume of traffic flowing around the network.
Router
A network environment that consists of several interconnected networks employing different
network protocols and architectures requires a sophisticated device to manage the flow of
traffic between these diverse networks. Such a device, sometimes referred to as an
intermediate system, but more commonly called a router, must be able to determine how to
get incoming packets (or datagrams) to the destination network by the most efficient route.
Routers gather information about the networks to which they are connected, and can share this
information with routers on other networks. The information gathered is stored in the router's
internal routing table, and includes both the routing information itself and the current status of
various network links. Routers exchange this routing information using special routing
protocols.
Computers, and other end-user devices attached to networks that form part of an
internetwork, are often called hosts or end-systems. A network host does not know how to
forward a datagram to a host on another network, and so it will forward the datagram to its
local router (or default gateway). A datagram may traverse a number of networks, and hence a
number of routers, as it travels from an end-system on the source network to an end-system on
the destination network. At each intermediate router, a decision is made as to what is the
optimum next hop. The process undertaken by the router in transferring the incoming
datagram to one of its output ports in this way is called switching, and routers are at the heart
of packet-switching networks. Unlike bridges and switches, routers do not concern themselves
with MAC addresses, and instead examine the IP address contained within a datagram to
determine the address of the destination network.
Models of Networking
The type of network most widely implemented to day is based on the principle of having one or
more file servers at the heart of the network. This kind of network is often referred to as a
server-based or client-server network. There are however other models for implementing
networks. The three principal ways of connecting computers together to share or use network
resources are:
Centralised computing
Peer-to-peer networks
Client-server networks
Centralised computing
Perhaps the oldest model of networking is based on the idea of having one very large and
powerful central computer, to which a number of computer terminals are directly connected. In
the early days of computing, this central computer would invariably have been a mainframe
computer (often called the host computer). This arrangement allowed many users to access the
resources of the "host" mainframe computer simultaneously. All processing is carried out on
the mainframe, and each terminal device consisted of a keyboard and a display screen, allowing
the user to input data via the keyboard and view the resulting output on the screen. In order for
the arrangement to work, a number of special multi-user, multi-tasking operating systems were
developed. The most enduring of these was the UNIX operating system, which is still in
widespread use today. The very high cost of implementing and maintaining a mainframe
computer system meant that only the largest organisations could afford to install and run them.
Smaller organisations wishing to make use of such computing facilities could buy or lease access
to computing facilities from larger organisations with mainframe capacity to spare.
Peer-to-peer networks
In a peer-to-peer network, all computers have equal status (i.e. they are peers). There is no
centralised network management, and any computer can provide resources to any of the
others. Typically, the workstations on such a network are PCs, and each computer is capable of
functioning in stand-alone mode when disconnected from the rest of the network. Peer-to-peer
networks are suitable for a small number of computers (typically ten or less) in the same
physical location, such as a small office. They are easy to set up and administer, and are
relatively inexpensive. Individual users are responsible for determining which resources on their
computer will be shared with other users. The main requirement for setting up a peer-to-peer
network is that each computer must be equipped with a network interface card, and have an
operating system (e.g. Microsoft Windows or Linux) that will support basic networking.
Computers are typically connected via a small hub or switch using category 5 or category 6
twisted pair network cables.
Client-server networks
Client-server networks can support a large number of clients (workstations) and link multiple
computing hardware and software platforms. They rely on one or more specialised computers
called servers, and are centrally administered. Processing is distributed in the sense that
application software can be installed on both server and client machines. Workstations are
often personal computers, suitable equipped, that can operate as stand-alone machines when
the network is unavailable.
Client-server networks are highly scaleable. As the number of users increases, additional
servers can be added to cope with the additional workload. Network servers are usually either
minicomputers or (more commonly) high-specification personal computers, with fast (oftem
multi-core) processors and large amounts of working memory and secondary storage. A
specialised network operating system (NOS) must be installed on the network?s file servers to
provide the required network functionality. Current examples of proprietary network operating
systems include Microsoft Windows Server, Novell Netware, Unix and proprietary versions of
Linux. Open source solutions include Linux and open source versions of Unix.
A typical client-server network
A server is a computer connected to a network that provides both local and remote client
computers with access to network resources. There are many different kinds of server. A file
server, for example, provides access to shared data storage areas on the network, and may also
provide network authentication services. A print server provides access to network printing
services, a mail server provides storage and forwarding services for incoming and outgoing
electronic mail messages, and an application server provides access to networked application
software. A number of different network services can be provided by the same physical server,
as long as the necessary software is installed on the server. Usually, however, each type of
service is provided by a different physical server in order to evenly distribute the workload, and
in some cases several servers may act as alternative providers of the same service (network
logon authentication services, for example), if demand for that service is likely to be high at a
certain time of day.
Wireless Networks
wireless communication is invaluable in situations where the use of guided media may pose
problems, and the huge demand for wireless connectivity (for mobile phones, portable
computers and personal data assistants for example) is fuelling the proliferation of wireless
technology. Microwave frequencies in the range 2.400 - 2.484 GHz do not require a licence, and
are therefore popular for short range applications, and line-of-sight wireless links can be
established between two local area networks using microwave or laser links where a cable
connection would be difficult or prohibitively expensive to implement. A wireless LAN (WLAN) is
a local area network based on wireless technology. Most modern local area networks now
employ some wireless network infrastructure because it allows existing networks to be
extended without the expense of additional cabling, and allows users of portable network
devices to maintain connectivity with the network as they move around. Wireless networks can
be set up quickly and can be configured in either ad hoc or infrastructure mode. In ad hoc
mode, two or more portable computers can communicate with each other in the wireless
equivalent of a peer-to-peer network. There is no connection to a wired network and a wireless
access point is not required.
Network transmission media
TRANSMISSION MEDIA
The means through which data is transformed from one place to another is called transmission or
communication media. There are two categories of transmission media used in computer
communications.
BOUNDED/GUIDED MEDIA
UNBOUNDED/UNGUIDED MEDIA
1. BOUNDED MEDIA:
Bounded media are the physical links through which signals are confined to narrow path. These
are also called guide media. Bounded media are made up o a external conductor (Usually
Copper) bounded by jacket material. Bounded media are great for LABS because they offer high
speed, good security and low cast. However, some time they cannot be used due distance
communication. Three common types of bounded media are used of the data transmission. These
are
Coaxial Cable
Twisted Pairs Cable
Fiber Optics Cable
COAXIAL CABLE:
Coaxial cable is very common & widely used commutation media. For example TV wire is
usually coaxial.
Coaxial cable gets its name because it contains two conductors that are parallel to each other.
The center conductor in the cable is usually copper. The copper can be either a solid wire or
stranded martial.
Outside this central Conductor is a non-conductive material. It is usually white, plastic material
used to separate the inner Conductor form the outer Conductor. The other Conductor is a fine
mesh made from Copper. It is used to help shield the cable form EMI.
Outside the copper mesh is the final protective cover. (as shown in Fig)
The actual data travels through the center conductor in the cable. EMI interference is caught by
outer copper mesh. There are different types of coaxial cable vary by gauge & impedance.
Gauge is the measure of the cable thickness. It is measured by the Radio grade measurement, or
RG number. The high the RG number, the thinner the central conductor core, the lower the
number the thicker the core.
Here the most common coaxial standards.
50-Ohm RG-7 or RG-11 : used with thick Ethernet.
50-Ohm RG-58 : used with thin Ethernet
75-Ohm RG-59 : used with cable television
93-Ohm RG-62 : used with ARCNET.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COAXIAL CABLE
Low cost
Easy to install
Up to 10Mbps capacity
Medium immunity form EMI
Medium of attenuation
ADVANTAGES COAXIAL CABLE
Inexpensive
Easy to wire
Easy to expand
Moderate level of EMI immunity
DISADVANTAGE COAXIAL CABLE
Single cable failure can take down an entire network.
Twisted Pair Cable
The most popular network cabling is Twisted pair. It is light weight, easy to install, inexpensive and
support many different types of network. It also supports the speed of 100 mps. Twisted pair cabling is
made of pairs of solid or stranded copper twisted along each other. The twists are done to reduce
vulnerably to EMI and cross talk. The number of pairs in the cable depends on the type. The copper
core is usually 22-AWG or 24-AWG, as measured on the American wire gauge standard. There are two
types of twisted pairs cabling
1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)
1. Unshielded twisted pair (UTP)
UTP is more common. It can be either voice grade or data grade depending on the condition. UTP cable
normally has an impedance of 100 ohm. UTP cost less than STP and easily available due to its many use.
There are five levels of data cabling
Category 1
These are used in telephone lines and low speed data cable.
Category 2
These cables can support up to 4 mps implementation.
Category 3
These cable supports up to 16 mps and are mostly used in 10 mps.
Category 4
These are used for large distance and high speed. It can support 20mps.
Category 5
This is the highest rating for UTP cable and can support up to 100mps.
UTP cables consist of 2 or 4 pairs of twisted cable. Cable with 2 pair use RJ-11 connector and 4 pair cable
use RJ-45 connector.
Characteristics of UTP
low cost
easy to install
High speed capacity
High attenuation
Effective to EMI
100 meter limit
Advantages of UTP
Easy installation
Capable of high speed for LAN
Low cost
Disadvantages of UTP
Short distance due to attenuation
2. Shielded twisted pair (STP)
It is similar to UTP but has a mesh shielding thats protects it from EMI which allows for higher
transmission rate.
IBM has defined category for STP cable.
Type 1
STP features two pairs of 22-AWG
Type 2
This type include type 1 with 4 telephone pairs
Type 6
This type feature two pairs of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 7
This type of STP consist of 1 pair of standard shielded 26-AWG
Type 9
This type consist of shielded 26-AWG wire
Characteristics of STP
Medium cost
Easy to install
Higher capacity than UTP
Higher attenuation, but same as UTP
Medium immunity from EMI
100 meter limit

Advantages of STP:
Shielded
Faster than UTP and coaxial
Disadvantages of STP:
More expensive than UTP and coaxial
More difficult installation
High attenuation rate
Fiber Optics
Fiber optic cable uses electrical signals to transmit data. It uses light. In fiber optic cable light
only moves in one direction for two way communication to take place a second connection must
be made between the two devices. It is actually two stands of cable. Each stand is responsible for
one direction of communication. A laser at one device sends pulse of light through this cable to
other device. These pulses translated into 1s and 0s at the other end.
In the center of fiber cable is a glass stand or core. The light from the laser moves through this
glass to the other device around the internal core is a reflective material known as CLADDING.
No light escapes the glass core because of this reflective cladding.
Fiber optic cable has bandwidth more than 2 gbps (Gigabytes per Second)
Characteristics Of Fiber Optic Cable:
Expensive
Very hard to install
Capable of extremely high speed
Extremely low attenuation
No EMI interference
Advantages Of Fiber Optic Cable:
Fast
Low attenuation
No EMI interference
Disadvantages Fiber Optics:
Very costly
Hard to install
Best of luck