4.

Human activity has caused changes in the composition and the structure of
the atmosphere. Chemists monitor these changes so that further damage can
be limited.
Point 4.1 Describe the composition and layered structure of the
atmosphere.
The atmosphere contains 4 distinct layers. They are: troposphere,
stratosphere, ionosphere (which is made up of two layers called mesosphere
and thermosphere).
Troposphere: The troposphere is the layer which is closest to the
earths surface. It is approximately 0-!"m a#o$e earths surface. The
thermosphere contains % main &ases. 'itro&en is the most a#undant
&as at ()* (#y $olume). The nitro&en is part of the nitro&en cycle. The
second most a#undant &as is oxy&en (+*) which is necessary for the
process of respiration in li$in& thin&s. ,r&on is next at 0.-* and other
&ases such as car#on dioxide, 'e, .e and $aria#le amounts of water
$apour are present. ,s altitude increases, the temperature decreases
(#ecause of low pressure). .ere is where all the weather ta"es place.
Stratosphere: The stratosphere lies a#o$e the troposphere. It is
approximately !-!0"m a#o$e the earths surface. Important &ases in
this layer include nitro&en, oxy&en and especially o/one. In the upper
stratosphere there is the ozone layer. Temperature rises as altitude
rises in this layer #ecause particles (e.&. o/one) in the stratosphere
a#sor# harmful 0.1. radiation from the sun. The temperature ran&e is
-!02 to %02.
Ionosphere: This layer is a#o$e the stratosphere and is comprised of
two layers 3 mesosphere and thermosphere. It is approximately !0-
!0"m a#o$e the earths surface. The mesosphere lies #elow the
thermosphere. The ionosphere mainly consists of mainly ions and
atomic particles such as 4
+
5
and '4
5
. 4xy&en atoms (radicals) exist in
the ionosphere and free electrons that would not #e sta#le at lower
altitudes. The reason for the ions in the ionosphere is that the 0.1.
radiation from the sun #rea"s the #onds of molecules to form atoms
and free radicals. Temperature in the ionosphere is a#out -!02.
Point 4.2 Identify the main pollutants found in the lower atmosphere and
their sources.
.ere is a ta#le showin& the main pollutants found in lower atmosphere
(troposphere) and their sources:
Pollutant Sources artifcial (caused by
humans)
Sources
natural
Nitrogen oides
('4
x
) e.&. nitro&en
dioxide, nitric oxide
The hi&h temperature
en$ironment in internal
com#ustion in $ehicles.
'
+ (&)
5 4
+ (&)
+'4
(&)

6urnin& of
#iomass, heat
caused #y
li&htnin&, soil
#acteria.
!arbon monoide Incomplete com#ustion in motor
$ehicles
2
)
.
) (l)
5 !4
+ (&)
24
( &)
5 (2
(s)
5
-.
+
4
(l)
1olcanoes,
decomposition of
plants and animals
!arbon dioide 2om#ustion of fuels in $ehicles
2.
4 (&)
5 +4
+ (&)
24
+ (&)
5 +.
+
4
(l)
7ame as a#o$e
Sul"ur dioide 2om#ustion of fuels containin& 1olcanoes,
small amounts of sulfur
#$eS
%
& ''(
%
)S(
%
&
%$e
%
(
*
It is also produced #y the
smeltin& of sul8de ores
%+nS & *(
%
%+n( & %S(
%
#acteria
,olatile organic
compounds
0n#urnt fuel, sol$ents and paints 9mitted #y
$e&etation
Particles (e.g. soot) Incomplete com#ustion of fuel in
$ehicles (see e:uation for car#on
monoxide a#o$e)
6urnin& of
#iomass
Note: 4/one is also formed in the lower atmosphere $ia photochemical smo&.
The nitro&en oxides in the photochemical smo& a#sor# the 0.1. radiation from
sun and this produces an oxy&en atom which then reacts with an oxy&en
molecule to produce o/one.
NO
2 (g)
+ .!. NO
(g)
+ O.
(g)
O
. (g)
+ O
2 (g)
O
" (g)
Point 4.3 Describe ozone as a molecule able to act both as an upper
atmosphere UV radiation shield and a lower atmosphere pollutant.
In the troposphere as outlined a#o$e, o/one can #e produced from the
#rea"down of nitro&en oxides #y sunli&ht (see + e:uations a#o$e). 4/one is a
toxic, pun&ent &as which can #e harmful for humans at concentrations &reater
than 0.+ppm (asthmatics). It causes irritation of the eyes and airways,
cou&hin& and increased incidence of respiratory complications such as asthma
and #ronchitis. 6ecause o/one is a stron& oxidisin& a&ent, excessi$e
concentrations can disrupt #iochemical reactions inside the #ody. Thus it is a
dan&erous pollutant in the lower atmosphere.
.owe$er in the stratosphere, o/one has a $ery important role. It acts as a
shield, pre$entin& harmful 0.1. rays from reachin& earths surface. The o/one
molecule a#sor#s the 01 radiation from the sun and it decomposes into an
oxy&en molecule and an oxy&en atom (radical):
O
" (g)
+ ! O
2 (g)
+ O.
(g)

;;; <a"e sure to put a dot next to oxy&en atom to show that is a radical.
It is important that a lar&e percenta&e of the 01 rays reachin& the earth #e
a#sor#ed #y the atmospheric o/one in order to maintain life on earth. This is
#ecause 01 is dama&in& to humans causin& s"in cancer and it is a#le to #rea"
the co$alent #onds of #iolo&ically important molecules such as proteins and
-N.. This can lead to &ene mutations and the formation of cancer. Thus
o/one is a $ery important shield which #loc"s harmful 01 rays in order to
maintain life on earth.
Point 4.4 Describe the formation of a coordinate covalent bond.
, coordinate co$alent #ond is a co$alent #ond that has formed when one atom
pro$ides both electrons to form the shared #ondin& pair. , lone pair from one
atom forms the #ond. 4nce the coordinate co$alent #ond is formed, the
properties are the same as a co$alent #ond and they cannot #e distin&uished.
Point 4.5 Demonstrate the formation of coordinate covalent bonds using
Lewis electron dot structures.
The ammonium ion is formed from the reaction #etween a ammonia molecule
and a proton (hydro&en ion):
;;; 'ote:
the + red
dots show a
coordinate co$alent #ond (all electrons are donated #y nitro&en when
#ondin& with the hydro&en)
The =ewis dot electron dia&ram for all of the species is shown a#o$e. >e can
see that the nitro&en atom in the ammonia molecule contains a lone pair of
electrons. 7o when ammonia reacts with the hydro&en ion, the lone pair is
donated to the hydro&en ion thus formin& the coordinate co$alent #ond.
The hydronium ion is formed from the reaction #etween a water molecule and
a hydro&en ion (proton):
;;; 'ote: the + red dots show a coordinate co$alent #ond (all electrons are
donated #y oxy&en when #ondin& with the hydro&en)

?rom the =ewis dot electrons dia&rams a#o$e, we can see that in the water
molecule, oxy&en has + pairs of lone electrons. 4ne of these non-#ondin&
pairs of electrons reacts with the hydro&en ion to form a coordinate
co$alent #ond with the oxy&en in the hydronium ion still left with a lone
pair of electrons.
The o/one molecule is formed from the reaction #etween an oxy&en
molecule and an oxy&en atom (radical):
;;; 'ote: the + red dots show a coordinate co$alent #ond (all electrons are
donated #y the oxy&en molecule when #ondin& with the oxy&en atom)
?rom the =ewis dot electron dia&ram a#o$e, we can see that when the
oxy&en reacts with an oxy&en radical, an o/one molecule forms. There is
still the dou#le co$alent #ond (from the oxy&en molecule) and there is a
coordinate co$alent #ond #etween the oxy&en molecule and oxy&en atom.
The unpaired electrons in the oxy&en atom pair up so that there is space
for the coordinate co$alent #ond to form.
Point 4.6 Compare the properties of the oxygen allotropes O
2
and O
3
and
account for them on the basis of molecular structure and bonding.
Property (ygen (zone
<olecular formula 4
+
4
%
<olecular shape =inear 6ent
<eltin& point (2) -+- --%
6oilin& point (2) -)% -
=i:uid density (&
cm
-%
)
.! .@
7tate and colour 2olourless &as Aale #lue &as
4dour 4dourless 7harp pun&ent odour
Beacti$ity <oderately reacti$e
(decomposed #y hi&h ener&y
01 li&ht)
.i&hly reacti$e
4xidation a#ility =ess powerful oxidant <ore powerful oxidant
7tructure and
#ondin&
Ciatomic molecule 3 + oxy&en
atoms held to&ether with a
dou#le co$alent #ond
% oxy&en atoms held
to&ether #y dou#le
co$alent #ond and
sin&le coordinate
co$alent #ond.
0ses 6ottled and used in hospital
for people with #reathin&
diDculties, oxyacetylene
torches
,s a disinfectant in
swimmin& pools to "ill
#acteria and as a
#leachin& a&ent in paper
and textiles
9Eect on humans 9ssential to sur$i$e (needed
for respiration)
2auses cou&hin&,
irritation of the eyes and
airways. <ay cause
respiratory pro#lems
such as #ronchitis and
asthma.
imilarities!
6oth o/one and oxy&en contain oxy&en atoms in their structure.
6oth exist as &ases in the atmosphere.
6oth ha$e dispersion forces #etween their molecules.
"i#erences!
4/one has a hi&her #oilin& point and meltin& point than oxy&en. This is
#ecause it has a lar&er molecular mass which means there are stron&er
dispersion forces #etween o/one molecules than oxy&en molecules.
Thus more ener&y is needed to o$ercome the dispersion forces
#etween o/one than in oxy&en resultin& in hi&her #oilin& and meltin&
points. The fact that oxy&en is non-polar and o/one is polar (small
positi$e char&e on central 4 atom) means that there are stron&er
intermolecular forces #etween o/one moleculesF dispersion 5 dipole-
dipole forces.
4/one has a hi&her density than oxy&en #ecause it has a hi&her
molecular mass. Thus o/one ta"es up more mass in a &i$en $olume
than oxy&en resultin& in a hi&her density.
4/one is more reacti$e than oxy&en as it is a more powerful oxidant.
This is #ecause oxy&en contains a sta#le dou#le co$alent #ond while
the o/one molecule has a dou#le co$alent #ond and a sin&le coordinate
co$alent #ond. The sin&le coordinate co$alent #ond is easier to #rea"
than the dou#le co$alent #ond thus o/one is more reacti$e. >hen
oxy&en oxidises a metal, a metal oxide is produced:
2#g
(s)
+ O
2 (g)
2#gO
(s)
>hen o/one oxidises a metal, a metal oxide and oxy&en is produced:
#g
(s)
+ O
" (g)
#gO
(s)
+ O
2 (g)
Point 4.7 Compare the properties of the gaseous forms of oxygen and the
oxygen free radical.
, "ree radical is a reacti$e particle that contains one or more unpaired
electrons in its outer shell. The oxy&en atom (free radical) is an atom which
has six $alence (outer shell) electrons and has + unpaired electrons.
6ecause of the unpaired electrons in the oxy&en free radical, it is $ery
reacti$e and reacts immediately with other su#stances in order to o#tain a full
outer shell of electrons. The similarity #etween the oxy&en molecule,
oxy&en free radical and o/one is that they are all forms of the element
oxy&en. .owe$er the di/erence #etween the oxy&en free radical, o/one and
oxy&en is that o/one and oxy&en molecules ha$e full outer shell of electrons
which ma"e them relati$ely sta#le compared to oxy&en free radical. This is
#ecause it needs + more electrons to 8ll outer shell thus it is much more
reacti$e than oxy&en molecule and o/one molecule. 6ecause it reacts so
:uic"ly, it has a short life span. The order of reacti$ity is: oxy&en molecule G
o/one G oxy&en free radical (oxy&en atom).
Point 4.8 Identify the origins of chloro$uorocarbons %&'&s( and halons in
the atmosphere.
.aloal"anes are car#on compounds that contain or more halo&en atoms in
place of . atoms in the hydrocar#on. !hloro0uorocarbons (!$!s) are a
class of haloal"anes in that they contain chlorine and Huorine atoms which
su#stitute all of the hydro&en atoms in the compound. 9xample of a 2?2
include: 22l
%
? (trichloroHuromethane).
2?2s are synthetic in that they are produced from human acti$ity. 2?2s were
de$eloped to replace ammonia as a refri&erant in the -%0s. ,t the time, their
properties were found to #e Isafer than the ammonia #ecause they were
much more sta#le. Jradually the uses for 2?2s &rew and there were lar&e
amounts of 2?2s emitted into the atmosphere due to their extensi$e use.
7ome of its uses and hence ori&ins were:
Befri&erants in air conditioners and refri&erators
7ol$ents in dry-cleanin&
Aropellants in aerosol spray cans (deodorants, insecticides)
They were used for these applications #ecause they were non-toxic, inert and
easily li:ue8ed and returned to &as phase.
1alons are similar to 2?2s except they include bromine atoms in addition to
chlorine andKor Huorine atoms. 9xample of a halon is 22l
+
6r
(dichloro#romomethane). .alons are also produced from humans and not
from nature. They were used in 8re extin&uishers #ecause they do not support
com#ustion and thus &aseous halons from this application were emitted into
the atmosphere.
Point 4.9 Identify and name examples of isomers %excluding geometrical
and optical( of haloal)anes up to eight carbon atoms.
Isomers are compounds with same molecular formulas #ut diEerent structural
formulas. This is the nomenclature of namin& haloal"anes:
0se pre8xes for the halo&en &roups (chloro, #romo, iodo, Huoro)
If more than one type of halo&en atom is present, name them in
alphabetical order.
0se di, tri, tetra when there is more than one atom of any halo&en.
Identify the lon&est car#on chain
'um#er the car#on chain &i$in& the lowest set of num#ers to the
halo&ens present
2onsider the compound 2
!
.
0
6r2l. These are some of its isomers:
Point 4.10 Discuss the problems associated with the use of &'&s and
assess the e#ectiveness of steps ta)en to alleviate these problems.
,s outlined in dot point 4.), the maLor uses of 2?2s were: as refri&erants in air-
conditioners and refri&erators, sol$ents in dry cleanin& and as propellants in
aerosol spray can (deodorants, insecticides). Jaseous 2?2s are emitted into
the atmosphere due to this extensi$e use.
>hen 2?2s are emitted into the troposphere it does not react with surroundin&
su#stances #ecause it is inert and extremely unreacti$e. Thus o$er a period of
%-! years they slowly mo$e up into the stratosphere, where they do the most
dama&e. In -(4, scientists <ario <olina, 7herwood Bowland and Aaul 2rut/en
(no#le pri/e winners), demonstrated that 2?2s were responsi#le for o/one
depletion. .ere is the process:
In the stratosphere, the 2?2 (e.&. 22l?
%
) photo dissociates in 01 radiation from
the sun to produce a chlorine "ree radical:
CCl$
" (g)
+ ! Cl .
(g)
+ C$
" (g)
This chlorine free radical is extremely reacti$e #ecause it contains ( electrons
in the outer shell and wants to &ain one more electron to 8ll its outer shell. 7o
what happens is that it reacts with an o/one molecule to produce a chlorine
oxide radical and an oxy&en molecule:
Cl .
(g)
+ O
" (g)
ClO.
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
Then this chlorine oxide radical reacts with an oxy&en free radical (oxy&en
atom) to form a chlorine free radical and an oxy&en molecule:
ClO.
(g)
+ O.
(g)
Cl .
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
Overall reaction% O
" (g)
+ O.
(g)
2O
2 (g)
'ote: .alons also cause destruction of o/one.
>e can see that the o/one molecule has #een destroyed in this reaction chain.
The chlorine free radical which is produced in the last step, is free to destroy
tens and thousands of more o/one molecules until it is destroyed #y the
reaction with methane. 7o this is the maLor pro#lem of 2?2s: they produce
chlorine free radicals which are capa#le of destroyin& thousands of o/one
molecules in the stratosphere. This is compounded #y the fact that 2?2s ha$e
a lifetime of a#out !0 years.
6ecause of the destruction of o/one #y 2?2s in the stratosphere, there are
maLor implications for life on earth. 4/ones maLor role is to protect life on
earth #y a#sor#in& dan&erous and harmful 01 radiation from the sun. 7ince it
has #een destroyed, the 01 radiation is a#le to enter the lower atmosphere
includin& the troposphere.
01 radiation has many de$astatin& eEects on life on earth:
Jreater rates of s"in cancer in humans
9ye irritations which lead to cataracts and retina dama&e
01 radiation is a#le to #rea" co$alent #onds of important #iolo&ical
molecules such as C', and proteins which leads to &ene mutations.
Cecreases plant &rowth
,Eects a:uatic or&anisms
2?2s also contri#ute to the pro#lem of the enhanced greenhouse e/ect.
(The enhanced greenhouse e#ect is caused #y &ases, released #y human
acti$ity, a#sor#in& heat rays that come from the 9arthMs surface, and then
emittin& the heat rays. <any of these heat rays come #ac" to the 9arthMs
surface. This raises the temperature of the atmosphere.)
In the stratosphere, 2?2s (as well as halons) a#sor# heat rays emitted from
the earths surface 3 pre$entin& them from #ein& released into outer space.
Thus the earths heat is trapped in the stratosphere, raisin& the temperature
of the earth. This small increase in temperature can ha$e hu&e eEects on
a:uatic or&anisms such as plan"ton who cannot cope with this chan&e. Thus
or&anisms dependant on plan"ton (food chain) will also die.
These pro#lems all ori&inate from the emission of 2?2s into the stratosphere.
teps ta)en to reduce problems associated with &'&s
The international community has &radually #e&un to realise the dama&in& eEects
of 2?2s on o/one. To com#at the de$astatin& eEects of 2?2s, many
international a&reements and treaties ha$e #een proposed. These are some of
them:
In -)! a num#er of &o$ernments adopted the 1ienna 2on$ention on
Arotection of 4/one =ayer.
In -)(, a 0nited 'ations 2on$ention esta#lished the 2ontreal
Protocol which aimed to restrict and control &lo#al emissions of o/one
destroyin& chemicals (such as 2?2s and halons) and to protect the
o/one layer. This protocol has #rou&ht a#out a lar&e reduction in the
amount of 2?2s released. .owe$er not all countries rati8ed this
protocol thus decreasin& its eEecti$eness.
There ha$e #een many amendments to this protocol. 6y --@, !!
countries had rati8ed the <ontreal Arotocol and its amendments.
The Nyoto Arotocol in --( re:uired all halon production to cease #y
+00 as well as settin& a !* reduction tar&et in emissions #y
de$eloped countries in +0+. This has reduced halon emissions #ut
some maLor countries includin& 07, ha$e not rati8ed it thus reducin&
the eEecti$eness of Nyoto Arotocol.
The 07 and + nations in 9urope a&ree to #an all use and production of
2?2s #y +000. This is hi&hly si&ni8cant as these countries produce
three :uarters of 2?2s in the world.
Increased research and de$elopment into new forms of 01 protection
such as new sunscreens.
Beplace 2?2s with compounds which ha$e si&ni8cantly lower ozone
depletion potentials ((-P) such as hyfrochloroHurocar#ons (.2?2s).
These compounds are eEecti$e as they are attac"ed while in the lower
atmosphere thus it does not reach the stratosphere to attac" o/one.
.owe$er these compounds are more expensi$e and in some cases less
eEecti$e than 2?2s in $arious applications.
These steps ha$e #een eEecti$e in com#atin& the pro#lems caused #y 2?2s,
namely the maLor pro#lem of o/one depletion. There has #een a hu&e decrease in
2?2 production and emission due these steps. .owe$er more needs to #e done to
ensure the sur$i$al of o/one as it is $ital in protectin& life from harmful 01
radiation from the sun.
Point 4.11 Analyse the information available that indicates changes in
atmospheric ozone concentrations describe the changes observed and
explain how this information was obtained.
The concentrations of o/one in the atmosphere ha$e #een recorded since
-!(. In the -(0s, it was found that 2?2s were depletin& the o/one layer in
the stratosphere. In -(4, scientists <ario <olina, 7herwood Bowland and Aaul
2rut/en (no#le pri/e winners), demonstrated that 2?2s were responsi#le for
o/one depletion. In -)!, Ooe ?arman and his collea&ues at the 6ritish
,ntarctic 7ur$ey (6,7) in 2am#rid&e pu#lished a paper re$ealin& a dramatic
decline in stratospheric o/one o$er the ,ntarctic in sprin&.
These
dia&rams show that the concentrations of o/one in the stratosphere ha$e
decreased. This can #e seen in the purple area &ettin& lar&er which indicates
a lower concentration of o/one in Co#son units.
?4B T.9 ?4B<,TI4' 4? 4P4'9 799 C4T A4I'T #.3.
4/one le$els ha$e decreased in the stratosphere, especially a#o$e
,ntarctica. In -)!, it was re$ealed that the concentrations of o/one had
decreased !0* since -(!. This Ihole is continuin& to &row. .ere is a #rief
timeline showin& yearly chan&es of o/one concentration:
In --%, reduction in o/one le$els was a#out +!* - %!* dependin& on
the area.
In +000, the ,ntarctic o/one hole was % times lar&er than the 07,
In +00, o/one depletion of 0 to o$er 40* was o#ser$ed o$er
,ntarctica. There was complete destruction of o/one at altitudes
#etween ! and +0"m.
In +00+, o/one depletion of more than 40* was o#ser$ed. .owe$er in
this year, the duration of o/one hole was shortest since -)).
In +00%, there was a&ain o/one depletion of o$er 40* o$er ,ntarctica.
This monitorin& of yearly chan&es of o/one concentrations in the
stratosphere su&&est that o/one le$els are decreasin& at a rapid rate and
that the o/one hole has #een increasin& in area.
This o/one depletion is due to complex air motions. ,ir enters the
stratosphere near the e:uator, where solar heatin& is hi&hest. Then the air
mo$es slowly towards #oth poles where it sin"s.
4$er ,ntarctica, cloud ice particles exist that are not present at warmer
latitudes. Beactions occur on the surface of these particles that accelerate
o/one destruction caused #y chlorine.
>inter in the ,ntarctic is a period of continuous dar"ness and the
stratosphere is extremely cold. This is an e:uation which shows how cloud
particles catalyse a reaction #etween .2l and 2l'4
%
:
HCl
(g)
+ ClNO
" (g)
Cl
2 (g)
+ HNO
" (g)
This has no eEect upon o/one le$els in winter #ut when arri$es in sprin&, the
01 rays from the sun splits the chlorine molecule to form + chlorine free
radicals which are a#le to destroy thousands of o/one molecules. This is why
there is increased destruction of o/one in sprin& which also means that the
o/one hole is the #i&&est in sprin&.
*ow information is obtained
Information a#out o/one concentrations in the stratosphere was o#tained #y
ground4based instruments. This includes 01 spectrophotometers which
point upwards throu&h the atmosphere, measurin& the intensity of li&ht
recei$ed at a wa$elen&th at which o/one a#sor#s.
,nother instrument used is the Total (zone 2apping Spectrometer
(T4<7) that measures concentration of o/one a#oard se$eral 07 satellites.
They are a#le to scan throu&h atmosphere and measure o/one le$els in
relation to altitude. .owe$er this has #een replaced #y another instrument 3
(zone 2easuring Instrument ((2I) which is a satellite that co$ers the
whole area of the earth e$ery day and accurately maps o/one le$els at all
altitudes.
1ery lar&e helium-8lled #alloons ha$e #een used to carry instruments
includin& 01 spectrophotometers up to the stratosphere to measure
concentrations of o/one.
Point 4.12 Present information from secondary sources to write the
e+uations to show the reactions involving &'&s and ozone to demonstrate the
removal of ozone from the atmosphere.
7econdary sources may include the internet, #oo"s, school notes, Lournals etc.
Ozone depletion by &'&s
4nce the 2?2 has entered stratosphere, the 01 radiation from the sun is
a#sor#ed #y the 2?2 causin& it to photo dissociate. This produces a chlorine
free radical:
CCl
"
$
(g)
+ ! Cl .
(g)
+ CCl
2
$
(g)
This chlorine free radical attac"s an o/one molecule producin& a chlorine oxide
radical and an oxy&en molecule:
Cl .
(g)
+ O
" (g)
ClO .
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
This chlorine oxide radical reacts with an oxy&en free radical to form a chlorine
free radical and oxy&en:
ClO .
(g)
+ O.
(g)
Cl .
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
4/one is destroyed. The chlorine free radical is free to destroy thousands of
more o/one molecules Lust li"e this until it reacts with methane. 4/one
depletion is more fre:uent in winter and sprin& due to more ice particles.
These pro$ide a surface to act as a catalyst.
Ozone depletion by halons
Arocess is $ery similar to 2?2s:
4nce the halon has entered stratosphere, the 01 radiation from the sun is
a#sor#ed #y the halon causin& it to photo dissociate. This produces a #romine
free radical:
C$
"
&r
(g)
+ ! C$
" (g)
+ &r.
(g)

This #romine free radical attac"s an o/one molecule producin& a #romine
oxide radical and an oxy&en molecule:
&r.
(g)
+ O
" (g)
&rO.
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
This #romine oxide radical reacts with an oxy&en free radical to form a
#romine free radical and oxy&en:
&rO.
(g)
+ O.
(g)
&r.
(g)
+ O
2 (g)
=i"e the chlorine free radical produced, the #romine free radical is free to
destroy thousands of o/one molecules. .alons are more dan&erous than 2?2s
#ecause they may contain #romine and chlorine atoms resultin& in the
formation of #romine and chlorine free radicals which destroy o/one.
Point 4.13 Gather, process and present information from secondary
sources including simulations, molecular model )its or pictorial
representations to model isomers of haloal)anes.
6asically we used molecular model "its to construct diEerent isomers of
haloal"anes. To represent the atoms, there were diEerent coloured #alls (each
representin& a diEerent atom) and there were ru##er #onds which we
attached #etween atoms to represent the co$alent #onds. To ma"e isomers,
we pulled the #alls apart and rearran&ed them to form a diEerent structural
formula. It is an isomer #ecause it retains the same molecular formula #ut
chan&ed the structural formula. >e drew the molecular formula, structural
formula and %C molecular model for each isomer.
Point 4.14 Present information from secondary sources to identify
alternative chemicals used to replace &'&s and evaluate the e#ectiveness of
their use as a replacement for &'&s.
,lternati$e chemicals used to replace 2?2s are 1!$!s
(hydrochloro0uorocarbons) and 1$!s (hydro 0uorocarbons).
2?2s had many useful applications: refri&erants in air-conditioners and
refri&erators, a sol$ent in dry-cleanin& and as a propellant in aerosol spray
cans (insecticides, deodorants). They were used for these applications
#ecause they were inert and $ery sta#le. .owe$er the maLor pro#lem of 2?2 is
that they cause the depletion of o/one in the stratosphere. They do not react
with su#stances in the troposphere so they mo$e up into the stratosphere.
They photo dissociate under 01 li&ht to produce chlorine free radicals which
attac" and destroy o/one molecules.
.2?2s were proposed as alternati$e chemicals to replace 2?2 in the a#o$e
applications. 9xample of .2?2 is: 2?
%
2.2l
+
(.2?2-+%).
,d$anta&es of .2?2s include:
0nli"e 2?2s, .2?2s are less sta#le and thus are #ro"en down in the
troposphere. They contain relati$ely reacti$e 2-. #onds which are
easily #ro"en up #y reacti$e radicals and atoms to form car#on dioxide,
water and hydro&en halide. This nulli8es the pro#lem of it attac"in&
o/one molecules in the stratosphere.
.2?2s ha$e a much lower (-P (ozone depleting potential) than
2?2s which #asically means that there is less chance of the destruction
of o/one caused #y .2?2s. ?or example the 2?2,
trichloroHuoromethane (2?2-) has an 4CA of .0 whereas the .2?2,
.2?2-+%, has an 4CA of only 0.0!.
7horter life spans than 2?2s.
0sed as foam #lowin& a&ents, sol$ents and refri&erants.
Cisad$anta&es of .2?2s include:
They are more expensi$e to use in $arious applications than 2?2s.
7ome .2?2s still contain chlorine atoms in their structure thus they
can still produce free chlorine radicals which contri#ute to the
destruction of o/one.
It has #een decided #y the international community that .2?2s should
#e phased out #y +0%0 #ecause of the a#o$e reason.
'ot necessarily safe as its toxicity is not "nown.
2ontri#utes to &reenhouse eEect #y a#sor#in& lon& wa$e radiation.
.?2s are the most widely used replacements of 2?2s. 9xamples of .?2s are:
2?
%
2?.
+
and 2
+
?
4
.
+
(.?2-%4a).
,d$anta&es of .?2s include:
0nli"e 2?2s and .2?2s, .?2s do not contain chlorine atoms. This
means they ha$e an 4CA of zero. Thus they cannot produce chlorine
free radicals which destroy o/one molecules in the stratosphere.
They contain reacti$e 2-. #onds which are #ro"en up #y atoms and
free radicals in the troposphere.
.?2s are used in refri&eration and air conditionin& as an alternati$e to
2?2s.
Cisad$anta&es of .?2s include:
'ot as eEecti$e propellants and refri&erants than 2?2s.
<ore expensi$e and less eDcient than 2?2s.
,s with .2?2s, .?2s contri#ute to &reenhouse eEect #y a#sor#in& lon&
wa$e radiation. ?or example: the &reenhouse eEect intensity of .?2-
%4a is a#out %400 times that of car#on dioxide.
>hen .?2s decompose in the troposphere, they produce a harmful #y-
product 3 TriHuoroacetate, which when it accumulates in wetlands and
there is poor draina&e, could result in a:uatic or&anism death. Its
corrosi$eness also adds to this.
?or .2?2s and .?2s to #e eEecti$e alternati$es to 2?2s, they need to
demonstrate 8rst and foremost that they cause no (or minimal) destruction
of o/one molecules and that they are capa#le of #ein& used in applications
which pre$iously utilised 2?2s.
>ith the introduction of .2?2s and .?2s as alternati$es to 2?2s, the chance
of the destruction of o/one molecules in the stratosphere has decreased.
.owe$er these two compounds add to the other maLor en$ironmental
pro#lem concernin& the &reenhouse eEect. Thus their eEecti$eness as
replacements for 2?2s in a $ariety of uses is minimal. There needs to #e
more research conducted in the future to 8nd compounds which eEecti$ely
can #e used for 2?2s applications as well as ha$in& ne&li&i#le impact on the
en$ironment.
'. Human activity also impacts on (ater(ays. Chemical monitoring and
management assists in providing safe (ater for human use and to protect the
habitats of other organisms.
Point 5.1 Identify that water +uality can be determined by considering!
concentrations of common ions, total dissolved solids, hardness, turbidity,
acidity, dissolved oxygen and biochemical oxygen demand %-O"(.
>ater is an essential su#stance for humans and we depend on it for sur$i$al.
Thus it is essential that we continuously monitor water :uality in local
waterways, dams and especially in our drin"in& water. 2ontaminants and
pollutants may #e present in the water thus immediate remo$al is re:uired to
pre$ent any ad$erse aEects on the human #ody. There are a num#er of
aspects of water :uality. , description and how it is measured is outlined
#elow:
2oncentrations of common ions
In the ocean, the maLor cations present are 'a
5
, <&
+5
and 2a
+5
. The maLor
anions found are 2l
-
, 74
4
+-
and .24
%
-
. The concentrations of sodium and
chloride ions are si&ni8cant as they hea$ily contri#ute to the salinity of the
water system. 7alinity refers to the total concentration of dissol$ed inor&anic
salts in water. <a&nesium and calcium ions are usually tested for water
hardness (explained later). .owe$er #esides these common ions, there may
#e other ions present 3 e.&. '4
%
-
and A4
4
%-
from fertilisers in the soil. The
concentrations of the sodium and chloride ions need to #e monitored as
excess can increase salinity le$els and a:uatic or&anisms may not #e a#le to
cope with this. The concentrations of nitrates and phosphates need to
monitored as excess can cause al&al #looms and lead to eutrophication.
MEASUI!G"#ES#I!G $% I%!S&
The concentration of metal cations can #e easily and :uic"ly detected
#y usin& ..S.
!hloride ions can #e detected #y addin& drops of sil$er nitrate. ,
mil"y white precipitate con8rms chloride ions.
!arbonate ions can #e tested #y addin& .2l and if it forms #u##les of
24
+
then car#onate ions are present.
Sul"ate ions can #e tested #y addin& #arium ions to produce white
precipitate of #arium sulfate.
Nitrate and phosphate ions tested usin& colorimetry. (Ahosphate
ions can also #e tested #y addin& lead nitrate).
Total Cissol$ed 7olids (TC7)
Total Cissol$ed 7olids refers to the total mass of all solids dissol$ed in a
speci8ed $olume of water. 0sually freshwater systems such as ri$ers and
la"es ha$e much less concentrations of ions than oceans as these systems
continuously deposit the ions into the oceans whilst at the same time #ein&
replenished. TC7 are mainly composed of salts ionic compounds. , lar&e
amount of TC7 is indicati$e of unclean water as clean water has $ery low
concentrations of TC7.
MEASUI!G #DS&
, sample of water is 8ltered lea$in& #ehind suspended solids as the
residue and the total dissol$ed solids pass throu&h 8lter paper with the
water. Then solution is e5aporated to dryness and the solid left
#ehind is the dissol$ed solid. 'ow gra5imetric analysis can #e
conducted to determine the mass of the dissol$ed solids. This
procedure is la#orious and not fully $alid as solid could #e lost throu&h
#u##lin& and spittin&. Thus this process is extremely slow.
9lectrical conducti$ity meter, since TC7 mostly contains ionic salts.
.owe$er it is una#le to detect any non ionic salts which also ma"e up
TC7. Belati$ely accurate approximation of TC7.
.ardness
.ard water refers to water which contains si&ni8cant amounts of calcium
and ma&nesium ions. .ard water is an issue in water :uality as it aids in the
formation of scale which are deposits of 2a24
%
and <&24
%
. This can occur
in "ettles. ,lso hard water reduces the cleanin& action of soap #y formin& a
&rey precipitate called scum as the calcium and ma&nesium ions react with
the anion in soap.
MEASUI!G 'AD!ESS&
The water sample can #e titrated a&ainst a chemical compound called
6-T. (ethylene-diamine-tetra-acetic-acid) and the concentration
determined is expressed as m&K= of 2a24
%
.
=e$els of calcium and ma&nesium ions can #e determined usin& ,,7.
2an :ualitati$ely determine if water is hard #y addin& soap to it. 7ha"e
and if soap does not lather then the water is hard.
Tur#idity
Tur#idity is the measure of suspended solids (cloudiness) in water. It is
caused #y suspended solids which are too small to settle to the #ottom 5
are a#le to scatter li&ht instead of lettin& it to pass throu&h. >ater which
has lar&e amounts of tur#idity has low :uality as tur#idity &i$es water an
undesira#le appearance 5 taste as well as #loc"in& sunli&ht for underwater
plants which need sunli&ht for photosynthesis.
MEASUI!G #U(IDI#)&
=ower a tur#idity tu#e (lon&, narrow tu#e which has a small #lac" cross
etched onto the #ottom) into the water until the cross cannot #e seen.
Becord the water le$el and the tur#idity result is o#tained (measured in
'T0 units).
,cidity
The p. of water systems &enerally lies #etween @.!-).! and this usually
represents a healthy water system. The natural #uEer system 3
.24
%
-
K.
+
24
%
wor"s eEecti$ely in minimisin& p. chan&es in the water. , low
p. ($ery acidic) or a hi&h p. ($ery #asic) may result in a:uatic or&anisms
death as they cannot cope with this sudden riseKfall in p..
MEASUI!G ACIDI#) *p'+
p. meter 5 data lo&&er
uni$ersal indicator 5 p. strips
Cissol$ed oxy&en
<olecular oxy&en in the air dissol$es in the water to form dissol$ed
oxy&en. ,lthou&h dissol$ed oxy&en exists in low concentrations in water,
this is essential for a:uatic or&anisms and plants which use this dissol$ed
oxy&en in water for respiration. , concentration of !ppm or &reater is
suita#le for waterways.
MEASUI!G DISS%,-ED %.)GE!
0sin& a chemical titration called the 7in8ler 2ethod. .ere
dissol$ed oxy&en oxidises <n
+5
to <n
45
in al"aline solution. This
mixture is then acidi8ed with iodide in the solution and <n
45
oxidises
iodine ions to iodine &as. ?inally iodine can #e titrated a&ainst sodium
thiosulfate in the presence of a starch indicator.
,n electronic oxy&en sensor can also #e used.
6iolo&ical 2hemical Cemand (64C)
6iolo&ical 2hemical Cemand (64C) refers to the concentration of dissol$ed
oxy&en which is needed #y anaero#ic #acteria to #rea" down or&anic
matter in the water. 64C is a $ital determinant in the :uality of water as a
hi&h 64C indicates that there are lar&e amounts of or&anic matter in the
water which drain supplies of dissol$ed oxy&en in the water. 7uita#le 64C
le$el in unpolluted natural waterways should #e G !ppm.
MEASUI!G (I%C'EMICA, %.)GE! DEMA!D *(%D+
Two samples of water are ta"en with one of them placed in a sealed air-
free container and incu#ated at +02 for ! days in the dar". <eanwhile the
other samples dissol$ed oxy&en concentration is immediately determined
upon collection #y one of the methods explained a#o$e. ,fter the ! days,
the dissol$ed oxy&en concentration of the water sample which was in the
sealed container is measured and the diEerence #etween this readin& and
the readin& at the start of the experiment is the 64C le$el for the water.
Point 5.2 Identify factors that e#ect the concentrations of a range of ions in
solution in natural bodies of water such as rivers and oceans.
The ion concentrations in ri$ers are much less than that of oceans thus the
concentrations of ions in freshwater systems is such that ri$ers are more
$ulnera#le to chan&e. The followin& are factors which determine the
concentrations of particular ions in a #ody of water such as a ri$er or ocean:
'atural sources of ions
Cependin& on the natural #ody of waters location, there are diEerent
possi#ilities of ions which could #e present in that particular water system. ?or
example if rain falls on farms and #ushland and then runs oE into the water,
there would #e hi&h concentrations of '4
%
-
, A4
4
%-
(fertilisers). .owe$er if rain
soa"s into the &round and Hows into a:uifers (layers of permea#le roc") and
then into the ri$er, there would #e increased le$els of calcium, ma&nesium,
sulfate and chloride ions. If the ri$er was situated near a limestone deposit or
ca$e, the water would leach the limestone and thus there would #e a hi&h
concentration of calcium and car#onate ions.
,lso the eEect of acid rain has si&ni8cant impacts on the ions found in water
as sulfur and nitro&en oxides dissol$e in the rain to form wea" acids which
when enterin& water increases the concentrations of sulfate, nitrate and
hydro&en ions (decreasin& p.).
=and clearin&
>hen the land is cleared of $e&etation, the soil loses its sta#ility as there are
no plant roots to support it. >hen water Hows o$er it, sediments and minerals
will How into the ri$er thus increasin& concentrations of 'a
5
, N
5
, and nitrate 5
phosphate ions from run oE fertiliser and animal faeces. This would increase
tur#idity.
,&riculture
>hen hea$y rain falls on farm land, the soil is washed into the ri$er thus
increasin& the concentrations of nitrate 5 phosphate ions. This would increase
tur#idity and TC7 in the ri$er system.
Industrial waste 5 sewa&e
9$ery year tonnes of industrial wastes are disposed carelessly without
carefully monitorin& the concentrations of the ions present. The hu&e inHux of
industrial waste from factories and sewa&e from homes &reatly increase the
concentrations phosphates and nitrate ions as well as hea5y metal ions such
as cadmium, lead and mercury. 6ecause the le$el of or&anic matter has
increased, the 64C also increases thus meanin& depletin& le$els of dissol$ed
oxy&en a$aila#le for a:uatic or&anisms. 7ewa&e 5 industrial waste &reatly
increase tur#idity and TC7.
Point 5.3 Describe and assess the e#ectiveness of methods used to purify
and sanitise mass water supplies.
The water collected in dams from rainfall cannot #e immediately pumped into
households for consumption #ecause it contains pollutants and contaminants
which need to #e remo$ed to ma"e it safe for drin"in&. The followin& steps are
underta"en #y authorities such as 7ydney >ater to purify and sanitise water
supplies for domestic use:
<onitorin& catchment area
,uthorities monitor the catchment area carefully to ensure that local soil run
oEs are a$oided as this can increase the concentrations of unwanted ions.
Thus this may mean the closure of many industries in the area (if situation is
terri#le) in an attempt to pre$ent the dischar&e of hea$y metal ions (in the
waste) into the waterways.
.d5antage: This process is eEecti$e as remo$in& possi#le sources of
contamination ensures that relati$e purity can #e assured.
7creenin&
4nce the water is collected from the dams, it is screened #y passin& it throu&h
hu&e metal plates which pre$ent lar&e de#ris in the water (e.&. stic"s, roc"s,
#ranches) from passin& throu&h.
.d5antage: This step is suita#le for its purpose but more treatment is
needed as there are much more pollutants too small to #e trapped.
?locculation
This step in$ol$es the remo$al of the colloidal and particulate impurities.
These particles are too small to #e remo$ed #y con$entional 8ltration. The
particles are coagulated to&ether to form lar&e particles which then can #e
remo$ed. ?irstly the p. of the water is increased hence made al"aline. This is
achie$ed #y addin& lime and these conditions promote the formation of
precipitates. 2hemicals such as alum (aluminium sulfate) and iron (III)
chloride are added to form a &elatinous precipitate which causes the particles
to stic" to it and coa&ulate to form lar&er particles called 0ocs which are easy
to 8lter.
.d5antage: This step is eDcient as it remo$es smaller colloidal particles and
other particulate matter from the water #y causin& them to form lar&e clumps.
It is cost-eEecti$e method and is rapid.
7edimentation (clari8cation)
The water now passes into lar&e tan"s where the Hocs are allowed to settle to
the #ottom of the tan" to form a sludge which is dried and used for
compostin&.
.d5antage: This process utilises a natural force (&ra$ity) to separate the
slud&e from the water and thus reduces costs. .owe$er this process is time
consumin& which reduces its eEecti$eness.
?iltration
The water from the settlin& tan"s is pumped into 8ltration tan"s which contain
layers of sand and gra5el. The water passes throu&h the 8ne sand 5 &ra$el
8lter #edF this remo$es any remainin& particulate matter in the water that did
not settle in the tan" in the pre$ious step. !harcoal flters may also #e used
to remo$e coloured su#stances.
.d5antage: This step remo$es most of the particulate matter #ut does not
trap #acteria and $iruses.
2hlorination
The 8ltered water is disinfected with chlorine &as and $arious hypochlorites
(42l
-
). 2hlorine &as is #u##led throu&h water to form this hypochlorite ion
which is mainly responsi#le for "illin& micro-or&anisms and #acteria such as
9.2oli.
.d5antage: ,n eEecti$e method for "illin& harmful #acteria #ut is not so
eEecti$e at "illin& $iruses.
?luoridation
?luoride compounds e.&. sodium Huoride or sodium hexaHurosilicate are added
to the water to help pre$ent tooth decay #y interactin& with the tooth enamel
to produce a denser lattice, ma"in& the teeth more stron&er and resistant.
.d5antage: Are$ents tooth decay.
Point 5.4 Describe the design and composition of microscopic membrane
.lters and explain how they purify contaminated water.
<icroscopic mem#rane 8lters are an alternati$e to lar&e scale chemical
treatment of water to remo$e harmful microor&anisms (outlined a#o$e).
6asically a mem#rane 8lter is a thin 8lm of synthetic polymer (e.&.
polypropylene, AT?9) throu&hout which there are tiny pores of 8xed uniform
si/e. Its main use is to remo$e solutes, colloidal particles and microor&anisms
which cannot #e remo$ed from processes outline a#o$e.
The polymer sheets are wound around a central ri&id core to form a cartrid&e
that can #e replaced. The water is pumped from one end and Hows o$er the
surface of the polymer sheets. The pressure (&ra$ity, $acuum or pressure
pumps) forces the clean water 8ltrate throu&h the core and out the other end.
This results in colloidal particles, microor&anisms and solute particles to #e
trapped and remo$ed.
4ther microscopic micro 8ltration mem#ranes consist of 8ne, hollow
capillaries that are present inside a 8lterin& unit. .ere the 8ltered particles are
trapped on the outside of the capillaries and the clean water 8ltrate passes
throu&h the centre of the capillary.
>ater that is to #e 8ltered #y the microscopic mem#rane is made to How
across the surface to pre$ent clo&&in& of the pores. The 8lters can #e
cleaned #y #ac" Hushin&.
There are % types of mem#ranes:
<icro 8ltration (<?) mem#ranes
These mem#rane 8lters can remo$e microscopic parasites such as
&rytptosporidium and /iardia as well as $iruses and 8ne colloidal particles
(+00-!00 nm).
0ltra8ltration (0?) mem#ranes
These remo$e particles in the si/e ran&e of +-00nm. Aaint particles and lar&e
or&anic molecules can #e remo$ed #y 0? mem#ranes.
'ano8ltration ('?) mem#ranes
These 8lters ha$e pore si/es less than nm and can #e used to remo$e ions
from water (includin& hea$y metal ions). They can also #e used to remo$e
small molecules.
Point 5.5 Perform .rst0hand investigations to use +ualitative and
+uantitative tests to analyse and compare the +uality of water samples.
9ualitati5e tests refer to tests which aim to determine the composition of a
su#stance i.e. what molecules, ions or atoms are present in the &i$en sample.
o 0sed precipitation reactions to deduce which ions were present in the
sample. ?or the presence of hea$y metals, the sulfde test was used
where a precipitate indicated the presence of a hea$y metal such as
cadmium, lead or mercury.
9uantitati5e tests refer to tests which aim to determine the amount of
diEerent su#stances in a &i$en sample.
o ?or the turbidity test, we lowered lon& narrow tur#idity tu#e into the
water until the #lac" cross on the #ottom was not $isi#le. Then the hei&ht
of the water was calculated #y readin& the units on the side of the tu#e.
The result was in 'T0 units.
o ?or temperature we measured it usin& a thermometer.
o ?or p1 le5els, we used uni$ersal indicator (or p. meter 5 data lo&&er)
o ?or T-S: we used an electrical conducti$ity meter.
o -issol5ed oygen le$els were measured usin& an oxy&en sensin& meter.
o ;(- was measured #y collectin& + water samples from the same area. 4f
one, the C4 le$el was immediately recorded and for the other one, it was
placed in a capped air free container in the dar" where it was incu#ated at
+02 for ! days. Then C4 le$el measured and diEerence from
st
and +
nd

C4 was the 64C le$el.
o 1ardness titration method used where to a +!0m= sample, m= of
#uEer solution 5 +-% drops of 9riochrome 6lac" T indicator was added. This
redK$iolet solution was titrated a&ainst 6-T. and hardness was calculated.
Belia#ility 3 Bepeat experiment to &et consistent results.
1alidity 3 Beasona#ly $alid as we monitored water :uality and tested the aim.
.owe$er we did not use controls.
,ccuracy 3 ,ccurate as we used sensiti$e instruments.
Point 5.6 Gather/ process and present information on the range and
chemistry of the tests used to! identify heavy metal pollution of water, monitor
possible eutrophication of waterways.
.ea$y metal pollution
.ea$y metals are toxic and ha$e a lar&e atomic mass. 9xamples of hea$y
metals include cadmium, lead and mercury. The concentrations of these hea$y
metals need to #e constantly monitored as they can ha$e si&ni8cant impacts
on surroundin& a:uatic or&anisms in waterways. 7ince they #ioaccumulate in
food chains, hea$y metals are $ery dan&erous to humans in lar&e amounts.
1ea5y metal 6/ect
2admium Nidney disease and lin"ed to
hypertension. <ay cause mutations.
<ercury ,t hi&h le$els can cause #rain dama&e,
#irth deformities and hi&h rates of
miscarria&e durin& pre&nancy.
=ead ,ttac"s ner$ous system, #rain dama&e,
"idney dama&e e$entual death.
The identi8cation and :uantity of hea$y metals in a water sample can #e
determined #y conductin& the followin& tests:
.tomic .bsorption Spectroscopy (..S). This can accurately determine
extremely low concentrations of hea$y metals down to parts per #illion
(pp#).
,nother :uantitati$e test which can #e used to identify hea$y metals is the
sulfde test. ?irst of all a water sample is acidi8ed and then a few drops of
sodium sul8de is added. If a precipitate forms then one of the followin&
ions are present: lead, sil$er, mercury, arsenic, copper or arsenic. .owe$er
if a precipitate does not form, then the sample is made al"aline. If this
produces a precipitate then one of the followin& ions are present: /inc,
iron, nic"el, and co#alt.
The e:uili#rium reaction is shown #elow:
S
2-
(aq)
2!
3
O

(aq)
!
2
S
(aq)
2!
2
O
(l)
If acidic conditions are utilised, the a#o$e e:uili#rium shifts to the ri&ht to
use up some hydronium ions (=e 2hateliers principle). Thus the
concentration of sul8de ions decrease which means that there is only a
small amount of it. .owe$er this small amount of sul8de ions is a#le to
precipitate the
st
&roup of hea$y metals.
If al"aline conditions are utilised, the a#o$e e:uili#rium will shift to the left
to produce more hydronium ions to neutralise the al"alinity in the reaction
(=e 2hateliers principle). Thus the concentration of the sul8de ions
increase and therefore the +
nd
&roup of hea$y metals are a#le to #e
precipitated out.
$lame tests e.&. copper
Precipitation reactions
1olumetric 5 &ra$imetric analysis, colorimetry and chromato&raphy.
9utrophication of waterways
9utrophication is the situation where a waterway experiences a si&ni8cant rise
in nutrients (excess concentrations of nitrates 5 phosphates) which cause an
al&al #loom resultin& in depletin& le$els of dissol$ed oxy&en in the water. The
al&ae which are formed also release poisonous toxins which can "ill humans
and a:uatic or&anisms. >hen they are #ro"en down #y decomposers such as
#acteria, more dissol$ed oxy&en is used up in the process thus causin& the
deaths of 8sh, cra# and other or&anisms. 6ecause eutrophication is a
si&ni8cant issue, the concentrations of phosphate and nitrate ions (which
cause eutrophication) needs to #e monitored carefully. Becommended le$els of
nitro&en and phosphorus le$els are:
"# P ratio $ 10#1
"itro%en level# 0.1 1&&'
P(o)&(or*) level# 0.01 0.1&&'
#ES# $% !I#A#ES
There are % methods for testin& nitrates:
o ;ro<n ring test Iron (II) sulfate is added to concentrated sulfuric acid
and this produces a #rown rin& at the Lunction of the + solutions. This is
nitrate.
o =>eldahl digestion , sample is heated with concentrated sulfuric acid
to Idi&est any nitro&en compounds into ammonium sulfate. This is now
reacted with sodium hydroxide to form ammonia. ?inally the le$els of
ammonia are measured #y #ac" titration a&ainst a standardised .2l
solution.
o !olorimetry treated with 'esslers rea&ent that reacts with
nitro&enous compounds to form a yellow compound.
#ES#S $% P'%SP'A#ES
o !olorimetry ,mmonium moly#date is added to the sample and
dissol$ed. This forms a pale yellow complex. Then solid, powered
ascor#ic acid is added and this forms intensely #lue complex of a
compound "nown as Imoly#denum #lue. This intensity of #lue colour is
measured #y a colorimeter and compared to a series of standards to
determine the concentration.
o ,dd lead (II) nitrate to form white precipitate.
Point 5.7 Gather/ process and present information on the features of the
local town water supply in terms of! catchment area, possible sources of
contamination in this catchment, chemical tests available to determine levels
and types of contaminants, physical and chemical processes used to purify
water, chemical additives in the water and the reason for the presence of thee
additives.
2atchment area:
>arra&am#a 2atchmentF has an area of around -000"m
+
and extends from
south of Joul#urn, north to =ith&ow, east to <itta&on& and west to 2roo"well.
7ources of contamination
=o&&in& and land clearin& acti$ities 3 releases ions into water $ia run
oEs. This results in hi&her le$els of TC7 and tur#idity.
,&riculture acti$ities 3 usin& excess fertilisers which are rich in
phosphate and nitrate fertilisers can enter waterways $ia run oEs
causin& eutrophication and al&al #looms. This causes low le$els of C4
and hi&h le$els of 64C.
<inin& in local areas near the dam ha$e caused leaching of ions e.&.
calcium 5 car#onate ions from limestone and /inc 5 copper ions also
released. Cisposal of minin& wastes directly into waterways.
Industrial waste 5 sewa&e may release #acteria 5 $ariety of ions 5
or&anic matter. Cecreases C4 le$els, increases 64C, increases tur#idity
and TC7 of the waterway.
Testin& contaminants
o .ea$y metal ions and other cations usin& ,,7 or sul8de test.
o Arecipitation reactions 5 Hame tests
o 2olorimetric analysis (nitrates 5 phosphates)
>ater puri8cation methods
=ar&e scale industrial treatment of water 3 screenin&, Hocculatin&,
sedimentation, 8lterin&, chlorination, Huoridation.
<em#rane 8lters
2hemical additi$es
2hlorine #u##led in water to produce hypochlorite which is used as a
disinfectant in water "illin& microor&anisms and #acteria such as 9.2oli.
?luoride compounds (e.&. sodium Huoride) added to pre$ent tooth
decay.
+ note o, t(an-) to#
- .ot &oint /(e'i)tr0
- S&otli%(t /(e'i)tr0
- /onq*erin% c(e'i)tr0
- !S/ Online
- /(e'i)tr0 conte1t) 2
- 2acq*arie revi)ion %*i3e)# /(e'i)tr0
- +('a3 S(a( 43il