Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 1

1

Plastic Deformation of Metals
and Related Properties



1.1 INTRODUCTION
Metal forming is the backbone of modern manufacturing industry besides being a major
industry in itself. Throughout the world hundreds of million tons of metals go through metal
forming processes every year. As much as 1520% of GDP of industrialized nations comes from
metal forming industry. Besides, it fulfils a social cause by providing job opportunities to
millions of workers. Metal forming industry, in general, is a bulk producer of semi-finished and
finished goods and this is one reason that it is viable to undertake large scale research and
development projects because even a small saving per ton adds up to huge sums.
In metal forming processes, the product shapes are produced by plastic deformation.
Hence it is important to know the plastic flow properties of metals and alloys for optimizing the
processes. Also the resulting component properties depend upon the intensity and the conditions
of plastic deformation during forming.
Many forming processes produce raw materials for other processes which in turn produce
finished or semi-finished products. For example, steel plants produce sheet metal which is used
by automobile industry to manufacture components of automobiles and their bodies. In fact sheet
metal is used by a number of manufacturers for producing a large variety of household and
industrial products. Similarly billets produced by steel plants are used by re-rolling mills for
rolling into products like angles, channels, bars etc. Bars may be further used for manufacturing
forgings, wires, bright bars and machined products. Similarly the manufacturers of rivets, screws,
bolts and nuts buy wire from wire manufacturers and process them further. Therefore, the
producers of semi-finished materials such as sheet metal, bar stock and wires, etc. have to
consider that they produce such properties in their products which are required by down stream
industry engaged in further processing of these products. For example, deep drawability of sheet
metal increases with increase in anisotropy ratio (see Section 1.9), therefore, rolling parameters
such as finishing temperature, cold reduction etc, are adjusted to produce higher anisotropy ratio
in the sheet metal which is to be used for deep drawing.
The properties of metals and alloys are highly influenced by their microstructure which
may be modified or altered by alloying elements, by heating or heat treatment or by plastic
deformation. For example, metals and alloys may be hardened by plastic deformation. It would,
therefore, be helpful if we look at metals at the micro level.
1





2 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
1.2 BASIC STRUCTURE OF METALS AND ALLOYS
1.2.1 Grain Structure
The microstructure of solid metallic bodies consists of grains. Grains consist of unit cells
in which atoms are arranged in a particular order. The cell structure repeats itself throughout the
volume of the grain (Fig. 1.1). That is why the grains are also called crystallites. The structure is
called lattice in which atoms are placed at lattice points. In metals, generally there is only one
atom at a lattice point. There are many types of structures of unit cells for different materials,
however, metals generally possess one of the following three cell structures.
(i) Body centered cubic structure (BCC).
(ii) Face centered cubic structure (FCC).
(iii) Hexagonal closed packed structure (HCP).
The three cell structures are illustrated in Fig. 1.2. Some metals such as iron (Fe), cobalt
(Co), titanium (Ti), etc. change their cell structure at different temperatures.


Grain boundaries Atoms

Fig. 1.1. Grain structure
Body Centered Cubic Structure: The structure consists of one atom at each of the eight
corners of a cubical element and one atom at the center of the cube in Fig. 1.2(a). Metals with
this structure are chromium (Cr), hafnium (Hf) at temperatures greater than 1975
o
C, iron (Fe)
except at temperatures 911
o
C to 1392
o
C, molybdenum (Mo), niobium (Nb), tantalum (Ta),
titanium (Ti) at temperatures greater than 882C and tungsten (W), etc.
(a) BCC (b) FCC (c) HCP

Fig. 1.2. Cell structures of metals





Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 3
(c) Grain boundary (b) Edge dislocation (a) Vacancy
Grain boundary
Face Centered Cubic Structure: In this structure there is an atom at each of the eight corners
of the cubical element and there is an atom in the middle of each face of the cube as shown in
Fig. 1.2(b). Metals with this structure are aluminum (Al), cobalt at temperature greater than
1120C, copper (Cu), gold (Au), iron (Fe) between temperatures 911C1392C, lead (Pb), nickel
(Ni), silver (Ag), platinum (Pt), etc.
Hexagonal Closed Packed Structure: In this cell structure there is an atom at each corner
of a hexagonal prismatic element, besides, there are three atoms symmetrically placed between
the two end faces as shown in Fig. 1.2(c) and one atom each at center of the flat end faces. Metals
with this structure are beryllium (Be), cobalt at temperatures less than 1120C, magnesium (Mg),
zinc (Zn), titanium (Ti) at temperatures less than 882C, etc.
1.2.2 Lattice Defects
Ideally there should not be any defect in lattice structure, however, imperfections and
defects may occur due to alloying elements, plastic deformation, grain boundaries, etc. The lattice
structure generally contains following types of defects which are illustrated in Fig. 1.3.
(i) Point defects or imperfections.
(ii) Line defects which are also called dislocations.
(iii) Surface defectsgrain boundaries.
Point defects are caused by various reasons such as (i) absence of an atom from a lattice
point, (ii) an atom getting to a site which is not a lattice point, (iii) an atom of a different element
(alloy) substituting an atom of parent metal, etc. Point defects disturb the natural arrangement of
atoms in its vicinity and consequently atoms surrounding the point defect are either stretched
apart or are pushed too close. This gives rise to additional pull or push among the atoms.












Fig. 1.3. Imperfections in lattice structure
The type and concentration of these imperfections or defects greatly influence the
properties of metals and alloys. The defects may also be induced or controlled by alloying, heat
treatment or plastic deformation in order to obtain a change in the mechanical properties.
Line defects or dislocations are important for plastic deformations. The following two
types of dislocations are observed.






4 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
Shear force
Shear force
Shear force
(i) Edge dislocations.
(ii) Screw dislocations.
These are illustrated (Fig. 1.4). The figure also shows how these defects travel through
the lattice when subjected to shear forces. The dislocations travel from one layer of atoms to
another as the shear stresses increase. Slipping of all the atoms simultaneously would take
enormous forces which is not explained by much lower yield strength of metals. A dislocation
may be obstructed in its movement by atoms of alloying elements or point defects, by stationary
dislocations and grain boundaries or by other defects. More force is then required to overcome the
obstruction. Sometimes, the ends of a dislocation may get pinned down, in such a case, increase
in applied shear force results in curving of the line defect (Fig. 1.5). With further increase in
stress the dislocation may get curved inward, ultimately transforming into a ring dislocation and a
new dislocation at the initial points. Thus this becomes a source of production of dislocations.
Plastic deformation creates a large number of dislocations. Higher the dislocation density in
the material, higher is the resistance to movement of dislocations and hence higher forces are
required for plastic deformation. This explains the increase in strength during plastic deformation,
which is called strain hardening or work hardening.
























Fig. 1.4. Dislocations and their movement










Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 5
Final state = Initial dislocation +
a circular dislocation
Initial dislocation
Force














Fig. 1.5. Generation of dislocation
Surface defects are the irregular arrangement of atoms at the grain boundaries. In a grain
the atoms are arranged in particular order, however, the directions of the arrangement are
different in neighbouring grains. The boundaries are irregularly shaped with the effect that at
some places atoms are too far apart while at other places they are too close than the normal
distance, thus giving rise to tensile and compressive forces. These defects also cause restriction to
movement of dislocations. In a structure with small grains the dislocations can move only a small
distance before encountering an obstacle, i.e. grain boundary. Therefore, a metal is stronger when
it has small grains structure than when it has a large grain structure.
1.3 FORMING PROPERTIES OF METALS AND ALLOYS
Most of the metal forming processes require a combination of material properties for
their successful operation. For example, for deep drawing of sheet metal, one of the requirements
is that the material should be ductile. However, lead is quite ductile at room temperature but lead
sheet is not that suitable for drawing into cups in the way steel cups are drawn. The material
properties which are of importance for metal forming are listed below.
1. Yield strength/flow stress.
2. Ductility.
3. Strain hardening.
4. Strain rate sensitivity.
5. Effect of temperature on yield strength and ductility.
6. Effect of hydrostatic pressure on yield strength and ductility.
7. Instability and fracture strength.
1.4 TESTING FOR YIELD STRENGTH / FLOW STRESS
1.4.1 Tensile Test
For determination of yield strength or flow stress, one or more of the following three
basic tests are conducted.
(i) Tension test.
(ii) Compression test.
(iii) Torsion test.





6 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
Most of us are quite conversant with the simple tension test which is the most common
and is conducted to determine the yield strength, ultimate tensile strength, percent elongation
and fracture strength of metals. Figures 1.6 and 1.7 show typical stress-strain curves obtained in
tension tests on two different alloys. Figure 1.6 is obtained for a low carbon steel or mild steel
test specimen and Fig. 1.7 is obtained for an aluminium alloy test specimen. In these two
diagrams the stress and strain are defined as given below.
Stress = Force/Original area of cross-section of specimen.
Strain = Change in length/original length of specimen.
In case of mild steel, for loading up to point A (Fig. 1.6), there is a straight line or linear
relationship between stress and strain. That is why the point A is also called proportional limit.
Thereafter, the relationship between stress and strain is nonlinear up to a point B which is very
near to A. Also up to the point B the deformations are largely elastic and on unloading the
specimen regains the original dimensions. But beyond the point B the metal yields, it suffers
plastic deformation. This is indicated by a sudden bend in the curve. Most of the strain after this
point is plastic strain which is not recovered on unloading. The value of stress at B is called upper
yield strength and point B is called upper yield point.

Upper yield
Lower yield
Proportional limit
D
C
A
B
UTS
Fracture points
Strain dI/I
S
t
r
e
s
s
Ultimate tensile strength
E
F

Fig. 1.6. A typical stress-strain curve for mild steel
With further increase in strain (beyond B) the stress may fall a bit to a lower level at C
(Fig. 1.6). This is due to formation of Lder bands. With increase in tension, localized plastic
flow takes place in a narrow band with boundary planes inclined at a certain angle with the axis
of test specimen. Consequently the load falls a bit. However, due to strain hardening of the
material in the band, the load again increases till another Lder band appears in the test piece.





Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 7
Strain = I/I d
Yield point at 0.002 strain offset
Intersection of tangents to elastic and plastic curves
B
A
F
Fracture point
0.002
O
S
t
r
e
s
s
=
l
o
a
d
/
o
r
i
g
i
n
a
l
a
r
e
a
o
f
c
/
s
This goes on till the whole specimen is full of Lder bands. Thus between the points C and D the
stress is oscillating between two narrow limits. This occurs in alloys having interstitial solid
solution structure like low carbon steels. The stress at the point C is called lower yield strength.
However with further increase in strain beyond the point D, when the test piece is full of
Lder bands, the load or stress again starts increasing. The distinction between the two yields may
disappear with strain hardening and only a small kink may remain on the stress strain curve. Some
authors prefer to take stress value at C as the flow stress at the yield point, however, the data given
in material standards generally refers to upper yield point.
After the point D the stress-strain curve moves upwards, however, with further
deformation, its slope gradually decreases to zero at the point E which is the highest point on the
curve. After E the curve goes down. Before the point E, increase in strain increases the load on
the specimen due to strain hardening. Even after the point E, the strain hardening is still there but
at some point the area of cross section of the test piece starts decreasing much faster and a neck
formation starts, with the result, the force that the test piece can bear decreases continuously with
further deformation resulting in an unstable condition. After some elongation in the neck, the
specimen fractures at the point F. Since we have defined stress as force divided by original area
of cross section the stress value thus calculated also decreases after E, however, if we take true
stress, as explained below, it will be much higher.
The stress at the point E is known as ultimate tensile strength. At point E the actual area
of cross section is smaller than the original area of cross-section. In order to obtain realistic
values of material strength, we must plot true stress-true strain curve which is discussed in the
next section.
Most of the nonferrous metals and alloys do not show the sudden bend or kink in their
stress strain curve like the one we get for low carbon steel as described above. Instead there is a
gradual transition from elastic to plastic state (Fig. 1.7). In such cases, the yield strength may be
taken at the point of intersection of tangents to elastic and plastic lines [9].




















Fig. 1.7. A typical stress-strain curve for aluminum






8 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
However the change from elastic to plastic state is very gradual, the point of intersection
is rather ambiguous. Different values may be obtained if tangents are drawn at different points.
Therefore, an offset yield point is obtained at a strain of 0.002 (0.2%). A straight line is drawn
parallel to initial portion of stress-strain curve at the strain value of 0.002 and the point where it
intersects the stress-strain curve is taken as yield point.

1.4.2 True Stress-True Strain
The curves of Figs. 1.6 and 1.7 are drawn with the stress defined as load divided by
original area of cross-section and the longitudinal strain is defined as l/l
0
, where l
0
is the original
length of test specimen. The curves would look very much different if we use true stress on
ordinate and true strain on abscissa. The true stress and true strain are defined below.

True stress =
Force applied on the specimen
Current area of cross-section
(1.1)
For true strain, let us take that a specimen of length l is elongated by l. The differential strain
d becomes
d =
l
l

(1.2)
The true strain in the specimen which has been elongated from the initial length l
0
to final length l
is obtained by integrating the above equation.
True strain =
0
l
l
l
l

=
0
log ( / )
e
l l (1.3)
The expression for true strain may also be written as below.

0
log ( / )
e
l l = log
e
( 1 + l /l
0
)
= log
e
( 1 + E ) (1.4)
where
E is the engineering strain = l/l
0
(1.5)

For accurate calculations, the true stress-true strain curve for the metal should be drawn
to determine the yield strength. Figure 1.6 redrawn on true stress-true strain axes would look like
the one shown in Fig. 1.8. Also there are standard specifications for the shape and dimensions of
test specimen, which should be adapted in order to obtain meaningful results. Besides, in all
above type of tests the following factors should also be noted.
(i) Temperature at which the test is conducted.
(ii) The strain rate during the test.
(iii) Accuracy of load measuring instrument.
(iv) Accuracy of instrument which measures elongation.








Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 9
True strain = (I/I )
o
T
r
u
e
s
t
r
e
s
s
=
l
o
a
d
/
c
u
r
r
e
n
t
a
r
e
a
o
f
c
/
s
F
B













Fig. 1.8. True stress-true strain curve for tensile test

Example 1.1
A mild steel rectangular specimen of length 100 mm is extended to 120 mm. Neglecting
the elastic deformation and taking that material is isotropic, determine the true strains in length,
width and thickness directions.

Solution
Let
l
,
w ,
and
t
be the true strains in length, width and thickness directions respectively.
True strain along the length
l
= ln (120/100) = 0.1823
Also, in plastic deformation the change in volume is zero. Therefore,

l
+
w
+
t
= 0
Since material is isotropic
w
=
t
Hence
w
=
t
=
l
/2 = 0.09115
The three strains are 0.1823, 0.09115 and 0.09115.

Example 1.2
Determine the true strains in length, width and thickness directions of a sheet metal test
specimen if it is elongated to 130 % of its original length. The anisotropy ratio
w
/
t
= 1.5. Also
determine the per cent decrease in area of cross-section.

Solution
The longitudinal strain
l
= log
e
(130/100) = 0.2623
From incompressibility condition
l
+
w
+
t
= 0
and also we are given that
w
/
t
= 1.5





10 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
Therefore,

t
= 0.2623/2.5 = 0.1049
and
w
= 0.1573
Let a be area of cross-section and l the length. The volume V of the specimen is given by,
V = a.l
The differential change in the volume is given as,
dV = a.dl + l.da
In plastic deformations the volume does not change. Hence, dV = 0, and hence
da/a = dl / l
Change in area of cross-section = 30 %

1.5 FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE YIELD STRENGTH
In metal forming, particularly in hot forming many metallurgical processes may take
place concurrently. These include strain hardening, recovery, re-crystallization, etc. All these
factors affect the yield strength. Therefore, it is important to know the extent of effect of each of
these factors. The yield strength of a metal or alloy is affected by following factors.
(i) Strain hardening.
(ii) Strain rate.
(iii) Temperature of metal and microstructure.
(iv) Hydrostatic pressure.

1.5.1 Strain Hardening
To understand the effect of strain hardening let us again consider the tension test curve
shown below in Fig. 1.9.
In this figure the test piece is loaded beyond the yield point up to a point P. The test piece
is then unloaded. The elastic deformation recovers via the unloading curve PR which is more or
less parallel to AO. It is generally taken that there is no change in Youngs modulus during plastic
deformation. The line PR depicts elastic recovery. Out of the total strain OS corresponding to the
point P, the part RS is the elastic recovery. The part OR which is not recovered is the plastic strain
suffered by the test specimen.
Now if we reload the same test piece, it nearly follows the line RP. There is, however, some
deviation due to hysteresis which is very small, and the yielding now occurs at the point P.
Further loading of the test piece beyond P gives the same stress-strain curve as we would have
obtained if there were no unloading. This shows that after suffering a plastic strain represented
by OR, the yield strength of metal has increased from point B to point P (or
o1
to
o2
). This is
called strain hardening or work hardening.











Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 11
s
ot
B
P
O
R
Q
s
oc
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s



















Fig. 1.9. Strain hardening effect












Fig. 1.10. Bauschinger effect

Bauschinger Effect: Now consider another experiment for which the test curve is shown in
Fig. 1.10. In this test, the specimen has been loaded in tension up to a point P beyond the yield
point B ( yield strength =
ot
), then unloaded to point R and again loaded in reverse direction, i.e.
compressed. In compression the test piece yields at the point Q where yield strength is equal to

oc
which is smaller in magnitude than
ot
. This shows that the yield strength in compression has
decreased due to the previous plastic strain in tension. Similarly the yield strength in tension
E
F
P
B
A
s
o1
s
o2
Strain
R S O
S
t
r
e
s
s





12 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
would decrease with previous compressive plastic strain. This is known as Bauschinger Effect
(BE).
In fact due to plastic strain the material develops anisotropy. Its properties are no longer
the same in different directions. Bauschinger Effect (BE) is observed in many metals and alloys.
BE may be reduced by thermal treatment. Complete removal is possible only by re-
crystallization of strained material. However, it may be reduced by stress aging which is a process
of heating the material to a certain temperature while it is subjected to suitable value of stress. By
this process BE may be reduced at a low temperatures (less than 200C).
1.5.2 Strain Hardening Index n
For the sake of simplification in analysis it is taken that there are two factors in strain
hardening. One is isotropic strain hardening, in which the strain hardening effect is same in all
directions, i.e. yield strength increases equally in all the directions. The second is kinematic strain
hardening in which the yield strength does not increase in magnitude but whole of the yield
diagram shifts (see Chapter 4) in the direction of plastic strain thus showing Bauschinger effect.
Metals exhibit both these effects together, however, for sake of simplicity isotropic strain
hardening is generally adapted in various analyses of metal forming problems. Some expressions
developed for the flow stress (
f
) by different researchers are as follows.

f
=
0
( )
n
(1.6a)

f
=
0
( B + )
n
(1.6b)

f
=
0
( 1 + B )
n
(1.6c)

f
=
0
+ B[ 1 exp (C ) ]
n
(1.6d)

where
0
, B, n and C are material parameters. The n is called strain hardening index or
exponent, is true strain. Equations (1.6a to 1.6c) are generally used for small strains, while Eqn.
(1.6d) is used for large strains for alloys which show a decreasing rate of work hardening or
exhibit work hardening saturation.

Determination of n
One of the methods to determine n for Eqn. (1.6a) is given below. Let V be the volume, a
the area of cross section and l the length of the specimen, then
V = a . l
Differentiating the above we get
dV = l.da + a.dl (1.7)
In plastic deformations the change in volume (dV) is zero. Hence from Eqn. (1.7) we get
d = dl/l = da /a (1.7a)
and = ln l/l
0
= ln a/a
0
= ln a
0
/a
The force F on the specimen at point E (Fig. 1.6) = . a
Since at E the force F is maximum, we can write the following
dF
d
= 0






Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 13

da
d

+ a .
d
d

= 0 (1.8)
From Eqn. (1.7a) we get
a = da / d
Substitution of this in Eqn. (1.8) gives the following relation at E.

d
d
=

We take that isotropic strain hardening occurs according to Eqn. (1.6a). Substitution of this in the
above equation gives the following.

0

u
n
=
0
n.
u
n1

where
u

is the strain at the point E (Fig. 1.6). From the above equation we get the value of strain
hardening exponent n as
n =
u.
(1.9)
Equation (1.9) gives a method of determining the exponent n. Even for other strain
hardening rules there is close relationship between n and
u
. The data obtained by Narayanasamy
and Sowerby [21] on three steels (Table 1.1), shows that n is nearly equal to the true strain at
maximum strength. According to them these steel conform to hardening law
f
= K (
0
+ )
n
.

Example 1.3
For a strain hardening material obeying the law
n
A = show that
66n = /
d
d



Solution
By differentiating the equation
n
A = we get,
d
d

= A n
1 n

From the initial equation we have A =
n
/ . Substituting this value of A in above equation and
by simplification we get
n = /
d
d



Table 1.1: Relationship between
u
and n [21]
Material Yield strength K
0
n Strain at max.
( MPa) (MPa) strength

AKDQ steel 178.9 528.9 0.007 0.265 0.27
Dual Phase steel 497.9 1037.7 0.002 0.17 0.18
304 Stainless steel 353.02 1754.8 0.054 0.6 0.58






14 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
In fact many researchers have determined the values of n for different materials. For the
sake of comparison, the values of strain hardening exponent n obtained by a few researchers are
given below.

Table 1.2: Values of
0
, B and n in the Eqn. (1.6c) [ 9 ]
Material
0
(MPa) B n
SAE 1020 (cold rolled) 514 68 0.067
SAE 1020 (annealed) 232 58 0.294
6061-T-6 (Al. Alloy cold rolled) 252 42 0.149
6061-T-6 (annealed) 43 50 0.204

Example 1.4
Determine the percent increase in yield strength of annealed aluminum bar if it is
elongated from 200 mm to 250 mm. Take strain hardening data from Table 1.2.
Solution
Refer to Table 1.2, the yield strength of annealed aluminum is given by,

f
= 43 ( 1 + 50

)
0.204
The longitudinal strain

= ln (250 /200) = 0.2231
The new yield strength of specimen =
f
= 43 [1 + 50 0.223]
0.204
= 71.57 Mpa
Similarly yield strength at zero plastic strain = 43
Increase in the yield strength = 66.44%

You-Min Huang et al., [19 ] have given the following data for low carbon steel, copper
and aluminum.

Table 1.3: Flow stress of low carbon steel, Cu and Al [ ref.19]
Material
Yield strength
kgf/mm
2
Flow Stress in kgf/mm
2
Steel (Low)
Carbon
19.4
f
= 80.394(0.0151 + )
0.33944
Copper 15.8
f
= 100.067(0.009 + )
0.39179

Aluminum 2.2

f
= 15.0356(0.01 + )
0.41628

where is the effective plastic strain.







Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 15
Example 1.5
A cylindrical test specimen of diameter 10 mm and gauge length 50 mm is extended to
65 mm. Determine the true strain. Neglect the elastic deformation. If the ultimate strength occurs
at a force of 25000 N and at an extension of 70 mm, determine the strain hardening exponent n
and ultimate strength of the material.

Solution
The true strain at 65 mm extension is given by = ln 65/50 = 0.2623
The true strain at extension of 70 mm = ln 70/50 = 0.3364
Value of n = 0.3364
and also = ln (l/l
0
) = ln (a
0/
a)
Therefore, the area of cross section at the maximum force is given by
a = a
0
/ (e
0.3364
)
= 10 10 / (4 1.3999)
= 56.104 mm
2

True ultimate strength is = 25000/56.104
= 445.60 N/mm
2

Ultimate tensile strength as given in standard tables is related to original area of cross
section. For the above case, UTM is calculated below.
UTM = 25000 4 / ( 10 10 ) = 318.31 N/mm
2

Work Done During Plastic Deformation
Let a bar of area of cross-section a and length l
0
, be elongated to length l . The work
(W ) done during elongation is given by
W =

l
l
0
area of cross-section stress l
Here we neglect the elastic strain and let the yield strength during plastic deformation be
given by,

f
=
0

n

Substitution of this in the above equation results in
W =

l
l
0
area
0

n
l
Or
W =

l
l
0
area l
0

0

n
l /l
0
Now the volume of body
=
area l
0
and it remains constant during plastic deformation and
l/l
0
= d. Therefore, W may be written as,





16 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes

0
0
n
W Volume d =

1 1
0 0
( )
1
n n
W Volume
n
+ +

=

+


(1.10)
For the other strain hardening laws discussed above, the expressions for work done may
be obtained similarly. Thus if the strain hardening law is
f
= A (B + C

)
n
the amount of work
done for plastic strain 0 to becomes
W =
1 1
( )
( 1)
n n
Volume
A B C AB
C n
+ +

+

+
(1.11)
Example 1.6
The yield strength of brass is give by
f
= 300 (1 +15

)
0.3
MPa. A bar of this material
having area of cross-section 200 mm
2
and length 200 mm is extended to 250 mm. Determine the
value of the yield strength of the material of bar after extension. Also determine the work done
during the elongation.
Solution
The true longitudinal plastic strain =
l
= ln (250/200) = 0.223

f
= 300 ( 1 + 15 0.223 )
0.3

= 466.14 MPa
Refer to Eqn. (1.11). Here A = 300, B = 1, C = 15 , n = 0.3 and hence,
W =
[ ]
1.3
200 200
300 (1 15 0.223) 1
15 1.3

1/1000 Nm
= 3539.255 Nm.
1.5.3 Effect of Strain Rate
Another factor that increases load on forming equipment is the rate at which the forming
process is carried out. At higher rates of strain the flow stress of material increases leading to
higher loads on the equipment. The effect of strain rate on yield strength for an alloy is illustrated
in Fig. 1.11.
The factors described above influence the forming processes to varying degrees
depending upon the temperatures at which the processes are carried out. If a forming process is
carried out at a temperature less than the re-crystallization temperature and at a slow rate, such a
case may be taken as an isothermal process, i.e. the effect of temperature change during the
process may be neglected and we may consider only the effect of strain hardening.










Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 17
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Strain
S
t
r
e
s
s
(
M
p
a
)
= 8000 s
1
= 1 s
1

















Fig. 1.11. Effect of strain rate on yield strength
When a forming process is carried out in hot state the re-crystallization is also present
along with strain hardening and strain rate effect. The strain hardening may be nullified by re-
crystallization. Therefore, in hot working we may only consider the effect of temperature and
strain rate on the yield strength of metal. The effect of strain rate may be written as given below.

f
=
0
( )
m
(1.12)
where
f
is the flow stress,

is the plastic strain rate, m and
0
are material parameters. Since
the effects of strain rate and strain hardening may vary at different temperatures, this presents a
major problem of testing each metal and alloy at different temperatures, at different strain rates
and to different extents of strain. The problem of testing becomes more difficult because most of
the work done on the metal body for plastic deformation reappears as heat and raises the
temperature of the test specimen. At low strain rates the flow stress increases with increase in
strain rate. At higher strain rates it still increases but at a slower rate because of the softening
effect due to temperature rise in the material. Stout and Follanshee [16] have determined the
following expression for strain rate sensitivity in stainless steel 304L at strain rates of the order of
10
3
s
1
and above.

f
=
b
+

(1.13)
where
b
= 668 M Pa and = 0.0066 0.0025 M Pa-s
1.5.4 Effect of Temperature
Recovery and Re-crystallization
Figure 1.12(a) shows initial structure of an undeformed metal piece. Figure 1.12(b)
shows the structure after it has been compressed along its height. The grains get elongated in the
direction normal to the direction of applied force, i.e. in the lateral direction. The material gets
strain hardened, i.e. its yield strength, UTM and hardness increase while ductility decreases. As
explained in Section 1.2, the strain hardening occurs because the dislocation density increases due
to cold deformation. With increase in temperature the movement of dislocations gets easier and





18 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
they readjust due to stresses locked in the lattice. Some dislocations having opposite sign may
annihilate each other. This is called recovery process in which the residual stresses are reduced,
however, the enhanced properties due to cold working are only little affected.
Now if the compressed metal piece is heated to certain higher temperature (0.4 to 0.6.
T
melt.
), new grains will start emerging at the boundaries of old grains and at sites of other defects.
If this temperature is maintained for some time the new grains will grow to cover the entire
structure. This is called primary re-crystallization. Re-crystallization removes the strain hardening
effect and hence reduces strength but increases ductility. However, the process does not stop
there. Some grains start growing at the expense of other grains till the complete structure is
covered by bigger grains. This is called secondary re-crystallization and grain growth.
(a) Initial structure (b) After compression (c) Start of crystallization
(e) Grain growth (d) After recrystallization
New grains
Heat

Fig. 1.12. Re-crystallization

The mechanical properties like yield strength depend upon the grain size. The
relationship between grain size and flow stress is given by the Hall-Petch formula (Eqn. 1.14).

f
=
0
+ d
1/2
(1.14)
where
f
is the flow stress of material, d is the average grain size and
0
and are material
parameters. The parameters
0
and are not absolute constants but are functions of strain, strain
rate and temperature.
During hot working the processes of strain hardening and subsequent stress relieving/
recovery and re-crystallization may occur depending upon the temperature and strain. It has been
found that in ferrous alloys at 780C a three stage softening may take place after hot deformation
to a certain minimum true strain which may vary between 0.08 to 0.15.
Several attempts have been made to determine single expression for yield strength, which
includes the effect of strain, strain rate, temperature, grain size and re-crystallization. Bonnavand,
Bramley and Mynores [22] have employed the following formulation for the effect of these
factors for calculations related to backward extrusion process.





Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 19
) ( exp ) (
) 1 ( 3
2
T K
m
m n

= (1.15)
where K is material constant in stress units, = equivalent strain, n = strain hardening exponent,
m = strain-rate-effect exponent, T = temperature (Kelvin) and = material parameter. Values of
these parameters for some metals are given in Table 1.4.
Table 1.4: [ref.22]
Material K(MPa) n m (k
1
)
AISI 1035 5404 0.059 0.126 3.110
3
AISI 1045 7260 0.326 0.11 2.9 10
3

AISI 3524 3524 0.233 0.082 2.4 10
3

AISI 410 1883 0.134 0.103 2.4 10
3


1.5.4.1 Hot Forming, Cold Forming and Warm Forming
Metal forming processes may be carried out in hot as well as in cold state. Temperature
of re-crystallization is the boundary between the two.
Hot forming or hot working is defined as forming at temperatures above the re-crystallization
temperature of the metal. In fact the actual temperatures are much higher than the re-
crystallization temperature. High temperatures reduce the flow stress of metals, which results in
low deforming forces.
Cold forming or cold working refers to forming at temperatures below the re-crystallization
temperature of the metal. The strain hardening during the process improves the mechanical
properties of the product. Also close dimensional tolerances can be obtained in cold forming.
F
o
r
c
e
Elongation
At 1250 C
At 1000 C
At 500 C
Stress-strain curve of MS
at room temperature

Fig. 1.13. Effect of temperature on the yield strength







20 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
Advantages of hot forming
(i) At high temperatures, the metals become soft, its yield strength decreases (Fig. 1.13)
and hence low forces are required for forming. This reduces the cost of equipment
needed for the process.
(ii) Metals are more ductile at higher temperatures and their formability in hot state is
higher than in cold state. Therefore, large deformations may be given in hot working.
(iii) The casting defects in ingots like internal shrinkage cavities (not those in contact with
atmosphere) and blow holes get welded during hot working. The structure becomes
more homogeneous resulting in better mechanical properties.
(iv) Due to low flow stresses at high temperatures, very large components may be made by
plastic deformation.
Disadvantages of hot working
(i) The products have low surface quality due to oxidation of surface layer.
(ii) The components formed have low dimensional accuracy.
(iii) There is little improvement in mechanical properties.
(iv) The forming tools also get heated up due to contact with hot metal and wear of tools is
rapid.
Advantages of cold forming
(i) Good surface finish of the product.
(ii) High dimensional accuracy.
(iii) Superior mechanical properties, e.g. hardness and strength increase due to strain
hardening.
(iv) Strain hardening may eliminate the surface hardening heat treatment required in some
components such as cold rolled gears.
(v) The material develops anisotropy which may be used to advantage in subsequent
forming processes. For instance, the anisotropy developed in cold rolled sheet metal
helps in getting deeper draws.
Disadvantages of cold forming
(i) High loads on the equipment require it to have high strength and rigidity. This
increases the cost of machines.
(ii) With strain hardening the material becomes less ductile.
Warm Forming: Of recent, warm forming has come to be used in order to gain the advantages
of hot as well as cold forming, though to a lesser extent. Warm forming is carried out at a
temperature higher than room temperature but lower than the re-crystallization temperature. Since
yield strength decreases with increase in temperature, the load on the equipment in warm forming
is lower than in cold forming. Also the temperatures are not that high that the surface layer
damage can occur. Therefore, the advantages of cold forming are achieved, that is, better surface
quality, better dimensional accuracy and better mechanical properties than in hot forming.





Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 21
1700
1600
1500
1400
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Lower yield in tension
Compression yield strength
0.2 % offset
0.1 % offset
T
r
u
e
s
t
r
e
s
s
M
N
/
m
2
Hydrostatic pressure MN/m
2
Because of reduced forces, the tools wear is less and the equipment is also less expensive.
Temperatures for warm forming should be chosen such that the ductility of metal is high at that
temperature.
In a forming process, metal blank has to come in contact with dies or tools which are
generally massive compared to the metal blank being processed and hence there is considerable
heat transfer from work piece to the tools in hot forming. This makes the temperature of metal
blank itself non uniform, i.e. reduces temperatures near contact zones.
The testing also becomes more complicated because of phase changes in metals and
alloys due to temperature and strain. It is difficult to have a clear cut relationship between yield
strength, temperature, strain and strain rate because of complex behavior of metals, however,
there are quite a few attempts to empirically describe the yield strength of certain metals as a
function of these variables in specific temperature ranges.
1.5.5 Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure
Hydrostatic pressure may affect the following properties of metals and hence their
formability.
(i) Ductility.
(ii) Yield strength or flow stress.
(iii) Strain hardening index and strain rate index.
Experiments of Bridgeman [3] have shown that hydrostatic pressure does not lead to
plastic deformation. However, hydrostatic pressure increases the ductility and formability of
metals and alloys. The phenomenon of increased ductility with hydrostatic pressure is also called
pressure induced ductility.













Fig. 1.14. Effect of hydrostatic pressure on yield strength of quenched and tempered
AISI 4330 steel [11]

Even brittle materials may be plastically deformed under suitable hydrostatic pressures.
Materials in which the plastic deformation leads to change in volume, the yield strength may be
affected by hydrostatic pressure. Spitzig et al. [11] have shown that yield strength of quenched
and tempered AISI 4310 and 4330 steels is affected by hydrostatic pressure.
Figure 1.14 shows the effect of hydrostatic pressure on the yield strength of 4330 steel.
Both the steels show increase in volume during plastic deformation as well as increase in yield





22 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
strength under hydrostatic pressure. Very few researchers have attempted to determine the effect
of hydrostatic pressure on strain hardening and strain rate effect indices. According to Spitzig
et al., [11], there is no effect of hydrostatic pressure on the strain hardening index (n).
These steel also show a constant difference in the values of yield strength in tension and
in compression. The yield strength in compression is higher than that in tension and the difference
between the two yield strengths is not affected by hydrostatic pressure.
1.6 DUCTILITY AND FORMABILITY
Ductility is an essential property of material for its formability. However, ductility is not
some thing like absolute constant for a metal or alloy under all conditions. In fact, it gets
modified by the process parameters that is why the same material may show different formability
in different forming processes.
Ductility is measured by the strain suffered by the material before fracture. In a tensile
test it may be measured by percent elongation in engineering terms, or by logarithmic strain at the
fracture point. In compression test similar measures may be used. In torsion test it is measured by
the strain suffered by outer layer of material of test bar before fracture.
The tensile tests show low ductility because of neck formation and consequently the
negative hydrostatic pressure in the neck region promotes crack initiation and propagation. This
problem is not there in compression and torsion tests which show higher ductility for the same
material. Many researchers have preferred torsion test for measurement of ductility while the
strength properties are related to those measured in tensile test.
1.6.1 Factors that Affect Ductility of Metals
As already mentioned above ductility is affected by intrinsic factors like composition,
grain size, cell structure etc., as well as by external factors like hydrostatic pressure, temperature,
plastic deformation already suffered etc. Some important observations about ductility are given
below.
(i) Metals with FCC and BCC crystal structure show higher ductility at high temperatures
compared to those with HCP crystal structure.
(ii) Grain size has significant influence on ductility. Many alloys show super-plastic behavior
when grain size is very small of the order of few microns.
(iii) Steels with higher oxygen content show low ductility.
(iv) In some alloys impurities even in very small percentages have significant effect on
ductility. Ductility of carbon steels containing sulfur impurity as small as 0.018%,
drastically decreases ductility at around 1040C. This can however be remedied if Mn
content is high. In fact the ratio Mn/S is the factor which can alter ductility of carbon steels
at 1040C. With the value of this ratio at 2 the percent elongation is only 1215% at
1040C while with ratio of 14 it is 110 per cent.
(v) Temperature is a major factor that influences ductility and hence formability. In general it
increases ductility, however, ductility may decrease at certain temperatures due to phase
transformation and micro-structural changes brought about by increase in temperature.
Figure 1.15 shows the effect of temperature on ductility of stainless steel. It has low
ductility at 1050C and maximum at 1350C. Therefore it has a very narrow hot working
range [12].





Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 23
900 1100 1300 1500
TemperatureC
20
40
60
80
Strain rate 400s
1
Strain rate 500s
1
R
e
d
u
c
a
t
i
o
n
i
n
d
i
a
m
e
t
e
r
p
e
r
c
e
n
t

Fig. 1.15. Ductility of stainless steel at high temperatures [12]
(vi) Hydrostatic pressure increases ductility. This observation was first made by Bridgeman [3].
In torsion tests the length of specimen decreases with increase in torsion. If the specimen is
subjected to an axial compressive stress in torsion test it shows higher ductility than when
there is no axial stress. If a tensile axial stress is applied the ductility decreases still further.
(vii) The temperatures for optimum ductility are also affected by concentration of alloying
element. Figure 1.16 shows the temperatures for optimum ductility for different
concentration of carbon in plain carbon steels [12].
(viii) Duplex microstructures generally lead to lower ductility [12]. For example, low carbon
steel when tested in ( + ) range shows lower ductility.
(ix) Strain rate also influences ductility. Tests done in tension have shown that increase in strain
rate increases the elongation in uniform deformation region and decreases the same in the
neck region. For obtaining the effect of strain rate the observed values must be corrected
for change in temperature, because, at high strain rates there is considerable increase in
temperature of material which increases ductility. More work is needed to establish a
conclusive effect of strain rate on ductility.
1300
1200
1100
1000
0 0.2 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Carbon content %
T
e
m
p
e
r
a
t
u
r
e

C
Temperature for
optimum ductility


Fig. 1.16. Temperatures for optimum ductility for plain carbon steels [12]







24 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
1.7 THEORIES OF FRACTURE
Occurrence of fracture in work material is a natural limit of formability. Therefore, it is
very important to know the conditions under which fracture initiates and propagates. Several
criteria have been tested. Tensile stress is regarded as a key factor. Even in forging processes
wherein the material suffers predominantly compressive stresses the fracture is believed to be
initiated by induced tensile stresses.
A second opinion is that fracture occurs due to accumulated strain rather than stress.
Octahedral shear strain has also been suggested as a basis for fracture to occur, however,
experiments show lot of scatter. Cockcroft and Latham [14] have proposed the following criterion
for occurrence of fracture in a ductile material at the given temperature and strain rate.

f

x
(
x
/ ) d = constant (1.16)
0
where
f
= fracture strain,
= equivalent strain (see Chapter 3),
= equivalent stress (see Chapter 3),

x
/ = a non-dimensional stress concentration factor,

x
= highest tensile stress calculated for necked region.
The above criterion takes the following form for torsion


0
( / 3)

f
d

= constant (1.17)
here
f
is effective fracture strain in torsion. The above criterion has been successfully tested by
Sellars and Tegart [12] with the help of hot torsion test data on aluminum, copper and nickel in
the temperature range of 0.5 0.8 T
m
and at strain rates of 1 and 8 s
1
.
1.8 SUPER-PLASTICITY
It is the property of material to suffer neck free elongation of several hundred per cent.
For instance, in zinc-22 Al eutectoid alloy an elongation of 2900 per cent has been achieved in
the temperature range of 293573K. In Fe26Cr 0156.5 Ni alloy an elongation of more than
1000 per cent may be achieved in the temperature range of 9731293K. In fact many metals and
alloys show this property in certain temperature ranges and grain sizes. Super-plasticity may also
be achieved by thermal cycling across the phase transformation temperature while the work piece
is kept stretched. The factors common to many super-plastic metals and alloys are given below.
(i) High value of strain rate exponent m, ( 0.3 to 0.5).
(ii) Small grain size of the order of a few micron.
(iii) Very little work hardening.
Some of the manufacturing processes used for thermoplastic materials have been
successfully employed for forming metals in super-plastic condition. For example, processes such
as blow forming and vacuum forming have also been used to form super-plastic alloys.





Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 25
A large number of alloys show super-plastic properties but at different temperatures and
grain sizes. The different super-plastic materials may be grouped into the following three types.
(i) Low temperature alloys of Zn and Al.
(ii) Intermediate temperature alloys of Al.
(iii) High temperature alloys of nickel, some stainless steels and titanium alloys.
On experimentation with superalloy IN 718 which has application as material for turbine
blades for aircrafts, Kashyap and Chaturvedi [27] obtained maximum ductility of 485% at a strain
rate of 1 10
4
s
1
and temperature of 1198 K. They also noted a decrease of ductility with
increase in temperature. In fact, more research work is needed to established behavior of yield
strength and ductility of super alloys to strain rate, strain hardening and temperature.
1.9 ANISOTROPY IN SHEET METAL
During cold rolling of sheet metal, the material develops anisotropy. The flow strength in
thickness direction becomes different to that in the plane of sheet. For testing the anisotropy, the
test specimen are cut at an angle to rolling direction. Let l
1
,w
1
and t
1
be the length, width and
thickness of undeformed specimen respectively and l
2
, w
2
and t
2
be the corresponding values
after some plastic deformation in the tension test. The three principal strains are as given below.
In length direction
l
= ln (l
2
/ l
1
)
In width direction
w
= ln (w
2
/ w
1
)
In the thickness direction
t
= ln (t
2
/ t
1
)
In an isotropic sheet
w
=
t
, however, in a cold rolled sheet
w

t
. The anisotropy ratio
r is defined as
r =
w
/
t
(1.18)
For evaluation of r, test specimen are cut in three directions, i.e. 0 , 45 and 90 degrees
with respect to the rolling direction. The three values of r, i.e. r
0
, r
45
and r
90
are determined. The
difference ( r) in r values is indicator of planer anisotropy which is defined as follows.
r = r
max.
r
min
(1.19)

0 15 30 45 60 75 90
Angle with rolling direction
Dr
V
a
l
u
e
o
f
r
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.0

Fig. 1.17. Variation of r in different directions with respect to rolling direction





26 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
However, it is usually taken as an average variation, as given below, (see Fig. 1.17).
r = ( r
0
+ r
90
2 r
45
) (1.20)
The average value of anisotropy ratio r
a
is calculated as give below.

0 45 90
2
4
+ +
=
a
r r r
r (1.21)
The value of r
a
more than unity is an indicator that the sheet is stronger in the thickness direction.
This reduces thinning and neck formation in the sheet at the highly stressed locations during deep
drawing and hence enhances drawability.

Example 1.7
An aluminum test specimen 100 mm long, 20 mm wide and 2 mm thick is elongated to
130 mm. If the anisotropy ratio r = 2, determine true strains in length, width and thickness
directions.
Solution
Let
l
,
w
, and
t
be the true strains in length, width and thickness directions respectively.
Since anisotropy ratio is 2 we can write the following.

w
/
t
= 2
and in plastic deformations

l
+
w
+
t
= 0
3
t
=
l
= ln (130 / 100)
= 0.262
Hence
t
= 0.0873


EXERCISES
1. How do you determine yield strength of an alloy which exhibits a smooth curve in tensile
test?
2. What do you understand by hot forming, cold forming and warm forming?
3. Describe the relative merits of cold forming and hot forming.
4. What are the effects of re-crystallization?
5. How do you represent strain hardening effect?
6. What is the effect of strain rate on yield strength of metals and alloys?
7. What is super-plasticity? Give three examples of super-plastic alloys.
8. A stainless steel wire of length 250 mm is elongated to 306 mm. Determine the engineering
strain and true strain. If the material of the work piece hardens according to the law = 260
(1 +21)
0.6
MPa where

is effective plastic strain, determine yield strength after the
elongation. (Ans. Engineering strain E = 0.224, True strain = 0. 202 and = 702.54 MPa)





Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 27
9. In a tensile test, the 60mm gage length of the specimen is elongated to 72 mm. Determine
the yield strength after elongation if the material work hardens according to the law
15.03(0.01 + )
0.415
kgf/mm
2
. (Ans. = 0.18232 , 7.5828 kgf/mm
2
)
10. How are the planer anisotropy and anisotropy ratio defined?
The following data is observed in a test on a rolled sheet metal for anisotropy. r
0
= 1.7,
r
45
= 1.4 and r
90
=1.9. Determine the anisotropy ratio and planer anisotropy.
(Ans. r = 0.4 , r
a
= 1.6)
11. The flow stress of 1015 steel varies with strain and strain rate at the temperatures of
1100C, 1200C and 1300C as given in the table below. Find the relative changes in the
yield strength at the three temperatures if is changed from 0.1 to 0.3 at strain rate
= 1.0 s
1
.

Table 1.5: Yield strength of 1015 steel at high temperatures [18 ]
Temperature

C Flow stress
f

1100
f
= 82
0.06
( )
0.14
1200
f
= 73
0.05
( )
0.22

1300
f
= 41
0.045
( )
0.16


Ans.
Temperature

C
f
for = 0.1
f
for = 0.3
1100 94.148 88.142
1200 81.907 77.53
1300 45.476 43.28

12. With the help of above given Table 1.5, plot a graph of flow stress v/s temperature for
strain of 0.002 and strain rate of 0.5 s
1
and determine the yield strength at 1050C

and
1250
o
C.
13. A test piece of an alloy which work hardens according to the law = 572
0.27
MPa is
elongated from 100 mm to 125 mm. Determine the yield strength of material after the
elongation. If the cross section of work piece is 60 mm
2
determine the work done during
elongation. Derive the formula used.
(Ans. = 0.22314,

= 381.51 MPa, Work done = 400.8 Nm)
14. Determine the work done in elongation of the gauge length for Q.8 if the initial area of
cross section is 100 mm
2
. Derive the formula used.
(Ans. Formula for work done =V[(1+21)
1.6
1] 260/( 211.6).Work done = 2220.6 Nm)





28 Fundamentals of Metal Forming Processes
15. Two test pieces made of brass and stainless steel and each of 60 mm length, are elongated
to 75 mm. Compare the increase in yield strengths of the two specimen after elongation if
they work harden according to following equations.
Brass = 300 ( 1 + 15
p
)
0.3
MPa
Stainless steel = 260 ( 1 + 21
p
)
0.6
MPa
(Ans.
p
= 0.22314, (brass) = 466.2 MPa , (steel) = 737.66 MPa)
16. Determine the work done if a bar of 10 mm diameter and 200 mm length is elongated by
22 mm. The yield strength of the material of specimen is given as = 250
0.3
N/mm
2
.
Neglect the elastic deformation. (Ans. 158.38 Nm)
17. How does hydrostatic pressure affect the following properties of a metal?
(a) Yield strength
(b) Ductility and formability.
(c) Fracture during forming.
18. What types of anisotropy are present in cold rolled low carbon steel sheet?
19. What is the benefit of anisotropy in sheet metal?
20. What is the effect of temperature on ductility of super plastic alloys?
21. Explain the effect of sulfur and manganese on ductility of steels at high temperatures.
22. What are the different fracture criteria?
23. Why, the different tests, i.e. tension, compression and torsion, give different values of
ductility of a metal?
24. Explain the effect of carbon content on the ductility of plain carbon steels.
25. How is the temperature for optimum ductility affected by carbon content in plain carbon
steel?
26. How is the ductility of an alloy affected by the following factors?
(i) Hydrostatic pressure.
(ii) Cell structure
(iv) Temperature
(v) Micro-impurities
REFERENCES
1. Hill R.; Mathematical Theory of Plasticity; Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1950.
2. Prager W. and Hodge, P.G. Jr.; Theory of Perfectly Plastic Solids; Chapman and Hall,
London, 1951.
3. Bridgeman P.W.; Studies in Large Plastic Flow and Fracture with Special Emphasis on the
Effects of Hydrostatic Pressure; McGraw-Hill, New York, 1952.
4. Johnson W. and Mellor P.B.; Plasticity for Mechanical Engineers; D. van Nostrand Co.
Ltd., London, 1962.
5. Ford H.; Advanced Mechanics of Materials; Wiley, New York, 1963.
6. Alexander J.M. and Brewer, R.C. Manufacturing Properties of Materials; van Nostrand
Rheinhold, 1963.





Plastic Deformation of Metals and Related Properties 29
7. Rowe G.W.; Principles of Industrial Metal Forming Processes; Edward Arnold, London,
1977.
8. Acta Metallurgica, Vol. 23, pp. 885893, July 1975.
9. Usamah Saeed and Lenard J.G.; A Comparison of Cold Rolling Theories Based on the
Equilibrium Approach; J. Engg. Mat. And Tech., Vol. 102, pp. 223228, 1980.
10. Altan T. Oh S. and Gegel H.; Metal Forming Fundamentals and Applications, American
Soc. for Metals. Metal Park, OH, 1983.
11. Spitzig W.A., Sober R.J. and Richmond O.; The Effect of Hydrostatic Pressure on the
Deformation Behavior of Maraging and HY-80 Steels and its Implications for Plasticity
Theory; Metallurgical Transactions A, Vol. 7A, p. 1703, November 1976.
12. Sellars C.M. and Tegart, W.J. McG.; Hot Workability; International Metallurgical Reviews,
Vol. 17, 1972.
13. Wulf G.L.; The High Strain Rate Compression of 1023 and 4130 Steels; Int. J. Mech. Sci.
Vol. 20, pp. 843848, 1978.
14. Cockcroft M.G. and Latham, D.J.; J. Inst. Metals, Vol. 96, p. 33, 1968.
15. Lange, K.; Handbook of Metal Forming; McGraw-Hill, New York, 1985.
16. Stout M.G. and Follanshee P.S.; Strain Rate Sensitivity and Yield Behavior of 304L Stainless
Steel; Trans. of ASME; Vol. 108, p. 344, 1986.
17. Zhongchun Chen et al., Bauschinger Effect and Multi-axial Yield Behavior of Stress
Reversed Mild Steel, Metallurgical and Materials Transactions A Vol. 30A, pp. 30693078,
1999.
18. Doremus, E., Oudin J., Bricont, J.P. and Ravalad, Y; A New Device for Upsetting Tests of
Steel at High Temperatures; J. Mat. Process. Tech.; Vol. 26, pp. 257266, 1991.
19. You-Min Huang et al., An Elastic-plastic Finite Element and Experimental Study of the
Ironing Process; J. Mat. Process. Tech. Vol. 26, pp. 5380, 1991.
20. Wu Shichan and Dang Zhen; Analysis of Defects during Backward Extrusion by Rigid
Plastic Finite Element Method; J. Mat. Processing Tech. Vol. 25, pp. 333340, 1991.
21. Narayanasamy R., Sowerby R.; Wrinkling of Sheet Metal when Drawing Through a Conical
Die; J. Mat. Processing Tech. Vol. 41, pp. 275290, 1994.
22. Bonnavand F., Bramley, A.N., Mynors, D.J.; A Fast New Numerical Tool for Designing
Pre-stressed Dies for Backward Extrusion, Part 2Numerical Analysis; Proc. Instn. Mech.
Engrs. Vol. 215, Part B, pp. 181193, 2001.
23. Juneja, B.L., Sekhon, G.S. and Seth Nitin; Fundamentals of Metal Cutting and Machine
Tools, 2
nd
edition; New Age International (P) Ltd. Publishers, New Delhi, 2003.
24. Slator R.A.C. and Johnson, W.; The Effects of Temperature, Speed and Strain Rate on the
Force and Energy Required in Blanking; Int. J. Mech. Sci.; Vol. 9, p. 271, 1967.
25. Iliescu, C.; Cold Pressing Technology; Elsevier- Amsterdam, 1990.
26. Schaffer G., Computer Design of Progressive Dies, Am. Mach.; Vol. 22, pp. 7375, 1971.
27. Kashyap, B.P. and Chaturvedi, M.C.; Superplastic Behaviour of as received Super-plastic
Forming Grade IN718 Super Alloy; Material Science and Technology, Vol. 16, pp. 147
155, 2000.