Chapter-1: Miniproject Report April 2014 Intelligent Pollution Control System

MINIPROJECT REPORT APRIL 2014 INTELLIGENT POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION,SBCE 1

CHAPTER-1
INTRODUCTION
In major cities there exist a mandatory system for
inspection and maintenance but it is now increasingly felt to upgrade the present system to a
more effective one in the near future. But now the present system is not implemented
effectively and many automobiles are running without pollution check. To overcome this
kind of problems we have come up with a new idea of designing a new project called
intelligent pollution control system through which we can save our mother earth from
pollution.
In this project we are going to design a prototype which detects the amount of CO in
the vehicle. When the amount of the CO is reached to a threshold limit
(dangerous/maximum), buzzer and led indication produces simultaneously.
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas that is slightly less
dense than air. It is toxic to humans and animals when encountered in higher concentrations,
although it is also produced in normal animal metabolism in low quantities, and is thought to
have some normal biological functions. In the atmosphere, it is spatially variable and short
lived, having a role in the formation of ground-level ozone.
Carbon monoxide consists of one carbon atom and one oxygen atom, connected by
a triple bond that consists of two bonds as well as one dative covalent bond. It is the
simplest Oxo carbon, and isoelectronic with the cyanide ion and molecular nitrogen.
Incoordination complexes the carbon monoxide ligand is called carbonyl.
Carbon monoxide is produced from the partial oxidation of carbon-containing
compounds; it forms when there is not enough oxygen to produce carbon dioxide (CO
2
), such
as when operating a stove or an internal combustion engine in an enclosed space. In the
presence of oxygen, including atmospheric concentrations, carbon monoxide burns with a
blue flame, producing carbon dioxide. Coal gas, which was widely used before the 1960s for
domestic lighting, cooking, and heating, had carbon monoxide as a significant fuel


constituent. Some processes in modern technology, such as iron smelting, still produce
carbon monoxide as a by-product.
Worldwide, the largest source of carbon monoxide is natural in origin, due
to photochemical reactions in the troposphere that generate about 510
12
kilograms per
year. Other natural sources of CO include volcanoes, forest fires, and other forms of
combustion.
The components which we are going to use in this
project are CO sensor, relay unit, ignition unit (DC motor). When the CO concentration is
high then relay circuit will be activated which in turn turns ON LED.
The project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply.
7805 three terminal voltage regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave
rectifier is used to rectify the ac output of secondary of 230/20V step down transformer.



CHAPTER-2
BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION
2.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig2.1: Block Diagram

2.2 WORKING PRINCIPLE
The power supply from socket is connected to the step down transformer inorder to
step down the voltage from 230v to 12 or 18v and the output of step down transformer is 12v
0r 18v ac is connected to rectifier to convert it to pulsating dc from rectifier we will get 12v
0r 18v pulsating dc. The rectifier output is connected to capacitive filter of 100 micro farads
it will blocks DC and allows total ac ripples/contents to ground from that we will get pure DC


and is given to voltage regulator to get constant output voltage of 5v.

2.3 DESCRIPTION

Initially the car engine is in on condition i.e., it is default driving which is indicated
by a DC motor running and a continuous on and off of an LED array. The prototype makes
use of alcohol sensor to detect the presence of alcohol or carbon monoxide gas present in the
car. Whenever the driver or the person driving the car consumes alcohol, the sensor senses it
and gives a signal to the buzzer for indicating the presence. This indication is also given to
the relay which makes the engine of the car to stop. When the car is stopped the LED
indication also gets stopped. The sensing and detection of the alcohol present in the car goes
on continuously by the indication of buzzer until and unless the alcohol present gets
vanished. Once the alcohol gets vanished the buzzer comes in the initial position i.e it gets
stopped. By using this simple and efficient prototype for the alcohol detection a much
important and costlier life can be saved by avoiding the occurrence of accidents.



CHAPTER-3

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

3.1 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

Fig 3.1 Circuit diagram of Intelligent Pollution Control System



3.2 OVEARALL WORKING OF THE CIRCUIT

This circuit consists of a voltage regulator , a gas sensor, two comparator stages , a
bipolar junction Junction transistor and a relay switch The input voltage is passed through a
diode and a capacitor which acts as a Half wave rectifier. The output of this section is a DC
voltage. This voltage is passed to a Voltageregulator. 7805 is a voltage regulator integrated
circuit. It is a member of 78xx series of fixed linear voltage regulator ICs. The voltage source
in a circuit may have fluctuations and would not give the fixed voltage output. The voltage
regulator IC maintains the output voltage at a constant value. The xx in 78xx indicates the
fixed output voltage it is designed to provide. 7805 provides +5V regulated power supply.
Capacitors of suitable values can be connected at input and output pins depending upon the
respective voltage levels.An LED (here LED1) is provided to show the flow of regulated dc
power supply to the Gas Sensor.Here the Gas Sensor used is MQ-6. It's an ideal sensor used
to detect the presence of a dangerous LPG leak in your Home, car or in a service station,
storage tank environment. Its highly sensitive to LPG , and such gases. It provides with a fast
response and requires only a simple drive circuit. Its heater voltage is equal to 5V. Its a 3-pin
IC, they are
*Vcc
*outputpin
* Ground pin
Sensitive material of MQ-6 gas sensor is SnO2, which with lower conductivity in clean
air. When the target combustible gas exist, the sensors conductivity is more higher along
with the gas concentration rising. Please use simple electro circuit, Convert change of
conductivity to correspond output signal of gas concentration. MQ-6 gas sensor has high
sensitivity to Propane, Butane and LPG, also response to Natural gas. The sensor could be
used to detect different combustible gas, especially Methane; it is with low cost and suitable
for different application. Gas leak detection is the process of identifying potentially
hazardous gas leaks by means of various sensors. These sensors usually employ an audible
alarm to alert people when a dangerous gas has been detected. Common sensors used today
include Infrared Point Sensor, Ultrasonic gas detectors, Electrochemical gas detectors,
and Semiconductor Sensors. These sensors are used for a wide range of applications, and can
be found in industrial plants, refineries, wastewater treatment facilities, vehicles, and around
the home.


The IC used here is LM358N . The LM158 series consists of two independent, high gain,
internally frequency compensated operational amplifiers which were designed specifically to
operate from a single power supply over a wide range of voltages. Operation from split power
supplies is also possible and the low power supply current drain is independent of the
magnitude of the power supply voltage.
The LM358 series can be directly operated off of the standard +5V power supply voltage
which is used in digital systems and will easily provide the required interface electronics
without requiring the additional +/- 15V power supplies. Across pin 4 & 8 a ceramic
capacitor is placed so that only dc voltage passes through the devices.
Resistors R2 and R3 are potentiometers used to set various level of gases detected. LEDs
are provided to show which level is deducted. A BJT transistor BC548 is provided here,
which acts as a switch and a relay switch is provided to connect various alarms in the circuit.
The alarm may be of various types: an LED, Buzzer, automatic brake and such. Thew device
can be placed in the ignition of the vehicle or any place that can provide sufficient power
supply for the operation of the circuit.



CHAPTER-4

COMPONENT STUDY

4.1 RESISTOR

Resistors "Resist" the flow of electrical current. The higher the value ofresistance
(measured in ohms) the lower the current will be. Resistance is the propertyof a component
which restricts the flow of electric current. Energy is used up as thevoltage across the
component drives the current through it and this energy appears asheat in the component.

Fig 4.1.1 Specification of a resister

Table 4.1.1: Resistor and its colour code details

The unit for measuring resistance is the OHM. (the Greek letter - called Omega).
Higher resistance values are represented by "k" (kilo-ohms) and M (meg ohms). For example,


120 000 is represented as 120k, while 1 200 000 is represented as 1M2. The dot is
generally omitted as it can easily be lost in the printing process.In some circuit diagrams, a
value such as 8 or 120 represents a resistance in ohms. Another common practice is to use the
letter E for resistance in ohms. The letter R can also be used. For example, 120E (120R)
stands for 120 , 1E2 stands for 1R2 etc.

Resistance values detailed above are a constant and do not change if the voltage or
current-flow alters. But there are circuits that require resistors to change value with a change
in temperate or light. This function may not be linear, hence the name NONLINEAR
RESISTORS.

There are several types of nonlinear resistors, but the most commonly used include
:NTC resistors (figure a) (Negative Temperature Co-efficient) - their resistance lowers with
temperature rise. PTC resistors (figure b) (Positive Temperature Co-efficient) - their
resistance increases with the temperature rise. LDR resistors (figure c) (Light Dependent
Resistors) - their resistance lowers with the increase in light. VDR resistors (Voltage
dependent Resistors) - their resistance critically lowers as the voltage exceeds a certain value.
Symbols representing these resistors are shown below.

4.2 CAPACITOR

Capacitors store electric charge. They are used with resistorsintiming circuits
because it takes time for a capacitor to fill with charge. They are used to smooth varying DC
supplies by acting as a reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because
capacitors easily pass AC (changing) signals but they block DC (constant) signals.



Fig4.2.1-Symbol of Capacitor

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct
way round, at least one of their leads will be marked + or -.

Fig4.2.2 Electrolytic Capacitor

The general definition of a capacitor (also called a condenser in older books) is any
conductor which can store charge. When we connect a wire between a charged capacitor and
ground, current will flow until the capacitor is left with no net charge. Since any conductor
has a capacity to hold charge, any conductor can be a capacitor

To charge a capacitor, all we need to do is connect the positive terminal of a battery to
one conductor and the negative terminal to the other conductor. Charge will continue to flow
onto the conductors until the voltage across the capacitor is equal in magnitude and opposite
indirection to the voltage across the battery. That means that an electron in a wire between
the battery and thecapacitor is pushed one direction by the battery with the same force that it
is pushed the other direction by the capacitor, so no current will flow in the circuit.
Capacitance is defined by the relation Q = CV.



4.3 DIODES

Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuitsymbol shows
the direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and
early diodes were actually called valves.

Fig4.3.:- Circuit Symbol

Diodes must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be + for anode and k or -
for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is marked by a line painted on
the body. Diodes are labelled with their code in small print; you may need a magnifying glass
to read this on small signal diodes.
1N4004

FEATURES :

* High current capability
* High surge current capability
* High reliability
* Low reverse current
* Low forward voltage drop

MECHANICAL DATA :

* Case : DO-41 Molded plastic
* Epoxy : UL94V-O rate flame retardant
* Lead : Axial lead solderable per MIL-STD-202,
Method 208 guaranteed
* Polarity :Colour band denotes cathode end
* Mounting position : Any
* Weight : 0.34 gram



MAXIMUM RATINGS AND ELECTRICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Rating at 25 C ambient temperature unless otherwise specified.
Single phase, half wave, 60 Hz, resistive or inductive load.

4.4 LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE (LED):

The longer lead is the anode (+) and the shorter lead is the cathode (&minus). In the
schematic symbol for an LED (bottom), the anode is on the left and the cathode is on the
right. Light emitting diodes are elements for light

Fig4.4:- Circuit Symbol

They are manufactured in different shapes, colors and sizes. For their lowprice, low
consumption and simple use, they have almost completely pushed aside other light sources-
bulbs at first place. It is important to know that each diode will be immediately destroyed
unlessits current is limited. This means that a conductor must be connected in parallel to a
diode. In order to correctly determine value of this conductor, it is necessary to know diodes
voltage drop in forward direction, which depends on what material a diode is made of and
what colors it is. Values typical for the most frequently used diodes are shown in table below:
As seen, there are three main types of LEDs. Standard ones get full brightness at current of
20mA. Low Current diodes get full brightness at ten times lower current while Super Bright
diodes produce more intensive light than Standard ones.
Since the 8052 microcontrollers can provide only low input current and sincetheir pins
are configured as outputs when voltage level on them is equal to 0, directconfectioning to
LEDs is carried out as it is shown on figure (Low current LED, cathode is connected to
output pin).



4.5 SWITCHES AND PUSHBUTTONS

A push button switch is used to either close or open an electrical circuitdepending on
the application. Push button switches are used in various applications such as industrial
equipment control handles, outdoor controls, mobile communication terminals, and medical
equipment, and etc. Push button switches generally include a push button disposed within
housing. The push button may be depressed to cause movement of the push button relative to
the housing for directly or indirectly changing the state of an electrical contact to open or
close the contact. Also included in a pushbutton switch may be an actuator, driver, or plunger
of some type that is situated within a switch housing having at least two contacts in
communication with an electrical circuit within which the switch is incorporated.

Fig 4.5:- Pushbutton

Typical actuators used for contact switches include spring loaded force capactuators
that reciprocate within a sleeve disposed within the canister. The actuator is typically coupled
to the movement of the cap assembly, such that the actuator translates in a direction that is
parallel with the cap. A push button switch for a data input unit for a mobile communication
device such as a cellular phone, a key board for a personal computer or the like is generally
constructed by mounting a cover member directly on a circuit board. Printed circuit board
(PCB) mounted pushbutton switches are an inexpensive means of providing an operator
interface on industrialcontrol products. In such push button switches, a substrate which
includes a pluralityof movable sections is formed of a rubber elastomeric. The key top is
formed on a top surface thereof with a figure, a character or the like by printing, to thereby
provide acover member. Push button switches incorporating lighted displays have been used


in a variety of applications. Such switches are typically comprised of a pushbutton, an opaque
legend plate, and a back light to illuminate the legend plate.

4.6 VOLTAGE REGILATOR

DESCRIPTION

The MC78XX/LM78XX/MC78XXA series of threeterminal positive regulators are
available in theTO-220/D-PAK package and with several fixed outputvoltages, making them
useful in a wide range ofapplications. Each type employs internal current limiting,thermal
shut down and safe operating area protection,making it essentially indestructible. If adequate
heat sinkingis provided, they can deliver over 1A output current.Although designed primarily
as fixed voltage regulators,these devices can be used with external components toobtain
adjustable voltages and currents.

Fig 4.6.1:-Voltage regulator IC

Table 4.6.1: Absolute Maximum Ratings



Fig 4.6.2:- Internal block diagram of Voltage Regulatopr IC

4.7 MQ-6 GAS SENSOR

FEATURES

* High sensitivity to LPG, iso-butane, propane
* Small sensitivity to alcohol, smoke.
* Fast response .
* Stable and long life
* Simple drive circuit

APPLICATION

They are used in gas leakage detecting equipments in family and industry, are suitable for
detecting of
LPG, iso-butane, propane, LNG, avoid the noise of alcohol and cooking fumes and cigarette
smoke.

SPECIFICATIONS

a.Standard work condition



b.Enviornment condition

c.Sensitivity characterstics

4.8 LM358/LM358A /LM258A (DUAL OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER)

FEATURES

Internally Frequency Compensated for Unity Gain
Large DC Voltage Gain: 100dB
Wide Power Supply Range:
LM258/LM258A, LM358/LM358A: 3V~32V (or 1.5V~ 16V)
LM2904 : 3V~26V (or 1.5V ~ 13V)
Input Common Mode Voltage Range Includes Ground
Large Output Voltage Swing: 0V DC to Vcc -1.5V DC
Power Drain Suitable for Battery Operation

DESCRIPTION

The LM2904,LM358/LM358A, LM258/LM258A consist oftwo independent, high gain,
internally frequencycompensated operational amplifiers which were designedspecifically to
operate from a single power supply over awide range of voltage. Operation from split power
suppliesis also possible and the low power supply current drain isindependent of the
magnitude of the power supply voltage.Application areas include transducer amplifier, DC


gainblocks and all the conventional OP-AMP circuits which nowcan be easily implemented
in single power supply systems.

Fig 4.8.1:-LM358/LM358A /LM258A

Fig4.8.2 Internal Block Diagram of LM358

4.9 NPN GENERAL PURPOSE TRANSISTORS(BC 548)

FEATURES

Low current (max. 100 mA)
Low voltage (max. 65 V).



APPLICATIONS

General purpose switching and amplification.

DESCRIPTION

NPN transistor in a TO-92; SOT54 plastic package.
PNP complements: BC556, BC557 and BC558.

PINNING

Fig 4.9:- Simplified outline (TO-92: S0T54) and symbol.


Table 4.9.1 Quick Reference Data

4.10 TRANSFORMER

A transformer is a device that transfers electrical energy from one circuit to another
through inductively coupled conductorsthe transformer's coils. A varying current in the
first or primary winding creates a varying magnetic flux in the transformer's core, and thus a
varying magnetic field through the secondary winding. This varying magnetic field induces a
varying electromotive force (EMF) or "voltage" in the secondary winding. This effect is
called mutual induction.

Figure 4.10.1: Transformer Symbol

Transformer is a device that converts the one form energy to another form of energy like a
transducer.


Fig 4.10.2: Transformer

BASIC PRINCIPLE:

A transformer makes use of Faraday's law and the ferromagnetic properties of an iron
core to efficiently raise or lower AC voltages. It of course cannot increase power so that if the
voltage is raised, the current is proportionally lowered and vice versa.

Fig 4.10.3: Basic Principle



TRANSFORMER WORKING:

A transformer consists of two coils (often called 'windings') linked by an iron core, as
shown in figure below. There is no electrical connection between the coils; instead they are
linked by a magnetic field created in the core.

Fig 4.10.4: Basic Transformer

Transformers are used to convert electricity from one voltage to another with minimal
loss of power. They only work with AC (alternating current) because they require a changing
magnetic field to be created in their core. Transformers can increase voltage (step-up) as well
as reduce voltage (step-down). Alternating current flowing in the primary (input) coil creates
a continually changing magnetic field in the iron core. This field also passes through the
secondary (output) coil and the changing strength of the magnetic field induces an alternating
voltage in the secondary coil. If the secondary coil is connected to a load the induced voltage
will make an induced current flow. The correct term for the induced voltage is 'induced
electromotive force' which is usually abbreviated to induced e.m.f. The iron core is laminated
to prevent 'eddy currents' flowing in the core. These are currents produced by the alternating
magnetic field inducing a small voltage in the core, just like that induced in the secondary
coil. Eddy currents waste power by needlessly heating up the core but they are reduced to a
negligible amount by laminating the iron because this increases the electrical resistance of the
core without affecting its magnetic properties.

Transformers have two great advantages over other methods of changing
voltage:

1. They provide total electrical isolation between the input and output, so they can be safely
used to reduce the high voltage of the mains supply.


2. Almost no power is wasted in a transformer. They have a high efficiency (power out /
power in) of 95% or more.

CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSFORMER:

-Down Transformer
-Up Transformer

Step-down transformer:

Step down transformers are designed to reduce electrical voltage. Their primary voltage is
greater than their secondary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps down" the voltage
applied to it. For instance, a step down transformer is needed to use a 110v product in a
country with a 220v supply. Step down transformers convert electrical voltage from one level
or phase
configuration usually down to a lower level. They can include features for electrical isolation,
power distribution, and control and instrumentation applications. Step down transformers
typically rely on the principle of magnetic induction between coils to convert voltage and/or
current levels. Step down transformers are made from two or more coils of insulated wire
wound around a core made of iron. When voltage is applied to one coil (frequently called the
primary or input) it magnetizes the iron core, which induces a voltage in the other coil,
(frequently called the secondary or output). The turns ratio of the two sets of windings
determines the amount of voltage transformation.

Fig4.10.5: Step-Down Transformer

An example of this would be: 100 turns on the primary and 50 turns on the secondary,
a ratio of 2 to 1.



Step down transformers can be considered nothing more than a voltage ratio
device.

With step down transformers the voltage ratio between primary and secondary will
mirror the "turns ratio" (except for single phase smaller than 1kva which have compensated
secondary). A practical application of this 2 to 1 turns ratio would be a 480 to 240 voltage
step down. Note that if the input were 440 volts then the output would be 220 volts. The ratio
between input and output voltage will stay constant. Transformers should not be operated at
voltages higher than the nameplate rating, but may be operated at lower voltages than rated.
Because of this it is possible to do some non-standard applications using standard
transformers. Single phase step down transformers 1kva and larger may also be reverse
connected to step-down or step-up voltages. (Note: single phase step up or step down
transformers sized less than 1 KVA should not be reverse connected because the secondary
windings have additional turns to overcome a voltage drop when the load is applied. If
reverse connected, the output voltage will be less than desired.)

Step-Up Transformer:

A step up transformer has more turns of wire on the secondary coil, which makes a
larger induced voltage in the secondary coil. It is called a step up transformer because the
voltage output is larger than the voltage input.Step-up transformer 110v 220v design is one
whose secondary voltage is greater than its primary voltage. This kind of transformer "steps
up" the voltage applied to it. For instance, a step up transformer is needed to use a 220v
product in a country with a 110v supply. A step up transformer 110v, 220v converts
alternating current (AC) from one voltage to another voltage. It has no moving parts and
works on a magnetic induction principle; it can be designed to "step-up" or "step-down"
voltage. So a step up transformer increases the voltage and a step down transformer decreases
the voltage. The primary components for voltage transformation are the step up transformer
core and coil. The insulation is placed between the turns of wire to prevent shorting to one
another or to ground. This is typically comprised of Mylar, nomex, Kraft paper, varnish, or
other materials. As a transformer has no moving parts, it will typically have a life expectancy
between 20 and 25 years.


Fig 4.10.6: Step-Up Transformer

APPLICATIONS:

Generally these Step-Up Transformers are used in industries applications only.

TYPES OF TRANSFORMER:

Mains Transformers:

Mains transformers are the most common type. They are designed to reduce the AC
mains supply voltage (230-240V in the UK or 115-120V in some countries) to a safer low
voltage. The standard mains supply voltages are officially 115V and 230V, but 120V and
240V are the values usually quoted and the difference is of no significance in most cases.

Fig 4.10.7: Main Transformer

To allow for the two supply voltages mains transformers usually have two separate
primary coils (windings) labeled 0-120V and 0-120V. The two coils are connected in series
for 240V (figure 2a) and in parallel for 120V (figure 2b). They must be wired the correct way
round as shown in the diagrams because the coils must be connected in the correct sense
(direction): Most mains transformers have two separate secondary coils (e.g. labeled 0- 9V,
0-9V) which may be used separately to give two independent supplies, or connected in series
to create a center-tapped coil (see below) or one coil with double the voltage. Some mains
transformers have a centre-tap halfway through the secondary coil and they are labeled 9-0-
9V for example. They can be used to produce full-wave rectified DC with just two diodes,
unlike a standard secondary coil which requires four diodes to produce full-wave rectified
DC.


A mains transformer is specified by:

1. Its secondary (output) voltages Vs.
2. Its maximum power, Pmax, which the transformer can pass, quoted in VA (voltamp). This
determines the maximum output (secondary) current, Imax... Where Vs is the secondary
voltage. If there are two secondary coils the maximum power should be halved to give the
maximum for each coil.
3. Its construction - it may be PCB-mounting, chassis mounting (with solder tag connections)
or steroidal (a high quality design).

Audio Transformers:

Audio transformers are used to convert the moderate voltage, low current output of an
audio amplifier to the low voltage, high current required by a loudspeaker. This use is called
'impedance matching' because it is matching the high impedance output of the amplifier to
the low impedance of the loudspeaker.

Fig 4.10.8: Audio transformer

Radio Transformers:
Radio transformers are used in tuning circuits. They are smaller than mains and audio
transformers and they have adjustable ferrite cores made of iron dust. The ferrite cores can be
adjusted with a non-magnetic plastic tool like a small screwdriver. The whole transformer is
enclosed in an aluminum can which acts as a shield, preventing the transformer radiating too
much electrical noise to other parts of the circuit.

Fig 4.10.9: Radio Transformer


Turns Ratio and Voltage:

The ratio of the number of turns on the primary and secondary coils determines the
ratio of the voltages......where Vp is the primary (input) voltage, Vs is the secondary (output)
voltage, Np is the number of turns on the primary coil, and Ns is the number of turns on the
secondary coil.

4.11 RECTIFIER:
The purpose of a rectifier is to convert an AC waveform into a DC waveform (OR)
Rectifier converts AC current or voltages into DC current or voltage. There are two different
rectification circuits, known as 'half-wave' and 'full-wave' rectifiers. Both use components
called diodes to convert AC into DC.
The Half-wave Rectifier:
The half-wave rectifier is the simplest type of rectifier since it only uses one
diode, as shown in figure.

Fig4.11.1: Half Wave Rectifier

Figure 2 shows the AC input waveform to this circuit and the resulting output.As you can see,
when the AC input is positive, the diode is forward-biased and lets the current through. When
the AC input is negative, the diode is reverse-biased and the diode does not let any current
through, meaning the output is 0V. Because there is a 0.7V voltage loss across the diode, the
peak output voltage will be 0.7V less thanVs.


Fig 4.11.2: Half-Wave Rectification

While the output of the half-wave rectifier is DC (it is all positive), it would not be suitable as
a power supply for a circuit. Firstly, the output voltage continually varies between 0V and
Vs-0.7V, and secondly, for half the time there is no output at all.
The Full-wave Rectifier:
The circuit in figure 3 addresses the second of these problems since at no time is the output
voltage 0V. This time four diodes are arranged so that both the positive and negative parts of
the AC waveform are converted to DC. The resulting waveform is shown in figure 4.

Figure4.11.3: Full-Wave Rectifier


Fig 4.11.4: Full-Wave Rectification

When the AC input is positive, diodes A and B are forward-biased, while diodes C and D are
reverse-biased. When the AC input is negative, the opposite is true - diodes C and D are
forward-biased, while diodes A and B are reverse-biased. While the full-wave rectifier is an
improvement on the half-wave rectifier, its output still isn't suitable as a power supply for
most circuits since the output voltage still varies between 0V and Vs-1.4V. So, if you put
12V AC in, you will 10.6V DC out

CAPACITOR FILTER:

The capacitor-input filter, also called "Pi" filter due to its shape that looks like the Greek
letter pi, is a type of electronic filter. Filter circuits are used to remove unwanted or
undesired frequencies from a signal.

Fig 4.11.5: Capacitor Filter


A typical capacitor input filter consists of a filter capacitor C1, connected across the rectifier
output, an inductor L, in series and another filter capacitor connected across the load.
1. The capacitor C1 offers low reactance to the AC component of the rectifier output while it
offers infinite reactance to the DC component. As a result the capacitor shunts an appreciable
amount of the AC component while the DC component continues its journey to the inductor
L
2. The inductor L offers high reactance to the AC component but it offers almost zero
reactance to the DC component. As a result the DC component flows through the inductor
while the AC component is blocked.
3. The capacitor C2 bypasses the AC component which the inductor had failed to block. As a
result only the DC component appears across the load RL.

4.12 VOLTAGE REGULATOR:

A voltage regulator is an electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a
constant voltage level. It may use an electromechanical mechanism, or passive or active
electronic components. Depending on the design, it may be used to regulate one or more AC
or DC voltages.
There are two types of regulator are they.

78xx:

78 indicate the positive series and xx indicates the voltage rating. Suppose
7805 produces the maximum 5V.05indicates the regulator output is 5V.

79xx:

78 indicate the negative series and xx indicates the voltage rating. Suppose 7905 produces
the maximum -5V.05indicates the regulator output is -5V.


These regulators consists the three pins there are
Pin1: It is used for input pin.
Pin2: This is ground pin for regulator
Pin3: It is used for output pin. Through this pin we get the output.

Figure4.12: Regulator

4.13 RELAYS

A relay is an electrically controllable switch widely used in industrial controls,
automobiles and appliances. The relay allows the isolation of two separate sections of a
system with two different voltage sources i.e., a small amount of voltage/current on one side
can handle a large amount of voltage/current on the other side but there is no chance that
these two voltages mix up.

Inductor

Fig4.13.1: Circuit symbol of a relay


OPERATION:

When a current flow through the coil, a magnetic field is created around the coil i.e.,
the coil is energized. This causes the armature to be attracted to the coil. Thearmatures
contact acts like a switch and closes or opens the circuit. When the coil is not energized, a
spring pulls the armature to its normal state of open or closed. There are all types of relays for
all kinds of applications.

Fig4.13.2: Relay Operation and use of protection diodes

Transistors and ICs must be protected from the brief high voltage 'spike' produced when the
relay coil is switched off. The above diagram shows how a signal diode (eg 1N4148) is
connected across the relay coil to provide this protection. The diode is connected 'backwards'
so that it will normally not conduct. Conduction occurs only when the relay coil is switched
off, at this moment the current tries to flow continuously through the coil and it is safely
diverted through the diode. Without the diode no current could flow and the coil would
produce a damaging high voltage 'spike' in its attempt to keep the current flowing.
In choosing a relay, the following characteristics need to be considered:
1. The contacts can be normally open (NO) or normally closed (NC). In the NC type, the
contacts are closed when the coil is not energized. In the NO type, the contacts are closed
when the coil is energized.
2. There can be one or more contacts. i.e., different types like SPST (single pole single
throw), SPDT (single pole double throw) and DPDT (double pole double throw) relay.


3. The voltage and current required to energize the coil. The voltage can vary from a few
volts to 50 volts, while the current can be from a few milliamps to 20milliamps. The relay has
a minimum voltage, below which the coil will not be energized. This minimum voltage is
called the pull-in voltage.
4. The minimum DC/AC voltage and current that can be handled by the contacts. This is in
the range of a few volts to hundreds of volts, while the current can be from a few amps to
40A or more, depending on the relay. A relay is used to isolate one electrical circuit from
another. It allows a low current control circuit to make or break an electrically isolated high
current circuitpath. The basic relay consists of a coil and a set of contacts. The most common
relay coil is a length of magnet wire wrapped around a metal core. When voltage is applied to
the coil, current passes through the wire and creates a magnetic field. This magnetic field
pulls the contacts together and holds them there until the current flow in the coil has stopped.
The diagram below shows the parts of a simple relay.

Fig 4.13.4: Relay Operation:

When a current flows through the coil, the resulting magnetic field attracts an armature that is
mechanically linked to a moving contact. The movement either makes or breaks a connection
with a fixed contact. When the current is switched off, the armature is usually returned by a
spring to its resting position shown in figure 6.6(b).
Latching relays exist that require operation of a second coil to reset the contact position.
By analogy with the functions of the original electromagnetic device, a solid-state relay
operates a thyristor or other solid-state switching device with a transformer or light-emitting
diode to trigger it.



POLE AND THROW:

SPST

SPST relay stands for Single Pole Single Throw relay. Current will only flow through the
contacts when the relay coil is energized.

Fig 4.13.5: SPST Relay

SPDT Relay
SPDT Relay stands for Single Pole Double Throw relay. Current will flow between the
movable contact and one fixed contact when the coil is De-energized and between the
movable contact and the alternate fixed contact when the relay coil is energized. The most
commonly used relay in car audio, the Bosch relay, is a SPDT relay.

Fig 4.13.6: SPDT Relay

DPST Relay

DPST relay stands for Double Pole Single Throw relay. When the relay coil is energized, two
separate and electrically isolated sets of contacts are pulled down to make contact with their
stationary counterparts. There is no complete circuit path when the relay is De-energized.


Fig 4.13.7: DPST Relay

DPDT Relay
DPDT relay stands for Double Pole Double Throw relay. It operates like the SPDT relay but
has twice as many contacts. There are two completely isolated sets of contacts.

Fig 4.13.8: DPDT Relay

Pole Double Throw Relay
This is a 4 Pole Double Throw relay. It operates like the SPDT relay but it has 4 sets
of isolated contacts.

Fig 4.13.9: 4 Pole Double Throw relay
TYPES OF RELAY:
1. Latching Relay
2. Reed Relay
3. Mercury Wetted Relay
4. Machine Tool Relay


5. Solid State Relay (SSR)
Latching relay:
Latching relay, dust cover removed, showing pawl and ratchet mechanism. The ratchet
operates a cam, which raises and lowers the moving contact arm, seen edge-on just below it.
The moving and fixed contacts are visible at the left side of the image.
A latching relay has two relaxed states (bi-stable). These are also called "impulse", "keep",
or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This is
achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing
coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in
position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remnant core. In the ratchet and cam example, the
first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil
example, a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay
off. This type of relay has the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is
being switched, and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A remnant core latching
relay requires a current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.

Figure4.13.10: Latching relay

Reed relay:
A reed relay has a set of contacts inside a vacuum or inert gas filled glass tube, which
protects the contacts against atmospheric corrosion. The contacts are closed by a magnetic
field generated when current passes through a coil around the glass tube. Reed relays are
capable of faster switching speeds than larger types of relays, but have low switch current
and voltage ratings.



Mercury-wetted Relay:
A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted
with mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) because of
their low contact resistance, or for high-speed counting and timing applications where the
mercury eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be
mounted vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury,
these relays are rarely specified for new equipment. See also mercury switch.
Machine tool relay:
A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools, transfer
machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of contacts
(sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to
normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller
(PLC) mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.
Solid-state relay:
A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar function
to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing long-
term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a
small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR
could handle. As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200
Amperes, have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they
may be falsely triggered by transients.

Figure4.13.11: Solid relay, which has no moving parts



SPECIFICATION:
normally open, normally closed, (doublethrow)
"Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the old
style telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't get
dropped while dialing the number.
contacts small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated for up to
3000 amperes, alternating or direct current
typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC, automotive
types to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 V
machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for
switchgear may have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few milli-
amperer.

APPLICATIONS:
Relays are used:
high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems,
-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the starter solenoid of an
automobile,
opening and closing
circuit breakers (protection relays),
at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch.
The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily
installed in partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be
controlled by room occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
unctions. For example, the Boolean AND function is realized by
connecting relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting contacts in parallel. Due to
the failure modes of a relay compared with a semiconductor, they are widely used in safety
critical logic, such as the control panels of radioactive waste handling machinery.
normally closed
contacts. When a current is passed through the relay coil, the relay operates and opens the
contacts that carry the supply current. This stops the current and causes the contacts to close


again. The cycle repeats continuously, causing the relay to open and close rapidly. Vibrators
are used to generate pulsed current.
A vibrator, described above, creates a buzzing sound because of the
rapid oscillation of the armature. This is the basis of the electric bell, which consists of a
vibrator with a hammer attached to the armature so it can repeatedly strike a bell.
orm time delay functions. Relays can be used to act as an mechanical time delay
device by controlling the release time by using the effect of residual magnetism by means of
a inserting copper disk between the armature and moving blade assembly.

4.14 BUZZER

An electric coil is wound on a plastic bobbin, the latter having a central sleeve
within which a magnetic core is slide ably positioned. One end of the sleeve is closed and
projects beyond the coil. An inverted cup-shaped housing surrounds the coil and bobbin and
has a central opening through which the closed end of the sleeve projects. The core projects
into the closed end of the sleeve beyond the margin of the opening in the housing to augment
the magnetic coupling between the housing and the core. The open end of the housing is
attached to a support bracket of magnetic material, there being a spring between the bracket
and bobbin normally urging the core toward the closed end of the sleeve. For a self- drive
buzzer (DC/ circuit- built), either pizeo or magnetic just apply the rated current and voltage.
For the external-drive buzzer, it depends on
1. We should give magnetic buzzer 1/2 square wave, and provide it at least 3 times the
amount of the rated consumptive current.
2. Otherwise, we give square wave to the peizo buzzer instead of 1/2 square wave, because
the half wave might cause the buzzer does not work.
Therefore, voltage control is an important factor for a peizo buzzer which is driven by
the voltage.



CHAPTER-5
PCB DESIGN AND FABRICATION

When we look at a finished printed circuit board with an often-complex circuit
pattern and a mixture of through-hole and surface mount components we may think creating
your own boards would be a difficult, time-consuming task that would require specialized
tools and expertise. However, fabricating your own printed circuit boards can be broken
down into the following relatively simple steps:
1 Generation of the schematic.
2 Placement and routing of the circuit board.
3 Generation of artwork.
4 Exposing and developing the resist layer.
5 Etching the printed circuit board.
6 Tin plating of the printed circuit board.
7 Drilling and shaping, including barrels.

Depending upon our particular situation, you may not need to complete all of the
steps listed above. The most popular board types are
SINGLE-SIDED BOARDS: Single-sided means that wiring is available only on one
side of the insulating substrate. The side which contains the circuit pattern is called
the solder side whereas the other is called the component side. These type of
boards are mostly used in the case of simple circuitry and where the manufacturing
cost are kept to be minimum. Nevertheless, they represent a large volume of printed
circuit boards currently produced for professional and nonprofessional grades. The
single sided boards are manufactured commonly by the print and etch or by diecut
technique by using a die that carries an image of the wiring pattern; and the die is
either photoengraved or machine engraved. They are mainly used in entertainment
electronics where manufacturing costs have to be kept at the minimum.



DOUBLE-SIDED BOARDS: Double-sided printed circuit board have writing
pattern on both side of the insulating material. The circuit is available both on the
components side and solder side. Obviously, the component density and the conductor
lines are higher than the single sided boards. Double sided PCBs can be made with or
without plated through holes. Double sided PTH board has circuitry on both sides of
an insulating substrate, which is connected by metalizing the wall of a hole in the
substrate that intersects the circuitry on both sides. Double sided non-PTH board is
only an extension of a single sided board. Its low cost is considerably lower because
plating can be avoided. In this case through contacts are made by soldering the
components lead on both sides of the board, wherever required. The production of
boards with plated through holes is fairly expensive.

5.1 MANUFACTURING PROCESS

First, the wanted circuit is drawn on paper and it is modified or designed PCB layout
is to be drawn on the plain copper coated board. These boards are available in two types:
Phenolic
Glass epoxy
Most computers PCBs are glass epoxy. To draw circuit diagram we can use the black
color paints. Before that the required size of the plane PCB board is determined from the
roughly drawn PCB layout. Using black paint the desired circuit is drawn on the board.

5.1.1 Safety Measures
We can't stress safety enough! While the techniques described in this project are not
inherently dangerous, we must wear appropriate protective clothing when required or
exercise care and good judgment when handling chemicals or using required tools. In
particular, always wear gloves and eye protection whenever we work with chemicals and
always wear eye protection when drilling or machining a board. The chemicals used in the


processes are relatively safe; however, always follow the procedures below when using any
chemical:
Always store your chemicals in tightly sealed plastic or glass containers.
Make sure each container is clearly labeled with the contents and the
date it was stored.
Don't use expired chemicals.
Make sure your work area is properly ventilated and lighted.
Make sure your work area is clean.

5.2 PCB FABRICATION

5.2.1 Layout Approaches
The first rule is to prepare each and every PCB layout as viewed from the component
side. Another important rule is not to start the designing of a layout unless an absolutely clear
circuit diagram is available, if necessary, with a component lists. Among the components the
larger ones are placed first and the space between is filled with smaller ones. Components
requiring input / output connections come near the connectors. All components are placed in
such a manner that disordering of the components is not necessary if they have to be
replaced. In the designing of a PCB layout it is very important to divide the circuit into
functional subunits. Each of these subunits should be realized on a defined portion of the
board. In the designing the inter connections which are usually done by pencil lines, actual
space requirements in the artwork must be considered. In addition the layout can be rather
roughly sketched and will still be clear enough for artwork designer.

5.2.2 Board Cleaning
The cleaning of the copper surface prior to resist applications in an essential step for
any types of PCB process using etch or plating resist. Insufficient cleanings is one of the


reasons most often encountered for difficulties in PCB fabrication although it might not
always be immediately recognized as this. But it is quiet often the reasons of poor-resist
adhesion, uneven photo-resist films, pinholes, poor plating adhesion, etc .Where cleaning has
to be done with simplest means or only for a limited quantity of PCBs, manual-cleaning
process is mainly used. In the process we require just a sink with running water, pumice
powder, scrubbing brushes and suitable tanks.

5.2.3Screen Printing
This process is particularly suitable for large production schemes. However the
preparation of a screen can also be economically attractive for series of 1000 PCBs. While
photo printing is basically the non-accurate method to transfer a pattern on to a board surface,
with the screen-printing process one can produce PCBs with a conduction of as low as 0.5 +
or and a registration error of 0.1mm on an industrial scale with a high reliability. In its basic
form, a screen fabric with uniform meshes and opening is stretched and fixed on a solid
frame of metal or wood. The circuit pattern is photographically transferred onto the screen,
leaving the meshes in the pattern open, while the meshes in the rest of the area are closed. In
the actual printing step, ink is forced by the moving squeegee through the open meshes onto
the surface of the material to be printed.
5.2.4 Plating
From a practical stand port, printed circuit boards may have to be stocked before
being taken for assembly of components. It is expected that the circuit board retain its solder
ability for long periods of several months so that reliable solder joints can be produced ring
assembly. Plating of a metal can be accomplished on a copper pattern.
5.2.5 Etching
This can be done both by manual and mechanical ways by immersing the board onto a
solution of formic chloride and hydrochloric acid and finally cleaning the board by soap. In
all subtractive PCB processes, etching is one of the most important steps. The copper pattern
is formed by selective removal of all unwanted copper, which is not protected by an etch
resist. This looks very simple at first glance but in practice there are factors like under


etching and overhang which complicate the matter especially in the production of fine and
highly precise PCBs. Etching of PCBs as required in modern electronic equipment
production, is usually done in spray type etching machines.
5.2.6 Drilling
Drilling is the most important mechanical machining operation in PCB production
processes. Holes are made by drilling wherever a superior hole finish for plated-through
hole processes is required and where the tooling costs for a punching tool cannot be
justified. Therefore drilling is applied for all the professional grade PCB manufacturers and
generally in smaller PCB production laboratories. The importance of hole drilling into PCB
has further gone up with electronic component miniaturization and it needs smaller hole
diameters and higher package density.

5.3 COMPONENT PLACING
The actual location of components in the layout is responsible for the problems to be
placed during routing of the interconnections. In a highly sensitive circuit the critical
components are placed first and in such a manner as to require minimum length for the
critical conductors. In less critical circuit the components are arranged exactly in the order of
signal flow. This will result in a minimum overall conductor length. In a circuit where a few
components have considerably more connecting points than the others. These key
components are placed first and the remaining ones are grouped around them. The general
result to be aimed at is always to get shortest possible interconnections. The bending of the
axial component leads is done in a manner to guarantee an optimum retention of the
component of the PCB. The lead bending radius should be approximately two times the lead
diameter. Horizontally mounted resistors must touch the board surface to avoid lifting of
solder joints along with the copper pattern under pressure on the resistor body. Vertically
mounted resistors should not be flush to the board surface to avoid strain on the solder joints
as well as on the component lead junction due to different thermal expansion coefficients of
lead and board materials, where necessary resilient spaces to be provided. Coated or sealed
components should to be mounted in such to provide a certain length along the leads.


Especially when plated through holes where the solder flows up in the hole, clean lead of at
least 1 mm above the board are recommended.
5.4 SOLDERING
Soldering is a process for the joining of metal parts with the aid of a molten
metal (solder), where the melting temperature is suited below that of the material joined, and
whereby the surface of the parts are wetted, without then becoming molten. Soldering
generally implied that the joining process occurs at temperatures below 450-degree
centigrade. Solder wets and alloys with the base metals and gets drawn, by capillary action,
into the gap between them. This process forms a metallurgical bond between the parts of the
joint. Therefore solder acts by wetting of base metal surfaces forming joint flowing between
these surfaces, which result in a completely filled space between them. Soldering consists of
the relative positioning of the surfaces to be joined, wetting these surfaces with molten solder
and allowing the solder to cool down until it has solidified. During this soldering operation,
an auxiliary medium is mostly used to increase the flow properties of molten solder or to
improve the degree of wetting. Such a medium is called flux mounted only one side of the
board. In double-sided PCBs, the component side is usually opposite to the major conductor
pattern side, unless otherwise dictated by special design requirements. The performance and
reliability of solder joints give best result covered with solder and here with contributing to
the actual solder connections. Generally applied soldering methods are iron soldering, torch
soldering, mass soldering, and electrical soldering, furnace soldering and other methods.
Components are basically cutting after soldering is still common in particular in smaller
industries where hand soldering is used. The problems usually arise at a much later than
during the final functioning testing of the board in the factory. Among the contaminants, we
can typically find flux, chips of plastics, metals and other constructional materials, plating
sails, oils greases environmental soil and other processing materials. The following
performances are expected from the cleaning procedure with the appropriate cleaning
medium:
Dissolution or dissolving of organic liquids and solids, e.g., oils, greases, resin flux.
Removal of plating salts and silicone oils.
Displacing of particulate and other insoluble matters, e.g., chips, dust, and lint.


No severe attacks on boards and components to be cleaned, no alteration of ink or paint
notations and last but not the least, compatibility with healthy environmental working
conditions.
5.5 PCB LAYOUT



CHAPTER 6
ADVANTAGES AND APPLICATIONS

6.1 APPLICATIONS

Automobiles.
Industrial and mining applications.
Carbon monoxide monitoring and leakage detection

6.2 ADVANTAGES

Content of Pollution in environment can be reduced.
Due to the implementation of this project we can maintain the co level in atmosphere
which can reduce adverse effects on environment and on human life.
Vehicle can work smoothly and no need to pay challans to pollution control board
Check and repair exhaust system leaks.
Long life and low cost
Ease of operation
Highly sensitive
Fit and Forget system
Low cost
Simple and Reliable circuits



CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSION

The project INTELLIGENT POLLUTION CONTROL SYSTEM is implemented
successfully for automotives and industrial application for reducing and maintaining CO level
which is harmful for ecosystem and which is affordable from small to large scale industries
for maintaining pollution norms. The project is implemented through a DC motor for
symbolic representation of vehicle and user get alert through a beep sound and if the content
of CO is more automatically indicates with flash lights.



CHAPTER 8
REFERENCE

1. Wikipedia
2. Embedded systems by Rajkamal
3. Magazines
4. Electronics for you
5. Electrikindia
6. www.Electronic projects.com



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