Cbs

3/5/2014
Outlines
Automotive Embedded
Systems
Developing Trends of Automotive

Electronic Systems
Emerging In-Vehicle Networks
Automotive Electronic Systems Today

Electronic Systems
Expanding Automotive Electronic

Systems

Systems
The mature subsystems of automotive
electronic systems
Powertrain/Body controlEMS, ABS,
Themes of current stage

X-by-wirean ongoing revolution in vehicle
electronics architecture
Themes of next stage

Infotainment= Entertainment +
Communication + Information
3/5/2014

Systems
System Structure of ECU
Analysts estimate that more than 80

percent of all automotive innovation now
stems from electronics
To embedded the electronic systems and
silicon componentssuch as transistors,
microprocessors, and diodesinto motor
vehicles is the developing trend of
automotive electronic systems

Electronic Systems
System Structure of ECU
System requirements
L-Line(13)
K-Line(55)
OXYD(28)
OXYHD(Int.)
OCSC(39)
Knock
(11,30)
PreProcessor
Crankshaft
(49,48)
PreProcessor
CAM(8)
VSpeed(9)
FPM(47)
TLE6230GP
350mA/50V..75V
Extension
Slot
NFP-50A
Passive
Filters
System
Control
EEPROM/
Flash Memory
Am29F040
NM24C04
Micro
Controller
C509L
Output Drivers
Reserved(40)
ACCR(41)
EGRP(50)
TPS(53)
MVM(27)
Signal Conditioners
MAT(44)
CTS(45)
PSS(51)
Reserved(52)
MAF(7)
TPS2814D/
IGBTs
K, L Line
Interface
SI9243EY
Resistive
Sensor
Reserved(42)
Voltage Inputs
Example
TLE6220GP
2A/
60V..80V
TLE6220GP
BTS933
Power Regulators
/Reset Circuit
TLE4266G
TLE4267G
TLE4729G
BSP78
BSP78
SAC1-4(1)
SAC2-3(20)
TSO(43)
FCSO(54)
Reserved(38)
ACCR(25)
CFR(6)
MR(46)
FPR(3)
MFIL(22)
ISV(36)
Reserved(31)
CPV(5)
EGRV(17)
Injector4(34)
Injector3(35)
Injector2(16)
Injector1(23)
OSH(33,15)
Standardization of functional interfaces

Share and reuse the existing components
Comprehensive safety
A high degree of comfort
Low energy consumption, and
Minimal pollutant emission
IAC-A(4),B(26)
-C(21),D(29)
Reserved(32)
EGRP(50)

Electronic Systems
Issues of system development
Integrate and reuse the software and
hardware cores from multiple vendors
Innovative functionality realized through
interaction of formerly autonomous units
(reconfigurable distributed
systems/mechatronics)
Scalability to different vehicle and platform
variants

Electronic Systems
Design Toolkits
Digital Transmission Capability
Transferability of functions throughout
network
Maintainability throughout the whole Product
Life Cycle
3/5/2014

Electronic Systems
Conventional
Sensors
ECU
Transmission Path
Susceptible to
Interference
(analog)
SE
Signal
Conditioning
(Analog)
ECU
A/D (digital)
1st Integration Level

Sensors
Signal
Conditioning
SE
(Analog)
ECU
Transmission Path
Multiple
Tap-off
Resistant to
Interference
(analog)
A/D
ECU
(digital)
referring to: G. Leen and D. Heffernan,Expanding Automotive Electronic Systems

Electronic Systems

Electronic Systems
2nd Integration Level

Sensors
Signal
Conditioning
SE
(Analog)
ECU
Transmission Path
A/D
Immune to
Bus
Interference
Compatible (digital)
Mechatronics
ECU
(digital)
3rd Integration Level

Sensors
Signal
Conditioning
SE
(Analog)
ECU
Transmission Path
Immune to
Interference
Compatible (digital)
Bus
A/D C
ECU
(digital)

Electronic Systems
Issues of hardware development
Exhibit immunity from radio emissions
Reducing the hardware cost and size
With high computing power
Transient faults well be tolerated
Embedded network
A variety of sensor/actuator interface
capabilities
3/5/2014

Electronic Systems
Issues of software development

Electronic Systems
Rise of importance of software in the Car
Real-time operating system

Software component paradigm
Software updates and upgrades over vehicle
lifetime
Minimizing the cost and execution time of
software components
Uniform data format and seamless software
component interface
Refer to:B. Hardung, T. Kolzow, and A. Kruger, Reuse of Software in Distributed Embedded Automotive Systems

Electronic Systems
Example of software cores (components)

Electronic Systems
Standardized systems (Open systems)
Management of automotive electronic
systems complexity associated with growth in
functional scope
Flexibility for product modification, upgrade
and update
Scalability of solutions within and across
product lines
Improved quality and reliability of automotive
electronic systems

Electronic Systems
OSEK/VDX
OSEK/VDX is a joint project of the automotive
industry (1993)
It aims at an industry standard for an openended architecture for distributed control units
in vehicles

Electronic Systems
The term OSEK means Offene Systeme und
deren Schnittstellen fr die Elektronik im
Kraftfahrzeug (Open systems and the
corresponding interfaces for automotive
electronics).
The term VDX means Vehicle Distributed
eXecutive
3/5/2014

Electronic Systems

Electronic Systems
The OSEK/VDX specifies

Real-time operating system
Software interfaces and functions for
communication, and
Software for network management
Application
Communication API
OSEK/COM
Standard API
OSEK/COM
Standard Protocol
OSEK/COM
Device Driver
Interface
Interaction Layer
Network API
OSEK/VDX
Network
Management
Network Layer
Data Link Layer
Bus I/O Driver

Bus Frame
Bus Communication Hardware

Electronic Systems
Automotive Open System Architecture
(AUTOSAR):
Standardization of different APIs to separate
the AUTOSAR software layers
Encapsulation of functional softwarecomponents
Definition of the data types of the softwarecomponents

Electronic Systems

Electronic Systems
Identification of basic software modules of the
software infrastructure and standardize their
interfaces

Electronic Systems
3/5/2014

Electronic Systems
One ECU example

Electronic Systems
Two ECUs example
Functional Applications
Strategic Technical Considerations
Multimedia
Data Rate
MOST
X-by-wire
FlexRay
Safety Bus
InfotainmentControl
Body
Electronics
Requirements
Consumer
Interface
Powertrain and
Vehicle Dynamics
Telematics Applications
1 Mbits/s
CAN
20 Kbits/s
Sub-Bus
LIN
Safety/Reliability
Close-loop Control Systems
Thank you for your attention!
3/5/2014
Brushless DC (BLDC) Motors
BLDC Motor Stator
Brushless DC Motors are a type of

synchronous motor
magnetic fields generated by the stator and
rotor rotate at the same frequency
no slip
Available in single-phase, 2-phase, and

3-phase configurations
BLDC Motor Rotors
Hall-Effect
If a current-carrying conductor is kept in a
magnetic field, the magnetic field exerts a
force on the moving charge carriers,
tending to push them to one side of the
conductor, producing a measurable
voltage difference between the two sides
of the conductor.
3/5/2014
Hall-Effect Sensors
Transverse Sectional View of Rotor
Need 3 sensors to determine the position

of the rotor
When a rotor pole passes a Hall-Effect
sensor, get a high or low signal, indicating
that a North or South pole
Commutation Sequence
Torque-Speed Characteristic
Each sequence has

one winding energized positive (current into
the winding)
one winding energized negative (current out
of the winding)
one winding non-energized
3/5/2014
Six-Step Commutation (4-pole)

Hall-Effect Sensors
spaced 60 electrical
degrees apart
6 steps to complete
one electrical cycle
Phase current
switching updated
every 60 electrical
degrees
3/5/2014
BLDC Control
Essential Elements of a Typical BLDC Motor
CW
CCW

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3/5/2014
Digital Meters - Power Quality

Monitoring and Analysis
Contents
Effects of power quality
Power Quality definitions revisited
What is needed for PQ monitoring ?
GE Multilins solution
PQMII
EPM9000 series
Summary
Monitor and Analyze Power Disturbances, Disruptions & Harmonics
PQ is a Business Problem
Is Power Quality Such a Big Problem?
Power Quality issues cause business problems

such as:
Lost productivity, idle people and equipment
Lost orders, good will, customers and profits
Lost transactions and orders not being
processed
Revenue and accounting problems
Customer and/or management dissatisfaction
Overtime required to make up for lost work time
According to Electric Light and Power Magazine, 30 to 40 Percent of All
Business Downtime Is Related to Power Quality Problems.
Why PQ is such a Big Problem?

The sensitivity of todays electronic equipment
makes it susceptible to power disturbances
For some devices, a momentary disturbance can
cause
scrambled data
interrupted communications
a frozen mouse
system crashes and equipment failure
PQ Problems are Expensive

Berkeley Lab Study Estimates $80 Billion Annual
Cost of Power Interruptions Research News,
Berkeley Lab, February 2, 2005
$50 billon per year in the USA is lost as a results of
power quality breakdowns . Bank of America
Report
A manufacturing company lost more than $3
million one day last summer in Silicon Valley when
the lights went out. New York Times January
2000
A voltage sag in a paper mill can waste a whole
day of production - $250,000 loss Business
Week, June 17,, 1996
Half of all computer problems and one-third of all
data loss can be traced back to the power line
Contingency Planning Research, LAN Times
3/5/2014
Who is Affected?
PQ Definitions Revisited
High Cost Facilities

o Semiconductor plants
o Pharmaceuticals
o Data centers
Medium Cost Facilities
o Automotive manufacturing
o Glass plants
o Plastics & Chemicals
o Textiles
IEEE Categories
Std 1159-1995
Short Duration Variations
Lost production
Scrap
Costs to restart
Labor costs
Equipment damage and repair
Other costs
Typical Duration
Instantaneous Sag
0.5 30 cycles
Momentary Sag
30 cycles 3 sec
Temporary Sag
3 sec 1 min
IEEE Categories
Std 1159-1995
IEEE Categories
Std 1159-1995
Typical Duration
Instantaneous Sag
0.5 30 cycles
Instantaneous Sag
0.5 30 cycles
Momentary Sag
30 cycles 3 sec.
Momentary Sag
30 cycles 3 sec.
Temporary Sag
3 sec 1 min.
Temporary Sag
3 sec 1 min.
Instantaneous Swell
0.5 30 cycles
Instantaneous Swell
0.5 30 cycles
Momentary Swell
30 cycles 3 sec.
Momentary Swell
30 cycles 3 sec.
Temporary Swell
3 sec 1 min.
Temporary Swell
3 sec 1 min.
Momentary Interruptions
0.5 30 cycles
Temporary Interruptions
30 cycles 3 sec.
Typical Duration
IEEE Categories
Std 1159-1995
IEEE Categories
Std 1159-1995
Long Duration Variations
Typical Duration
Typical Duration
Sustained interruptions
> 1 min
> 1 min
Under voltages
> 1 min
Under voltages
> 1 min
Over voltages
> 1 min
Over voltages
> 1 min
Voltage imbalance
Steady state
Waveform Distortion
3/5/2014
SourcesInternal
ofSources
PQ Problems
Utility Sources
Lightning
PF Correction
Equipment
Faults
Switching
IEEE Categories
Std 1159-1995
Typical Duration
Individual Loads Lighting, Elevators, Coolers, HVAC

Uninterruptible Power Supplies
> 1 min
Under voltages
> 1 min
Over voltages
> 1 min
Battery Chargers
Voltage imbalance
Steady state
Large Motors During Startup

Electronic Dimming Systems
Waveform Distortion
DC offset
Variable Frequency Drives
Steady state
Lighting Ballasts (esp. Electronic)
Harmonics
Steady state
Arc Welders, and Other Arc Devices
Inter harmonics
Steady state
Medical Equipment, e.g. MRIs and X-Ray Machines

Office Equipment and Computers
Wiring
For Electric Utilities Control of Voltage and Prevention of Outages is Power Quality
PQ Problems and Possible Causes
Typical problems
Disturbance Type
Possible Causes
Typical problems
Disturbance Type
Possible Causes
Overheated neutral
Intermittent lock-ups
Frequency deviations
Steady-state
Shared neutrals
Improper or inadequate wiring
High source impedance
SCR/Rectifiers and notching
Harmonics
Overheated neutral
Steady-state
Shared neutrals
Harmonics
Interruption
Garbled data
Random increase in harmonics levels
Utility faults
Inrush currents
Inadequate wiring
Typical problems
Disturbance Type
Possible Causes
Typical problems
Disturbance Type
Possible Causes
Overheated neutral
Steady-state
Shared neutrals
Harmonics
Overheated neutral
Steady-state
Shared neutrals
Harmonics
Utility faults
Inrush currents
Inadequate wiring
Interruption
Garbled data
Source voltage variations

Inrush/surge currents
Inadequate wiring
Lights flicker
Garbled data
Sags/Swell

Inadequate wiring
Component failure
Dielectric breakdown
Lock-ups
Garbled data
Wavy CRTs
Impulses
EMI/RFI
Lightning
Load switching
Capacitor switching
Static discharge
Hand-held radios
Loose wiring/arcing
Interruption
Garbled data
Lights flicker
Garbled data
Sags/Swell
Utility faults
Inrush currents
Inadequate wiring
3/5/2014

Typical problems
Disturbance Type
Possible Causes
Overheated neutral
Steady-state
Shared neutrals
Harmonics
Interruption
Garbled data
Major PQ Problems
Outages,
6%
Spikes, 7%
Utility faults
Inrush currents
Inadequate wiring
Lights flicker
Garbled data
Sags/Swell

Inadequate wiring
Component failure
Dielectric breakdown
Lock-ups
Garbled data
Wavy CRTs
Impulses
EMI/RFI
Lightning
Load switching
Capacitor switching
Static discharge
Hand-held radios
Loose wiring/arcing
Overheated transformers and motors

Voltage and current distortions
Garbled data
Lock-ups
Harmonics
Swells,
Source: EPRI, 1994
Electronic loads
SCR/rectifier
Swells
Sags (Dips)
System fault conditions
Associated with system faults
Switching on a large capacitor bank
Switching of heavy loads
Switching off a large load
Starting of large motors
Cost of Voltage Sags
Cost of Momentary Outages
Textile Industry
Plastics Industry
Glass Industry
Process Industry
Semiconductors
$1k
$10k
$100k
$1M
Sags, 56%
31%
$10M
Source: EPRI The Economics of Custom Power, IEEE T&D Show 2003
Losses per Voltage Sag Event
Momentary Outages
create problems when
computers and clocks
reset, equipment stalls,
and work stops.
Category
Industrial
Semiconductor Manufacturing
Electronics
Automobile Manufacturing
Pharmaceutical
Glass
Rubber and Plastics
Petrochemical
Food Processing
Textile
Metal Fabrication
Mining
Paper
Printing(Newspapers)
Cost of Momentary Interuption

($/kW Demand)
Minimum Maximum
Commercial
Hospitals, banks, civil service
Communications, information processing
Resturants, bars, hotels
Commercial shops
$20.0
$8.0
$5.0
$5.0
$4.0
$3.0
$3.0
$3.0
$2.0
$2.0
$2.0
$1.5
$1.0
$60.0
$12.0
$7.5
$50.0
$6.0
$4.5
$5.0
$5.0
$4.0
$4.0
$4.0
$2.5
$2.0
$2.0
$1.0
$0.5
$0.1
$3.0
$10.0
$1.0
$0.5
Source: EPRI The Economics of Custom Pow er, IEEE T&D 2003
High Speed Waveform Capture
Benefits of Continuous PQ Monitoring

Power Quality monitoring provides a continuous
Health Check of a facilitys power system for
example:
o
Harmonic interaction between loads and

power conditioning equipment spotted
High Inrush currents from equipment startup

detected
Transients from load switching are seen
It provides data to see, diagnose and avert looming

problems like squeaky brakes on a car
o
Trends can be detected
JIT equipment maintenance programs can

be established
It acts like a Black Box on an airplane to tell you

what, when, and where a Power Quality event
occurred to prevent it from reoccurring
High Speed Waveform Capture Is the Most Important PQ Troubleshooting Tool

Continuous PQ Monitoring Detects, Records, and Leads to the
Prevention of PQ Problems
3/5/2014
Real Time Field Recorded Events

What is needed for PQ Monitoring?
Plus they must
PQ Monitors must detect and record

the 7 types of PQ problems
Source: AGA Brazil
Transients
Interruptions
Sag/Under Voltage
Swell/Over Voltage
Waveform Distortion
Voltage Fluctuations
Frequency Variations
These include Flicker and Compliance to

ITI(CBEMA), IEEE and ISO Standards
Be easy to use
Be Suitable for continuously
monitoring indoors and outdoors
Interface with standard PQ analysis
SoftwarePQDif format
Be fast enough to capture high speed
events that produce equipment
problems
Have enough storage to save the
waveforms you need
Have PQ analysis tools that produce
usable, actionable recommendations
Meter: EPM9650
Period: Jan 2005 Dec 2005
Continuous Monitoring of the Station for PQ Problems
ITI: Information Technology Industry Council (Computer & Business Equipment Manufacturers Association)
PQ Meter ITI Capture
Instantaneous Sag Event
ITI Acceptable Power

Disturbance Envelope
Damage Inducing Voltage
Surges as Recorded
Equipment Interrupting
Voltage Sags as Recorded
ITI: Information Technology Industry Council (Computer & Business Equipment Manufacturers Association)
Instantaneous Swell Event
Harmonic & Interharmonic Spectrum
3/5/2014
Flicker Recording
Flicker Recording
Summary
Finally
GE Multilin provides the necessary tools for a successful PQ disturbance

analysis and allows users to take remedial actions
Symptoms
If You Can Measure it You Can Manage it
Feels the pulse of the power

system network
Examinations
If You Cant Measure it You Cant Manage it
Accurate Measurement to
determine actual state
Diagnosis
High resolution recordings for

longer durations
GE Communicator software
Remedy
Remedial actions
Integrated Circuit Fabrication Process

Do you ever wonder how the processor in your computer was actually fabricated? How is it that engineers can put
hundreds of millions of transistors into one device that measures only a few centimeters on a side (and with so few
errors) so the devices actually function as expected?
Devices such as modern computer processors and semiconductor memories fall into a class known as integrated
circuits (IC). They are so named because all of the components in the circuit (and their wires) are fabricated
simultaneously onto a circuit during the manufacturing process. This is in contrast to circuits where each component
is fabricated separately and then soldered or wired together onto a common board (such as those you probably build
in your lab classes). Integrated circuits were first demonstrated independently by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments and
Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor in the late 1950s. Once developed, the ability to manufacture components
and their connections in parallel with good quality control meant that circuits with thousands (then millions, then billions)
of components could be designed and built reliably.
Semiconductor Processing Basics

All mainstream semiconductor integrated-circuit processes start with a thin slice of silicon, known as a substrate or
wafer. This wafer is circular and ranges from 4 to 18 inches in diameter and is approximately 1 mm thick (hence its
name). Each wafer is cut from a single crystal of the element silicon and polished to its final thickness with atomic
smoothness (Fig. TF7-1). Most circuit designs (like your processor) fit into a few square centimeters of silicon area;
each self-contained area is known as a die. After fabrication, the wafer is cut to produce independent, rectangular dies
often known as chips, which are then packaged to produce the final component you buy at the store.
Figure TF7-1: A single 4-inch silicon wafer. Note the

wafers mirror-like surface. (Courtesy of Veljko Milanovic.)
(a) Implantation: High-energy ions are

driven into the silicon. Most become
lodged in the first few nanometers,
with decreasing concentration away
from the surface. In this example,
boron (an electron donor) is implanted
into a silicon substrate.
(b) Deposition: Atoms (or molecules)

impact the surface but do not have the
energy required to penetrate the
surface. They accumulate on the
surface in thin films. In this example,
aluminum is deposited in a conductive
film onto the silicon.
(a) Etching: Chemical, mechanical,

or high-energy plasma methods are
used to remove silicon (or other
material) from the surface. In this
example, silicon is etched away from
the substrate.
Figure TF7-2: Cross-section of basic fabrication processes. The dashed line in each drawing indicates the original surface of
the wafer.
A specific sequence or process of chemical and mechanical modifications is performed on certain areas of the
wafer. Although complex processes employ a variety of techniques, a basic IC process will employ one of the following
three modifications to the wafer:
Implantation: Atoms or molecules are added to the silicon wafer, changing its electronic properties (Fig.TF7-2(a)).
Deposition: Materials such as metals, insulators, or semiconductors are added in thin layers (like painting) onto
the wafer (Fig. TF7-2(b)).
Etching: Material is removed from the wafer through chemical reactions or mechanical motion (Fig. TF7-2(c)).
Lithography
When building a multi-component IC, we need to perform different modifications to differents areas of the wafer. We
may want to etch some areas and add metal to others, for example. The method by which we define which areas will
be modified is known as lithography.
Lithography has evolved much over the last 40 years and will continue to do so. Modern lithography employs all
of the basic principles described below, but uses complex computation, specialized materials, and optical devices to
achieve the very high resolutions required to reach modern feature sizes.
At its heart, lithography is simply a stencil process. In an old-fashioned stencil process, when a plastic sheet with
cut-out letters or numbers is laid on a flat surface and painted, only the cutout areas would be painted. Once the stencil
is removed, the design left behind consists of only the painted areas with clean edges and a uniform surface. With that
in mind, consider Fig. TF7-3. Given a flat wafer, we first apply a thin coating of liquid polymer known as photoresist
(PR). This layer usually is several hundred nanometers thick and is applied by placing a drop in the center of the wafer
and then spinning the wafer very fast (1000 to 5000 rpm) so that the drop spreads out evenly over the surface. Once
coated, the PR is heated (usually between 60 to 100 C) in a process known as baking; this allows the PR to solidify
Dispense
Spin and Bake
Expose
Develop
Figure TF7-3: Basic lithography steps.
slightly to a plastic-like consistency. Once baked and when exposed to ultraviolet (UV) light, the bonds that hold the
PR molecules together are chopped up; this makes it easy to wash away the UV-exposed areas (some varieties of
PR behave in exactly the opposite manner: UV light makes the PR very strong or cross-linked, but we will ignore that
technique here). In lithography, UV light is focused through a glass plate with patterns on it; this is known as exposure.
These patterns act as a light stencil for the PR. Wherever UV light hits the PR, that area subsequently can be washed
away in a process called development. After development, the PR film remains behind with holes in certain areas.
How is this helpful? Lets look at how the modifications presented earlier can be masked with PR to produce
patterned effects (Fig. TF7-4). In each case, we first use lithography to pattern areas onto the wafer (Fig. TF7-4(a))
then we perform one of our three processes (Fig. TF7-4(b)), and finally, we use a strong solvent such as acetone (nail
polish remover) to completely wash away the PR (Fig. TF7-4(c)). The PR allows us to implant, deposit, or etch only in
defined areas.
Fabricating a Diode
In Section 2-7, we discussed the functional performance of the diode as a circuit component. Here, we will examine
briefly how a diode is fabricated. Similar but more complex multi-step processes are used to make transistors and
integrated circuits. Conceptually, the simplest diode is made from two slabs of siliconeach implanted with different
atomspressed together such that they share a boundary (Fig. TF7-5). The n and p areas are pieces of silicon that
Lithography
Implantation
Deposition
Etch
p-type
silicon
p or n type
silicon
area
Metal film
Etched recess
silicon substrate
Figure TF7-4: Lithography used to pattern implantation

areas, deposit metal features, and etch areas.
metal
n-type
silicon
metal
Figure TF7-5: The basic diode (top) circuit symbol and

(bottom) conceptual depiction of the physical structure.
have been implanted with atoms (known as impurities) that increase or decrease the number of electrons capable of
flowing freely through the silicon. This changes the semiconducting properties of the silicon and creates an electrically
active boundary (called a junction) between the n and the p areas of silicon. If both the n and p pieces of silicon are
connected to metal wires, this two-terminal device exhibits the diode iv curve shown in Fig. 2-35(c).
Figure TF7-6 shows the process for making a single diode. Only one step needs further definition: oxidation. During
oxidation, the silicon wafer is heated to > 1000 C in an oxygen atmosphere. At this temperature, the oxygen atoms
and the silicon react and form a layer of SiO2 on the surface (this layer is often called an oxide layer). SiO2 is a type
of glass and is used as an insulator.
Wires are made by depositing metal layers on top of the device; these are called interconnects. Modern ICs have
6 to 7 such interconnect layers (Fig. TF7-7). These layers are used to make electrical connections between all of the
various components in the IC in the same way that macroscopic wires are used to link components on a breadboard.
n-type implant
Lithography + etch oxide
a
f
Grow oxide
Remove PR
b
g
Lithography + etch oxide
Metal deposition
c
h
Remove PR
Lithography + etch metal
d
i
p-type implant
e
Complete diode
Metal
Metal
Figure TF7-6: A simple pn-junction diode fabrication

process.
Figure TF7-7: Colorized scanning electron-microscope

cross section of a 64-bit high-performance microprocessor chip built in IBMs 90-nm Server-Class CMOS
technology. Note that several metal interconnect levels
are used (metal lines are orange, insulator is green); the
transistors lie below this metal on the silicon wafer itself
(dark blue). (Courtesy of International Business Machines
Corporation.)
3/5/2014
Topics Covered
REAL TIME APPLICATION

MOBILE PHONE
Cellular Telephone Systems

Digital Cell Phone Systems
2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies
Wireless refers primarily to the cellular telephone

industry.
The cell phone is the largest-volume consumer
electronics device.
It has changed the way that we communicate.
In 2005, cell phone subscribers numbered more than

wired telephone subscribers.
As the data speed of the newer digital cell phone
transmissions increases, more cell phone applications
are possible, including cameras, Internet access, emails, audio, gaming, and video.
A cellular radio system provides standard telephone

service by two-way radio at remote locations.
Cellular radios or telephones were originally installed
in cars or trucks, but today most of them are available
in handheld models.
Cellular telephones permit users to link up with the
standard telephone system, which permits calls to any
part of the world.
Cellular radio telephone service is available

worldwide.
The original U.S. cell phone system, known as the
advanced mobile phone system, or AMPS, was
based on analog technologies.
AMPS has been phased out and replaced by secondgeneration (2G) and third-generation (3G) digital cell
phone systems.
3/5/2014
Cellular Concepts
Cellular Concepts
The basic concept behind the cellular radio system is

that rather than serving a given geographical area with
a single transmitter and receiver, the system divides the
service area into many small areas known as cells.
The typical cell covers only several square miles and
contains its own receiver and low-power transmitter.
The coverage of a cell depends upon the density
(number) of users in a given area.
Each cell is connected by telephone lines or a

microwave radio relay link to a master control center
known as the mobile telephone switching office
(MTSO).
The MTSO controls all the cells and provides the
interface between each cell and the main telephone
office.
As the person with the cell phone passes through a cell,
it is served by the cell transceiver.
10
Cellular Concepts
Cellular Concepts
The telephone call is routed through the MTSO and to

the standard telephone system.
As the person moves, the system automatically
switches from one cell to the next.
The receiver in each cell station continuously monitors
the signal strength of the mobile unit.
When the signal strength drops below a desired level, it

automatically seeks a cell where the signal from the
mobile unit is stronger.
The computer at the MTSO causes the transmission
from the person to be switched from the weaker cell to
the stronger cell. This is called a handoff.
11
12

Frequency Allocation
Cellular radio systems operate in the UHF and
microwave bands as assigned by the Federal
Communications Commission (FCC).
The original frequency assignments were in the 800- to
900-MHz range previously occupied by the mostly
unused UHF TV channels 68 through 83.
Figure 20-1: The area served by a cellular telephone system is divided into small
areas called cells. Note: Cells are shown as ideal hexagons, but in reality they have
circular to other geometric shapes. These areas may overlap, and the cells may be of
different sizes.
3/5/2014
13
14
Frequency Allocation
The frequencies between 824 and 849 MHz are
reserved for the uplink transmissions from the cell
phone to the base station. These are also called the
reverse channels.
The frequencies between 869 and 894 MHz are the
downlink bands from base station to cell phone.
Two blocks of 60 MHz between 1850 and 1990 MHz
are referred to as the personal communications
systems (PCS) channels.
Figure 20-4: Additional U.S. cell phone spectrum. (a) 890 to 960 MHz and (b) 1850 to
1990 MHz are called the personal communication system PCS band.
15
16

Multiple Access: Frequency Reuse
Multiple Access
In frequency reuse, individual frequency bands are

shared by multiple base stations and users.
This is possible by ensuring that one subscriber or base
station does not interfere with any others.
This separation achieved by controlling such factors as
transmission power, base station spacing, and antenna
height and radiation patterns.
Multiple access refers to how the subscribers are

allocated to the assigned frequency spectrum.
Access methods are the ways in which many users
share a limited amount of spectrum.
The techniques include:
Frequency reuse
Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)
Time-division multiple access (TDMA)
Code-division multiple access (CDMA)
Spatial-division multiple access (SDMA).
17
18

Multiple Access: Frequency-Division Multiple Access
FDMA systems are like frequency-division multiplexing.
They allow many users to share a block of spectrum by
dividing it up into many smaller channels.
Each channel of a band is given an assigned number or
is designated by the center frequency of the channel.
One subscriber is assigned to each channel.

Multiple Access: Time-Division Multiple Access
TDMA relies on digital signals and operates on a single
channel.
Multiple users use different time slots.
Because the audio signal is sampled at a rapid rate, the
data words can be interleaved into different time slots.
3/5/2014
19
20
Multiple Access: Code-Division Multiple Access
Multiple Access: Spatial-Division Multiple Access
CDMA is just another name for spread spectrum.

A high percentage of cell phone systems use direct
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
Here the digital audio signals are encoded in a circuit
called a vocoder to produce a 13-kbps serial digital
compressed voice signal.
It is then combined with a higher-frequency chipping
signal.
A unique pseudo-random chipping code is used to
identify multiple subscribers who use the same
spectrum.
This form of access is actually an extension of

frequency reuse.
It uses highly directional antennas to pinpoint users and
reject others on the same frequency.
Very narrow antenna beams at the cell site base station
are able to lock in on one subscriber but block another
while both subscribers are using the same frequency.
Modern antenna technology using adaptive phased
arrays makes this possible.
21
22
Duplexing
Duplexing
Duplexing refers to the ways in which two-way radio or

telephone conversations are handled.
Telephone communications have always been full
duplex, where both parties can simultaneously send
and receive. All cell phone systems are full duplex.
To achieve full duplex operation, frequency-division
duplexing (FDD) or time-division duplexing (TDD)
must be implemented.
In FDD, separate frequency channels are assigned for

the transmit and receive functions.
The transmit and receive channels are spaced so that
they do not interfere with one another inside the cell
phone or base station circuits.
TDD is less common. The system assigns the transmit
and receive data to different time slots, both on the
same frequency.
23
24
Digital Cell Phone Circuits

An embedded controller handles all the digital control
and signaling, handoffs, and connection and
identification operations.
The controller also runs the display and keyboard and
all other user functions such as number storage, auto
dialing, and caller ID.
Figure 20-19: Block diagram for a 2G digital cell phone.

3/5/2014
25
26
Digital Cell Phone Circuits: Direct Conversion
Digital Cell Phone Circuits: Direct Conversion
The direct-conversion or zero IF design sets the LO

frequency to the incoming signal frequency so that the
translation is made directly to the baseband signal.
Since direct conversion works only with doublesideband suppressed (DSB) AM signals, changes have
been made to accommodate FSK, BPSK, QPSK, and
other forms of digital modulation.
Direct conversion eliminates the need for an expensive

and physically large selective IF filter.
Direct conversion eliminates the imaging problem so
common in superheterodyne designs, especially in the
crowded multiband cellular spectrum.
With direct conversion, baseband filtering can be
accomplished using simple low-pass RC filters and/or
DSP filters.
27
28

Digital Cell Phone Circuits: Low IF
When an IF is used near the baseband frequencies,
filtering is simple and very effective.
Most 2G and later phones are multiband phones that
can operate in three or four bands, thereby permitting
widespread roaming.
The signal passes through one of three SAW filters and
feeds into a mixer.
An image reject mixer uses a technique similar to the
phasing method of generating a single sideband (SSB)
signal.
Figure 20-20: A direct-conversion receiver.

29
30

Digital Cell Phone Circuits: Low IF
Simple integrated RC low-pass filters are used to
eliminate the sum signals resulting from the conversion.
Programmable gain amplifiers (PGAs) equalize the
signal levels, then the low-IF signals are applied to two
delta-sigma A/D converters.
The digitized signals go to the baseband circuit and are
demodulated by the DSP.
The recovered digital data is then sent to the vocoder,
where the voice signal is recovered.

2.5G Cell Phone Systems
The designation 2.5G refers to a generation of cell
phones between the original second-generation (2G)
digital phones and newer third-generation (3G) phones.
2.5G phones bring data transmission capability to 2G
phones in addition to normal voice service.
A 2.5G phone permits subscribers to exchange emails
and access the Internet by cell phone.
The three technologies used in 2.5G systems are
GPRS, EDGE, and CDMA2000.
3/5/2014
31
32
2.5G Cell Phone Systems
2.5G Cell Phone Systems: CDMA2000
One popular 2.5G technology is the general packet

radio service (GPRS).
This system is designed to work with GSM phones.
It uses one or more of the eight time slots in a GSM
phone system to transmit data rather than digitized
voice.
A faster 2.5G technology is enhanced data rate for
GSM evolution (EDGE).
It uses 8-PSK modulation instead of GMSK to achieve
data rates up to 384 kbps.
A third, different form of 2.5G digital cell phone is

designated CDMA2000. This standard is an extension
of the widely used IS-95 CDMA standard (cdmaOne).
The basic CDMA2000 data transmission method uses
1.25-MHz-wide channels but changes the modulation
and coding formats to double the voice capacity.
The data capability is packet-based and permits a data
rate of up to 144 kbps which is comparable to EDGE.
The more recent version is called 1EV-DO or
Evolution-Data Optimized. It has a data rate of about
3.1 Mbps downlink and an uplink rate up to 1.8 Mbps.
33
34

UMTS 3G
3G Cell Phone Systems
The ITU recommended one worldwide version known

as wideband CDMA (WCDMA) in implementing 3G.
This system is also known as the Universal Mobile
Telecommunications Service (UMTS).
WCDMA is a direct sequence spread spectrum
technology.
In the most popular configuration, it is designed to use a
3.84-MHz chipping rate in 5-MHz-wide bands.
Duplexing is FDD, requiring the matching of 5-MHz
channels. The modulation is QPSK.
It can achieve a packet data rate up to 2 Mbps.
Third-generation (3G) cell phones are true packet data

phones.
3G phones feature enhanced digital voice and highspeed data transmission capability.
3G applications include fast e-mail and Internet access.
3G phones are being packaged with personal digital
assistants (PDAs).
High speed also permits the transmission of video.
35
36

UMTS 3G

UMTS 3G
A key problem in implementing 3G is the need for huge

portions of spectrum.
The exact 3G spectrum varies widely depending on
which part of the world you are in, making it extremely
difficult to design a cell phone that is fully operable
worldwide.
The UMTS 3G standard also defines a TDD version
known as TD-SCDMA for time-division synchronous
code-division multiple access.
The primary benefit of TD-SCDMA is that less spectrum
is needed.
Because of the need for faster systems, a new system

compatible with WCDMA has been developed.
Known as high-speed downlink packet access
(HSDPA), this so-called 3.5G technology is an add-on
to WCDMA systems.
HSDPA uses an adaptive coding and modulation
scheme with QPSK and 16-QAM.
When a fast uplink is needed, a companion standard
known as high-speed uplink packet access (HSUPA)
is used.
3/5/2014
37

Advanced Cell Phones
Handset manufacturers
have built in a wide range
of features that make the
cell phone the most
desired consumer
electronic product ever
developed.
Consider what electronic
circuits and systems are
needed to make these
features work:
38
Color LCD Screens.

Digital Cameras.
E-mail.
Games.
GPS.
Internet Access.
MP3 Players.
Push-to-Talk.
FM Radio.
Wireless Headsets.
Video.
Location-Based Technology.
Advanced Cell Phones: Location-Based Technology

Another feature included in modern phones is
enhanced 911 (E911) capability.
This system is mandated by the U.S. government.
All cell phone carriers must have a system that makes it
possible to locate any cell phone position automatically.
This permits emergency medical services or automobile
towing crews to find the cell phone used to make the
911 emergency call.
39
40
Advanced Cell Phones: Location-Based Technology
Base Stations
The most complex and expensive part of any cellular
telephone system is the network of base stations that
carriers must have to make it all work.
Base stations consist of multiple receivers and
transmitters so that many calls can be handled on many
different channels simultaneously.
The most visible feature of a base station is its antenna
on a tower.
Base station antennas have become directional, which
helps to increase subscriber capacity with minimal cost.
Several different systems have been adopted by the

various carriers.
Most CDMA phones contain a GPS receiver that
transmits its coordinates digitally to the carrier, from
which they can be forwarded to emergency services.
GSM, GPRS, and EDGE phones use a system called
UplinkTime Difference of Arrival (U-TDOA), a method
of triangulation based on cell phone signals being
received at three different cell sites.
41
Figure 20-27: Horizontal radiation and reception pattern of a typical cell site antenna.
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3/5/2014

Developing Trends of Automotive

Automotive Electronic Systems Today

Developing Trends of Automotive

Expanding Automotive Electronic

Expanding Automotive Electronic

Themes of current stage

Themes of next stage

Expanding Automotive Electronic

System Structure of ECU

Analysts estimate that more than 80

Developing Trends of Automotive

System Structure of ECU

Standardization of functional interfaces

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

1st Integration Level

referring to: G. Leen and D. Heffernan,Expanding Automotive Electronic Systems

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

2nd Integration Level

3rd Integration Level

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Real-time operating system

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

The OSEK/VDX specifies

Data Link Layer

Bus I/O Driver

Bus Communication Hardware

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Developing Trends of Automotive

Strategic Technical Considerations

Close-loop Control Systems

Thank you for your attention!

Brushless DC (BLDC) Motors

BLDC Motor Stator

Brushless DC Motors are a type of

Available in single-phase, 2-phase, and

BLDC Motor Rotors

Transverse Sectional View of Rotor

Need 3 sensors to determine the position

Each sequence has

Six-Step Commutation (4-pole)

Essential Elements of a Typical BLDC Motor

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Digital Meters - Power Quality

Is Power Quality Such a Big Problem?

Power Quality issues cause business problems

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