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Aluminium
An overview
Contents
Articles
Overview
1
Aluminium 1
Isotopes
17
Isotopes of aluminium 17
Aluminium-26 20
Chemistry
22
Aluminium smelting 22
Aluminium recycling 25
Bauxite 28
Bayer process 31
Deville process 32
HallHroult process 34
Thermite reaction 36
Whler process 43
Applications and uses
44
Aluminium alloy 44
Aluminiumair battery 55
Semi-finished casting products 57
Aluminium foil 58
Aluminum wire 63
Metal quality
68
Hydrogen gas porosity 68
Aluminium alloy inclusions 69
Associations
73
The Aluminum Association 73
Institute for the History of Aluminium 79
Companies
80
Alcoa 80
Rio Tinto Alcan 87
United Company RUSAL 91
List of alumina refineries 96
List of aluminium smelters 102
List of countries by aluminium production 111
References
Article Sources and Contributors 113
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 116
Article Licenses
License 119
1
Overview
Aluminium
Aluminium
13
Al
magnesium aluminium siliconB

Al

Ga
Aluminium in the periodic table
Appearance
silvery gray metallic
Spectral lines of aluminium
General properties
Name, symbol, number aluminium, Al, 13
Pronunciation
UK
i
/ljmnim/
AL-ew-MIN-ee-m; US
i
/ljumnm/
-LEW-mi-nm
Element category other metal
sometimes considered a metalloid
Group, period, block 13, 3, p
Standard atomic weight 26.9815385(7)
Aluminium
2
Electron configuration
[Ne] 3s
2
3p
1
2, 8, 3
Physical properties
Phase solid
Density (near r.t.)
2.70 gcm
3
Liquid density at m.p.
2.375 gcm
3
Meltingpoint 933.47K, 660.32C, 1220.58F
Boilingpoint 2743K, 2470C, 4478F
Heatoffusion
10.71 kJmol
1
Heat of vaporization
284 kJmol
1
Molar heat capacity
24.200 Jmol
1
K
1
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 100 1 k 10 k 100 k
at T (K) 1482 1632 1817 2054 2364 2790
Atomic properties
Oxidation states
3, 2
[1]
, 1
[2]
(amphoteric oxide)
Electronegativity 1.61 (Pauling scale)
Ionization energies
(more)
1st: 577.5 kJmol
1
2nd: 1816.7 kJmol
1
3rd: 2744.8 kJmol
1
Atomic radius 143 pm
Covalent radius 1214 pm
Van der Waals radius 184 pm
Miscellanea
Crystal structure face-centered cubic
Magnetic ordering paramagnetic
Electrical resistivity (20C) 28.2 nm
Thermal conductivity
237Wm
1
K
1
Thermal expansion
(25 C) 23.1 mm
1
K
1
Speed of sound (thin rod)
(r.t.) (rolled) 5,000ms
1
Young's modulus 70 GPa
Shear modulus 26 GPa
Bulk modulus 76 GPa
Aluminium
3
Poisson ratio 0.35
Mohs hardness 2.75
Vickers hardness 167 MPa
Brinell hardness 245 MPa
CAS registry number 7429-90-5
History
Prediction Antoine Lavoisier (1787)
First isolation Friedrich Whler (1827)
Named by Humphry Davy (1807)
Most stable isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of aluminium
iso NA half-life DM DE (MeV) DP
26
Al
trace
7.1710
5
y
+ 1.17 26
Mg
- 26
Mg
1.8086 -
27
Al
100% 27
Al is stable with 14 neutrons
v
t
e
[3]
Aluminium (or aluminum; see spelling differences) is a chemical element in the boron group with symbolAl and
atomic number13. It is a silvery white, soft, ductile metal. Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after
oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's
solid surface. Aluminium metal is so chemically reactive that native specimens are rare and limited to extreme
reducing environments. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals. The chief ore of aluminium is
bauxite.
Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of
passivation. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are
important in other areas of transportation and structural materials. The most useful compounds of aluminium, at least
on a weight basis, are the oxides and sulfates.
Despite its prevalence in the environment, no known form of life uses aluminium salts metabolically. In keeping
with its pervasiveness, aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Owing to their prevalence, potential
beneficial (or otherwise) biological roles of aluminium compounds are of continuing interest.
Aluminium
4
Characteristics
Etched surface from a high purity (99.9998%) aluminium bar, size
5537 mm
Physical
Aluminium is a relatively soft, durable, lightweight,
ductile and malleable metal with appearance ranging
from silvery to dull gray, depending on the surface
roughness. It is nonmagnetic and does not easily ignite.
A fresh film of aluminium serves as a good reflector
(approximately 92%) of visible light and an excellent
reflector (as much as 98%) of medium and far infrared
radiation. The yield strength of pure aluminium is 711
MPa, while aluminium alloys have yield strengths
ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa. Aluminium has
about one-third the density and stiffness of steel. It is
easily machined, cast, drawn and extruded.
Aluminium atoms are arranged in a face-centered cubic (fcc) structure. Aluminium has a stacking-fault energy of
approximately 200 mJ/m
2
.
Aluminium is a good thermal and electrical conductor, having 59% the conductivity of copper, both thermal and
electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density. Aluminium is capable of being a superconductor, with a
superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 Kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss (10 milliteslas).
Chemical
Corrosion resistance can be excellent due to a thin surface layer of aluminium oxide that forms when the metal is
exposed to air, effectively preventing further oxidation. The strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion resistant
due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper. This corrosion resistance is also often greatly reduced by aqueous
salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals.
Owing to its resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retain silvery reflectance in finely
powdered form, making it an important component of silver-colored paints. Aluminium mirror finish has the highest
reflectance of any metal in the 200400nm (UV) and the 3,00010,000nm (far IR) regions; in the 400700nm
visible range it is slightly outperformed by tin and silver and in the 7003000 (near IR) by silver, gold, and copper.
Aluminium is oxidized by water to produce hydrogen and heat:
2 Al + 3 H
2
O Al
2
O
3
+ 3 H
2
This conversion is of interest for the production of hydrogen. Challenges include circumventing the formed oxide
layer, which inhibits the reaction and the expenses associated with the storage of energy by regeneration of the Al
metal.
Isotopes
Aluminium has many known isotopes, whose mass numbers range from 21 to 42; however, only
27
Al (stable
isotope) and
26
Al (radioactive isotope, t
1/2
= 7.210
5
y) occur naturally.
27
Al has a natural abundance above 99.9%.
26
Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons. Aluminium isotopes
have found practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice, quartz in rock
exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of
26
Al to
10
Be has been used to study the role of transport, deposition,
sediment storage, burial times, and erosion on 10
5
to 10
6
year time scales. Cosmogenic
26
Al was first applied in
studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteoroid fragments, after departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to
Aluminium
5
intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through space, causing substantial
26
Al production. After falling
to Earth, atmospheric shielding drastically reduces
26
Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the
meteorite's terrestrial age. Meteorite research has also shown that
26
Al was relatively abundant at the time of
formation of our planetary system. Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of
26
Al
was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.
Natural occurrence
Stable aluminium is created when hydrogen fuses with magnesium either in large stars or in supernovae.
In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant (8.3% by weight) metallic element and the third most abundant
of all elements (after oxygen and silicon). Because of its strong affinity to oxygen, it is almost never found in the
elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. Feldspars, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's
crust, are aluminosilicates. Native aluminium metal can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity
environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes. Native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the
northeastern continental slope of the South China Sea and Chen et al. (2011) have proposed a theory of its origin as
resulting by reduction from tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)
4

to metallic aluminium by bacteria.
It also occurs in the minerals beryl, cryolite, garnet, spinel and turquoise. Impurities in Al
2
O
3
, such as chromium or
iron yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire, respectively.
Although aluminium is an extremely common and widespread element, the common aluminium minerals are not
economic sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite (AlO
x
(OH)
32x
).
Bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions. Large deposits
of bauxite occur in Australia, Brazil, Guinea and Jamaica and the primary mining areas for the ore are in Australia,
Brazil, China, India, Guinea, Indonesia, Jamaica, Russia and Suriname.
Production and refinement
Bauxite, a major aluminium ore. The red-brown
colour is due to the presence of iron minerals.
Aluminium forms strong chemical bonds with oxygen. Compared to
most other metals, it is difficult to extract from ore, such as bauxite,
due to the high reactivity of aluminium and the high melting point of
most of its ores. For example, direct reduction with carbon, as is used
to produce iron, is not chemically possible because aluminium is a
stronger reducing agent than carbon. Indirect carbothermic reduction
can be carried out using carbon and Al
2
O
3
, which forms an
intermediate Al
4
C
3
and this can further yield aluminium metal at a
temperature of 19002000 C. This process is still under development;
it requires less energy and yields less CO
2
than the Hall-Hroult
process, the major industrial process for aluminium extraction.
Electrolytic smelting of alumina was originally cost-prohibitive in part
because of the high melting point of alumina, or aluminium oxide, (about 2,000C (3,600F)). Many minerals,
however, dissolve into a second already molten mineral, even if the temperature of the melt is significantly lower
than the melting point of the first mineral. Molten cryolite was discovered to dissolve alumina at temperatures
significantly lower than the melting point of pure alumina without interfering in the smelting process. In the
Hall-Hroult process, alumina is first dissolved into molten cryolite with calcium fluoride and then electrolytically
reduced to aluminium at a temperature between 950 and 980C (1,740 and 1,800F). Cryolite is a chemical
compound of aluminium and sodium fluorides: (Na
3
AlF
6
). Although cryolite is found as a mineral in Greenland, its
synthetic form is used in the industry. The aluminium oxide itself is obtained by refining bauxite in the Bayer
process.
Aluminium
6
The electrolytic process replaced the Whler process, which involved the reduction of anhydrous aluminium chloride
with potassium. Both of the electrodes used in the electrolysis of aluminium oxide are carbon. Once the refined
alumina is dissolved in the electrolyte, it disassociates and its ions are free to move around. The reaction at the
cathode is:
Al
3+
+ 3 e

Al
Here the aluminium ion is being reduced. The aluminium metal then sinks to the bottom and is tapped off, usually
cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing.
At the anode, oxygen is formed:
2 O
2
O
2
+ 4 e

To some extent, the carbon anode is consumed by subsequent reaction with oxygen to form carbon dioxide. The
anodes in a reduction cell must therefore be replaced regularly, since they are consumed in the process. The cathodes
do erode, mainly due to electrochemical processes and metal movement. After five to ten years, depending on the
current used in the electrolysis, a cell must be rebuilt because of cathode wear.
World production trend of aluminium
Aluminium electrolysis with the Hall-Hroult process consumes a lot
of energy, but alternative processes were always less viable
economically or ecologically. The worldwide average specific energy
consumption is approximately 150.5 kilowatt-hours per kilogram of
aluminium produced (52 to 56 MJ/kg). The most modern smelters
achieve approximately 12.8kWh/kg (46.1 MJ/kg). (Compare this to
the heat of reaction, 31 MJ/kg, and the Gibbs free energy of reaction,
29 MJ/kg.) Reduction line currents for older technologies are typically
100 to 200 kiloamperes; state-of-the-art smelters operate at about 350
kA. Trials have been reported with 500 kA cells.
[citation needed]
The Hall-Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the
Hoopes process. The process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium and aluminium
fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.
Electric power represents about 20% to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the
smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the U.S. Aluminum producers tend
to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensivesuch as the United Arab
Emirates with its large natural gas supplies, and Iceland and Norway with energy generated from renewable sources.
The world's largest smelters of alumina are People's Republic of China, Russia, and Quebec and British Columbia in
Canada.
Aluminium spot price 1987 2012
In 2005, the People's Republic of China was the top producer of
aluminium with almost a one-fifth world share, followed by Russia,
Canada, and the USA, reports the British Geological Survey.
Over the last 50 years, Australia has become a major producer of
bauxite ore and a major producer and exporter of alumina (before
being overtaken by China in 2007). Australia produced 68 million
tonnes of bauxite in 2010. The Australian deposits have some refining
problems, some being high in silica, but have the advantage of being
shallow and relatively easy to mine.
Aluminium
7
Recycling
Aluminium recycling code
Aluminium is theoretically 100% recyclable without any loss of its natural
qualities. According to the International Resource Panel's Metal Stocks in
Society report, the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e.
in cars, buildings, electronics etc.) is 80kg. Much of this is in
more-developed countries (350500kg per capita) rather than less-developed
countries (35kg per capita). Knowing the per capita stocks and their
approximate lifespans is important for planning recycling.
Recovery of the metal via recycling has become an important use of the
aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s,
when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to the public
awareness.
Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from
ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as dross (ash-like oxide). An aluminum stack
melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%. The dross can undergo a further process to
extract aluminium.
In Europe aluminium experiences high rates of recycling, ranging from 42% of beverage cans, 85% of construction
materials and 95% of transport vehicles.
Recycled aluminium is known as secondary aluminium, but maintains the same physical properties as primary
aluminium. Secondary aluminium is produced in a wide range of formats and is employed in 80% of alloy injections.
Another important use is for extrusion.
White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful
quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially. The process produces aluminium billets, together with a
highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases
(including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air;
contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the
waste has found use as a filler in asphalt and concrete.
Compounds
Oxidation state +3
The vast majority of compounds, including all Al-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium
compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The coordination number of such compounds varies, but
generally Al
3+
is six-coordinate or tetracoordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.
Halides
All four trihalides are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, aluminium fluoride (AlF
3
)
features six-coordinate Al. The octahedral coordination environment for AlF
3
is related to the compactness of
fluoride ion, six of which can fit around the small Al
3+
centre. AlF
3
sublimes (with cracking) at 1,291C (2,356F).
With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with
tetrahedral Al centers. These materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen, although other
methods exist. Acidification of the oxides or hydroxides affords hydrates. In aqueous solution, the halides often form
mixtures, generally containing six-coordinate Al centres, which are feature both halide and aquo ligands. When
aluminium and fluoride are together in aqueous solution, they readily form complex ions such as [AlF(H
2O)
Aluminium
8
5]2+
, AlF
3(H
2O)
3, and [AlF
6]3
. In the case of chloride, polyaluminium clusters are formed such as [Al
13
O
4
(OH)
24
(H
2
O)
12
]
7+
.
Oxide and hydroxides
Aluminium forms one stable oxide, known by its mineral name corundum. Sapphire and ruby are impure corundum
contaminated with trace amounts of other metals. The two oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are boehmite and diaspore.
There are three trihydroxides: bayerite, gibbsite, and nordstrandite, which differ in their crystalline structure
(polymorphs). Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the
hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of
aluminium and are themselves extremely useful.
Carbide, nitride, and related materials
Aluminium carbide (Al
4
C
3
) is made by heating a mixture of the elements above 1,000C (1,832F). The pale
yellow crystals consist of tetrahedral aluminium centres. It reacts with water or dilute acids to give methane. The
acetylide, Al
2
(C
2
)
3
, is made by passing acetylene over heated aluminium.
Aluminium nitride (AlN) is the only nitride known for aluminium. Unlike the oxides it features tetrahedral Al
centres. It can be made from the elements at 800C (1,472F). It is air-stable material with a usefully high thermal
conductivity. Aluminium phosphide (AlP) is made similarly, and hydrolyses to give phosphine:
AlP + 3 H
2
O Al(OH)
3
+ PH
3
Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides
Structure of trimethylaluminium, a compound that features
five-coordinate carbon.
A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR
3
and
AlR
1.5
Cl
1.5
exist. These species usually feature tetrahedral Al
centers, e.g. "trimethylaluminium" has the formula Al
2
(CH
3
)
6
(see figure). With large organic groups, triorganoaluminium
exist as three-coordinate monomers, such as
triisobutylaluminium. Such compounds are widely used in
industrial chemistry, despite the fact that they are often highly
pyrophoric. Few analogues exist between organoaluminium
and organoboron compounds except for large organic groups.
The important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium
hydride (LiAlH
4
), which is used in as a reducing agent in
organic chemistry. It can be produced from lithium hydride
and aluminium trichloride:
4 LiH + AlCl
3
LiAlH
4
+ 3 LiCl
Several useful derivatives of LiAlH
4
are known, e.g. sodium bis(2-methoxyethoxy)dihydridoaluminate. The simplest
hydride, aluminium hydride or alane, remains a laboratory curiosity. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH
3
)
n
, in
contrast to the corresponding boron hydride with the formula (BH
3
)
2
.
Aluminium
9
Oxidation states +1 and +2
Although the great majority of aluminium compounds feature Al
3+
centers, compounds with lower oxidation states
are known and sometime of significance as precursors to the Al
3+
species.
Aluminium(I)
AlF, AlCl and AlBr exist in the gaseous phase when the trihalide is heated with aluminium. The composition AlI is
unstable at room temperature with respect to the triiodide:
3 AlI AlI
3
+ 2 Al
A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine, Al
4
I
4
(NEt
3
)
4
. Also of
theoretical interest but only of fleeting existence are Al
2
O and Al
2
S. Al
2
O is made by heating the normal oxide,
Al
2
O
3
, with silicon at 1,800C (3,272F) in a vacuum. Such materials quickly disproportionates to the starting
materials.
Aluminium(II)
Very simple Al(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example,
aluminium monoxide, AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion and in stellar absorption spectra. More
thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R
4
Al
2
where R is a large organic ligand.
Analysis
The presence of aluminium can be detected in qualitative analysis using aluminon.
Applications
General use
Aluminium is the most widely used non-ferrous metal. Global production of aluminium in 2005 was 31.9 million
tonnes. It exceeded that of any other metal except iron (837.5 million tonnes). Forecast for 2012 is 4245 million
tonnes, driven by rising Chinese output.
Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially when
tempered. For example, the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium. The
main alloying agents are copper, zinc, magnesium, manganese, and silicon (e.g., duralumin) and the levels of these
other metals are in the range of a few percent by weight.
Household aluminium foil
Some of the many uses for aluminium metal are in:
Transportation (automobiles, aircraft, trucks, railway cars, marine
vessels, bicycles, etc.) as sheet, tube, castings, etc.
Packaging (cans, foil, frame of etc.)
Construction (windows, doors, siding, building wire, etc.).
A wide range of household items, from cooking utensils to baseball
bats, watches.
Street lighting poles, sailing ship masts, walking poles, etc.
Outer shells of consumer electronics, also cases for equipment e.g.
photographic equipment, MacBook Pro's casing
Electrical transmission lines for power distribution
MKM steel and Alnico magnets
Super purity aluminium (SPA, 99.980% to 99.999% Al), used in electronics and CDs.
Aluminium
10
Aluminium-bodied Austin "A40 Sports" (c. 1951)
Aluminium slabs being transported from a
smelter
Heat sinks for electronic appliances such as transistors and CPUs.
Substrate material of metal-core copper clad laminates used in high
brightness LED lighting.
Powdered aluminium is used in paint, and in pyrotechnics such as
solid rocket fuels and thermite.
Aluminium can be reacted with hydrochloric acid or with sodium
hydroxide to produce hydrogen gas.
A variety of countries, including France, Italy, Poland, Finland,
Romania, Israel, and the former Yugoslavia, have issued coins
struck in aluminium or aluminium-copper alloys.
Some guitar models sport aluminium diamond plates on the surface
of the instruments, usually either chrome or black. Kramer Guitars
and Travis Bean are both known for having produced guitars with
necks made of aluminium, which gives the instrument a very
distinct sound.
Aluminium is usually alloyed it is used as pure metal only when
corrosion resistance and/or workability is more important than strength
or hardness. A thin layer of aluminium can be deposited onto a flat
surface by physical vapour deposition or (very infrequently) chemical
vapour deposition or other chemical means to form optical coatings
and mirrors.
Aluminium compounds
Because aluminium is abundant and most of its derivatives exhibit low toxicity, the compounds of aluminium enjoy
wide and sometimes large-scale applications.
Alumina
Aluminium oxide (Al
2
O
3
) and the associated oxy-hydroxides and trihydroxides are produced or extracted from
minerals on a large scale. The great majority of this material is converted to metallic aluminium. About 10% of the
production capacity is used for other applications. A major use is as an absorbent. For example, alumina removes
water from hydrocarbons, which enables subsequent processes that are poisoned by moisture. Aluminium oxides are
common catalysts for industrial processes, e.g. the Claus process for converting hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in
refineries and for the alkylation of amines. Many industrial catalysts are "supported", meaning generally that an
expensive catalyst (e.g., platinum) is dispersed over a high surface area material such as alumina. Being a very hard
material (Mohs hardness 9), alumina is widely used as an abrasive and the production of applications that exploit its
inertness, e.g., in high pressure sodium lamps.
Sulfates
Several sulfates of aluminium find applications. Aluminium sulfate (Al
2
(SO
4
)
3
(H
2
O)
18
) is produced on the annual
scale of several billions of kilograms. About half of the production is consumed in water treatment. The next major
application is in the manufacture of paper. It is also used as a mordant, in fire extinguisher, as a food additive, in
fireproofing, and in leather tanning. Aluminium ammonium sulfate, which is also called ammonium alum,
(NH
4
)Al(SO
4
)
2
12H
2
O, is used as a mordant and in leather tanning. Aluminium potassium sulfate
([Al(K)](SO
4
)
2
)(H
2
O)
12
is used similarly. The consumption of both alums is declining.
Aluminium
11
Chlorides
Aluminium chloride (AlCl
3
) is used in petroleum refining and in the production of synthetic rubber and polymers.
Although it has a similar name, aluminium chlorohydrate has fewer and very different applications, e.g. as a
hardening agent and an antiperspirant. It is an intermediate in the production of aluminium metal.
Niche compounds
Given the scale of aluminium compounds, a small scale application could still involve thousands of tonnes. One of
the many compounds used at this intermediate level include aluminium acetate, a salt used in solution as an
astringent. Aluminium borate (Al
2
O
3
B
2
O
3
) is used in the production of glass and ceramics. Aluminium
fluorosilicate (Al
2
(SiF
6
)
3
) is used in the production of synthetic gemstones, glass and ceramic. Aluminium phosphate
(AlPO
4
) is used in the manufacture: of glass and ceramic, pulp and paper products, cosmetics, paints and varnishes
and in making dental cement. Aluminium hydroxide (Al(OH)
3
) is used as an antacid, as a mordant, in water
purification, in the manufacture of glass and ceramic and in the waterproofing of fabrics. Lithium aluminium hydride
is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry. Organoaluminiums are used as Lewis acids and cocatalysts.
For example, methylaluminoxane is a cocatalyst for Ziegler-Natta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl polymers
such as polyethene.
Aluminium alloys in structural applications
Aluminium foam
Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in
engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by a number
system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents
(DIN and ISO).
The strength and durability of aluminium alloys vary widely, not only
as a result of the components of the specific alloy, but also as a result
of heat treatments and manufacturing processes. A lack of knowledge
of these aspects has from time to time led to improperly designed
structures and gained aluminium a bad reputation.
One important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their fatigue
strength. Unlike steels, aluminium alloys have no well-defined fatigue
limit, meaning that fatigue failure eventually occurs, under even very
small cyclic loadings. This implies that engineers must assess these
loads and design for a fixed life rather than an infinite life.
Another important property of aluminium alloys is their sensitivity to
heat. Workshop procedures involving heating are complicated by the
fact that aluminium, unlike steel, melts without first glowing red. Forming operations where a blow torch is used
therefore require some expertise, since no visual signs reveal how close the material is to melting. Aluminium alloys,
like all structural alloys, also are subject to internal stresses following heating operations such as welding and
casting. The problem with aluminium alloys in this regard is their low melting point, which make them more
susceptible to distortions from thermally induced stress relief. Controlled stress relief can be done during
manufacturing by heat-treating the parts in an oven, followed by gradual coolingin effect annealing the stresses.
The low melting point of aluminium alloys has not precluded their use in rocketry; even for use in constructing
combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500K. The Agena upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled
aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region.
Another alloy of some value is aluminium bronze (Cu-Al alloy).
Aluminium
12
History
The statue of the Anteros (commonly mistaken
for either The Angel of Christian Charity or Eros)
in Piccadilly Circus, London, was made in 1893
and is one of the first statues cast in aluminium.
Ancient Greeks and Romans used aluminium salts as dyeing mordants
and as astringents for dressing wounds; alum is still used as a styptic.
In 1761, Guyton de Morveau suggested calling the base alum alumine.
In 1808, Humphry Davy identified the existence of a metal base of
alum, which he at first termed alumium and later aluminum (see
etymology section, below).
The metal was first produced in 1825 in an impure form by Danish
physicist and chemist Hans Christian rsted. He reacted anhydrous
aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam, yielding a lump of metal
looking similar to tin. Friedrich Whler was aware of these
experiments and cited them, but after redoing the experiments of
rsted he concluded that this metal was pure potassium. He conducted
a similar experiment in 1827 by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride
with potassium and yielded aluminium. Whler is generally credited
with isolating aluminium (Latin alumen, alum). Further, Pierre Berthier
discovered aluminium in bauxite ore and successfully extracted
it.WP:NOTRS Frenchman Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville
improved Whler's method in 1846, and described his improvements in
a book in 1859, chief among these being the substitution of sodium for
the considerably more expensive potassium. Deville likely also
conceived the idea of the electrolysis of aluminium oxide dissolved in
cryolite; Charles Martin Hall and Paul Hroult might have developed the more practical process after Deville.
Prior to commercial electrical generation in the early 1880s, and the Hall-Hroult process in the mid 1880s,
aluminium was exceedingly difficult to extract from its various ores. This made pure aluminium more valuable than
gold. Bars of aluminium were exhibited at the Exposition Universelle of 1855. Napoleon III of France is reputed to
have given a banquet where the most honoured guests were given aluminium utensils, while the others made do with
gold.
Aluminium was selected as the material to use for the 100 ounces (2.8kg) capstone of the Washington Monument in
1884, a time when one ounce (30grams) cost the daily wage of a common worker on the project. The capstone,
which was set in place on 6 December 1884, in an elaborate dedication ceremony, was the largest single piece of
aluminium cast at the time, when aluminium was as expensive as silver.
The Cowles companies supplied aluminium alloy in quantity in the United States and England using smelters like the
furnace of Carl Wilhelm Siemens by 1886. Charles Martin Hall of Ohio in the U.S. and Paul Hroult of France
independently developed the Hall-Hroult electrolytic process that made extracting aluminium from minerals
cheaper and is now the principal method used worldwide. Hall's process, in 1888 with the financial backing of
Alfred E. Hunt, started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company today known as Alcoa. Hroult's process was in
production by 1889 in Switzerland at Aluminium Industrie, now Alcan, and at British Aluminium, now Luxfer
Group and Alcoa, by 1896 in Scotland.
By 1895, the metal was being used as a building material as far away as Sydney, Australia in the dome of the Chief
Secretary's Building.
With the explosive expansion of the airplane industry during World War I (1914-1917), major governments
demanded large shipments of aluminium for light, strong airframes. They often subsidized factories and the
necessary electrical supply systems.
[4]
Aluminium
13
Many navies have used an aluminium superstructure for their vessels; the 1975 fire aboard USS Belknap that gutted
her aluminium superstructure, as well as observation of battle damage to British ships during the Falklands War, led
to many navies switching to all steel superstructures. The Arleigh Burke class was the first such U.S. ship, being
constructed entirely of steel.
Aluminium wire was once widely used for domestic electrical wiring. Owing to corrosion-induced failures, a number
of fires resulted.
Etymology
Two variants of the metal's name are in current use, aluminium (pronunciation: /l(j)mnim/) and aluminum
(/lumnm/)besides the obsolete alumium. The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990 but, three years later, recognized
aluminum as an acceptable variant. Hence their periodic table includes both.
[5]
IUPAC prefers the use of aluminium
in its internal publications, although nearly as many IUPAC publications use the spelling aluminum.
[6]
Most countries use the spelling aluminium. In the United States and Canada, the spelling aluminum predominates.
[7]
The Canadian Oxford Dictionary prefers aluminum, whereas the Australian Macquarie Dictionary prefers
aluminium. In 1926, the American Chemical Society officially decided to use aluminum in its publications;
American dictionaries typically label the spelling aluminium as "chiefly British".
The various names all derive from its status as a base of alum. It is borrowed from Old French; its ultimate source,
alumen, in turn is a Latin word that literally means "bitter salt".
The earliest citation given in the Oxford English Dictionary for any word used as a name for this element is
alumium, which British chemist and inventor Humphry Davy employed in 1808 for the metal he was trying to isolate
electrolytically from the mineral alumina. The citation is from the journal Philosophical Transactions of the Royal
Society of London: "Had I been so fortunate as to have obtained more certain evidences on this subject, and to have
procured the metallic substances I was in search of, I should have proposed for them the names of silicium, alumium,
zirconium, and glucium."
[8]
Davy settled on aluminum by the time he published his 1812 book Chemical Philosophy: "This substance appears to
contain a peculiar metal, but as yet Aluminum has not been obtained in a perfectly free state, though alloys of it with
other metalline substances have been procured sufficiently distinct to indicate the probable nature of alumina." But
the same year, an anonymous contributor to the Quarterly Review, a British political-literary journal, in a review of
Davy's book, objected to aluminum and proposed the name aluminium, "for so we shall take the liberty of writing the
word, in preference to aluminum, which has a less classical sound."
The -ium suffix conformed to the precedent set in other newly discovered elements of the time: potassium, sodium,
magnesium, calcium, and strontium (all of which Davy isolated himself). Nevertheless, -um spellings for elements
were not unknown at the time, as for example platinum, known to Europeans since the 16th century, molybdenum,
discovered in 1778, and tantalum, discovered in 1802. The -um suffix is consistent with the universal spelling
alumina for the oxide (as opposed to aluminia), as lanthana is the oxide of lanthanum, and magnesia, ceria, and
thoria are the oxides of magnesium, cerium, and thorium respectively.
The spelling used throughout the 19th century by most U.S. chemists was aluminium, but common usage is less
clear.
[9]
The aluminum spelling is used in the Webster's Dictionary of 1828. In his advertising handbill for his new
electrolytic method of producing the metal 1892, Charles Martin Hall used the -um spelling, despite his constant use
of the -ium spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903. It has consequently been
suggestedWikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch#Unsupported attributions that the spelling reflects an easier to
pronounce word with one fewer syllable, or that the spelling on the flier was a mistake. Hall's domination of
production of the metal ensured that the spelling aluminum became the standard in North America.
Aluminium
14
Health concerns
NFPA 704
Fire diamond for aluminium shot
Despite its natural abundance, aluminium has no known function in biology. It is remarkably nontoxic, aluminium
sulfate having an LD50 of 6207mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 500grams for an 80kg person. The
extremely low acute toxicity notwithstanding, the health effects of aluminium are of interest in view of the
widespread occurrence of the element in the environment and in commerce.
Some toxicity can be traced to deposition in bone and the central nervous system, which is particularly increased in
patients with reduced renal function. Because aluminium competes with calcium for absorption, increased amounts
of dietary aluminium may contribute to the reduced skeletal mineralization (osteopenia) observed in preterm infants
and infants with growth retardation. In very high doses, aluminium can cause neurotoxicity, and is associated with
altered function of the bloodbrain barrier. A small percentage of people are allergic to aluminium and experience
contact dermatitis, digestive disorders, vomiting or other symptoms upon contact or ingestion of products containing
aluminium, such as antipersperants or antacids. In those without allergies, aluminium is not as toxic as heavy metals,
but there is evidence of some toxicity if it is consumed in excessive amounts. Although the use of aluminium
cookware has not been shown to lead to aluminium toxicity in general, excessive consumption of antacids containing
aluminium compounds and excessive use of aluminium-containing antiperspirants provide more significant exposure
levels. Studies have shown that consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium significantly increases
aluminium absorption, and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nervous and osseus
tissue. Furthermore, aluminium increases estrogen-related gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in
the laboratory. The estrogen-like effects of these salts have led to their classification as a metalloestrogen.
The effects of aluminium in antiperspirants has been examined over the course of decades with little evidence of skin
irritation. Nonetheless, its occurrence in antiperspirants, dyes (such as aluminium lake), and food additives is
controversial in some quarters.
Although there is little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adults,
[10]
some studies
point to risks associated with increased exposure to the metal. Aluminium in food may be absorbed more than
aluminium from water. Some researchers have expressed concerns that the aluminium in antiperspirants may
increase the risk of breast cancer, and aluminium has controversially been implicated as a factor in Alzheimer's
disease. The Camelford water pollution incident involved a number of people consuming aluminium sulfate.
Investigations of the long-term health effects are still ongoing, but elevated brain aluminium concentrations have
been found in post-mortem examinations of victims, and further research to determine if there is a link with cerebral
amyloid angiopathy has been commissioned.
According to the Alzheimer's Society, the medical and scientific opinion is that studies have not convincingly
demonstrated a causal relationship between aluminium and Alzheimer's disease.
[11]
Nevertheless, some studies, such
as those on the PAQUID cohort, cite aluminium exposure as a risk factor for Alzheimer's disease. Some brain
plaques have been found to contain increased levels of the metal. Research in this area has been inconclusive;
aluminium accumulation may be a consequence of the disease rather than a causal agent. In any event, if there is any
toxicity of aluminium, it must be via a very specific mechanism, since total human exposure to the element in the
form of naturally occurring clay in soil and dust is enormously large over a lifetime. Scientific consensus does not
yet exist about whether aluminium exposure could directly increase the risk of Alzheimer's disease.
Aluminium
15
In case of suspected sudden intake of large amount of aluminium, deferoxamine mesylate may be given to help
eliminate it from the body by chelation.
[12]
Effect on plants
Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acid soils. Although it is generally harmless to
plant growth in pH-neutral soils, the concentration in acid soils of toxic Al
3+
cations increases and disturbs root
growth and function.
Most acid soils are saturated with aluminium rather than hydrogen ions. The acidity of the soil is therefore a result of
hydrolysis of aluminium compounds. This concept of "corrected lime potential" to define the degree of base
saturation in soils became the basis for procedures now used in soil testing laboratories to determine the "lime
requirement" of soils.
[13]
Wheat's adaptation to allow aluminium tolerance is such that the aluminium induces a release of organic compounds
that bind to the harmful aluminium cations. Sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism. The first
gene for aluminium tolerance has been identified in wheat. It was shown that sorghum's aluminium tolerance is
controlled by a single gene, as for wheat. This is not the case in all plants.
Biodegradation
The fungi Geotrichum candidum has been found to consume the aluminum in compact discs. The bacteria Ps.
Acruginosa and the fungi C. resinae are commonly detected in aircraft engines, and can degrade aluminum in
cultures.
References
[1] [1] Aluminium monoxide
[2] [2] Aluminium iodide
[3] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Infobox_aluminium& action=edit
[4] Mats Ingulstad, We Want Aluminum, No Excuses: Business-Government Relations in the American Aluminum Industry, 19171957, in
From Warfare to Welfare: Business-Government Relations in the Aluminium Industry, ed. Mats Ingulstad and Hans Otto Frland, 3368.
(Oslo: Tapir Academic Press, 2012.)
[5] IUPAC Periodic Table of the Elements (http:/ / www. iupac. org/ highlights/ periodic-table-of-the-elements. html). iupac.org
[6] IUPAC Web site publication search for 'aluminum' (http:/ / www. google. com/ search?q=aluminum& sitesearch=iupac. org).
[7] Bremner, John Words on Words: A Dictionary for Writers and Others Who Care about Words, pp. 2223. ISBN 0-231-04493-3.
[8] "alumium", Oxford English Dictionary. Ed. J.A. Simpson and E.S.C. Weiner, second edition Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989. OED Online
Oxford University Press. Accessed 29 October 2006. Citation is listed as "1808 SIR H. DAVY in Phil. Trans. XCVIII. 353". The ellipsis in
the quotation is as it appears in the OED citation.
[9] [9] , "In the USA, the position was more complicated. Noah Webster's Dictionary of 1828 has only aluminum, though the standard spelling
among US chemists throughout most of the 19th century was aluminium; it was the preferred version in The Century Dictionary of 1889 and
is the only spelling given in the Webster Unabridged Dictionary of 1913."
[10] Gitelman, H. J. "Physiology of Aluminum in Man" (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=wRnOytsi8boC& pg=PA90), in Aluminum and
Health, CRC Press, 1988, ISBN 0-8247-8026-4, p. 90
[11] Aluminium and Alzheimer's disease (http:/ / alzheimers. org. uk/ site/ scripts/ documents_info. php?documentID=99), The Alzheimer's
Society. Retrieved 30 January 2009.
[12] Aluminum Toxicity (http:/ / www.med. nyu. edu/ content?ChunkIID=164929) from NYU Langone Medical Center. Last reviewed
November 2012 by Igor Puzanov, MD
[13] [13] Applying lime to soils reduces the Aluminum toxicity to plants.
Aluminium
16
External links
Aluminium (http:/ / www. periodicvideos. com/ videos/ 013. htm) at The Periodic Table of Videos (University of
Nottingham)
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards - Aluminum (http:/ / www. cdc. gov/ niosh/ npg/ npgd0022.
html)
Electrolytic production (http:/ / electrochem. cwru. edu/ encycl/ art-a01-al-prod. htm)
World production of primary aluminium, by country (http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/ en/ commodities/ minerals/
aluminum/ aluminum_table12. html)
Price history of aluminum, according to the IMF (http:/ / www. indexmundi. com/ commodities/
?commodity=aluminum& months=300)
History of Aluminium (http:/ / www. world-aluminium. org/ About+ Aluminium/ Story+ of/ In+ history) from
the website of the International Aluminium Institute
Emedicine Aluminium (http:/ / www. emedicine. com/ med/ topic113. htm)
The short film ALUMINUM (1941) (http:/ / www. archive. org/ details/ gov. archives. arc. 38661) is available for
free download at the Internet Archive [more]
17
Isotopes
Isotopes of aluminium
Aluminium (Al) has 22 known isotopes from
21
Al to
42
Al and 4 known isomers. Only
27
Al (stable isotope) and
26
Al
(radioactive isotope, t
1/2
= 7.2 10
5
y) occur naturally, however
27
Al has a natural abundance of 99.9+ %. Other
than
26
Al, all radioisotopes have half-lives under 7 minutes, most under a second. Standard atomic mass is
26.9815386(8) u.
26
Al is produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic-ray protons.
Aluminium isotopes have found practical application in dating marine sediments, manganese nodules, glacial ice,
quartz in rock exposures, and meteorites. The ratio of
26
Al to
10
Be has been used to study the role of sediment
transport, deposition, and storage, as well as burial times, and erosion, on 10
5
to 10
6
year time scales.
[citation needed]
Cosmogenic Aluminium-26 was first applied in studies of the Moon and meteorites. Meteorite fragments, after
departure from their parent bodies, are exposed to intense cosmic-ray bombardment during their travel through
space, causing substantial
26
Al production. After falling to Earth, atmospheric shielding protects the meteorite
fragments from further
26
Al production, and its decay can then be used to determine the meteorite's terrestrial age.
Meteorite research has also shown that
26
Al was relatively abundant at the time of formation of our planetary system.
Most meteoriticists believe that the energy released by the decay of
26
Al was responsible for the melting and
differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.
Table
nuclide
symbol
Z(p) N(n) isotopic mass
(u)
half-life
decay
mode(s)
[1]
daughter
isotope(s)
[2]
nuclear
spin
representative
isotopic
composition
(mole
fraction)
range of
natural
variation
(mole
fraction)
excitation energy
19
Al
13 6 19.0218# <35 ns p 18
Mg
20
Al
13 7 20.0194# <35 ns p 19
Mg
21
Al
13 8 21.02804(32)# <35 ns p 20
Mg
1/2+#
22
Al
13 9 22.01952(10)# 59(3) ms

+
(96.7%)
22
Mg
(3)+

+
, 2p
(2.5%)
20
Ne

+
, p
(0.8%)
21
Na
23
Al
13 10 23.007267(20) 470(30) ms

+
(92%)
23
Mg
5/2+#

+
, p (8%)
22
Na
23m
Al
~0.35 s #79
Isotopes of aluminium
18
24
Al
13 11 23.9999389(30) 2.053(4) s

+
(99.95%)
24
Mg
4+

+
,
(.0349%)
20
Ne

+
, p
(.0159%)
23
Na
24m
Al
425.8(1) keV 131.3(25) ms IT (82%) 24
Al
1+

+
(18%)
24
Mg

+
,
20
Ne
25
Al
13 12 24.9904281(5) 7.183(12) s

+ 25
Mg
5/2+
26
Al
[3]
13 13 25.98689169(6)
7.17(24)10
5
a

+ 26
Mg
5+
Trace
[4]
26m
Al
228.305(13) keV 6.3452(19) s

+ 26
Mg
0+
27
Al
13 14 26.98153863(12) Stable 5/2+ 1.0000
28
Al
13 15 27.98191031(14) 2.2414(12)
min

- 28
Si
3+
29
Al
13 16 28.9804450(13) 6.56(6) min

- 29
Si
5/2+
30
Al
13 17 29.982960(15) 3.60(6) s

- 30
Si
3+
31
Al
13 18 30.983947(22) 644(25) ms

-
(98.4%)
31
Si
(3/2,5/2)+

-
, n (1.6%)
30
Si
32
Al
13 19 31.98812(9) 31.7(8) ms

-
(99.3%)
32
Si
1+

-
, n (.7%)
31
Si
32m
Al
955.7(4) keV 200(20) ns (4+)
33
Al
13 20 32.99084(8) 41.7(2) ms

-
(91.5%)
33
Si
(5/2+)#

-
, n (8.5%)
32
Si
34
Al
13 21 33.99685(12) 56.3(5) ms

-
(87.5%)
34
Si
4-#

-
, n
(12.5%)
33
Si
35
Al
13 22 34.99986(19) 38.6(4) ms

-
(74%)
35
Si
5/2+#

-
, n (26%)
33
Si
36
Al
13 23 36.00621(23) 90(40) ms

-
(69%)
36
Si

-
, n (31%)
35
Si
37
Al
13 24 37.01068(36) 10.7(13) ms

- 37
Si
3/2+
38
Al
13 25 38.01723(78) 7.6(6) ms

- 38
Si
39
Al
13 26 39.02297(158) 7.6(16) ms

- 39
Si
3/2+#
Isotopes of aluminium
19
40
Al
13 27 40.03145(75)# 10# ms [>260
ns]
41
Al
13 28 41.03833(86)# 2# ms [>260
ns]
3/2+#
42
Al
13 29 42.04689(97)# 1 ms
[1] Abbreviations:
IT: Isomeric transition
[2] [2] Bold for stable isotopes
[3] Used in radiodating events early in the Solar System's history and meteorites
[4] [4] cosmogenic
Notes
Values marked # are not purely derived from experimental data, but at least partly from systematic trends. Spins
with weak assignment arguments are enclosed in parentheses.
Uncertainties are given in concise form in parentheses after the corresponding last digits. Uncertainty values
denote one standard deviation, except isotopic composition and standard atomic mass from IUPAC which use
expanded uncertainties.
References
Isotope masses from:
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear
and decay properties" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ amdc/ nubase/ Nubase2003. pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729:
3128. Bibcode: 2003NuPhA.729....3A (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2003NuPhA. 729. . . . 3A). doi:
10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
Isotopic compositions and standard atomic masses from:
J. R. de Laeter, J. K. Bhlke, P. De Bivre, H. Hidaka, H. S. Peiser, K. J. R. Rosman and P. D. P. Taylor
(2003). "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http:/ / www. iupac. org/
publications/ pac/ 75/ 6/ 0683/ pdf/ ). Pure and Applied Chemistry 75 (6): 683800. doi:
10.1351/pac200375060683 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/ pac200375060683).
M. E. Wieser (2006). "Atomic weights of the elements 2005 (IUPAC Technical Report)" (http:/ / iupac. org/
publications/ pac/ 78/ 11/ 2051/ pdf/ ). Pure and Applied Chemistry 78 (11): 20512066. doi:
10.1351/pac200678112051 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1351/ pac200678112051). Lay summary (http:/ / old.
iupac. org/ news/ archives/ 2005/ atomic-weights_revised05. html).
G. Audi, A. H. Wapstra, C. Thibault, J. Blachot and O. Bersillon (2003). "The NUBASE evaluation of nuclear
and decay properties" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ amdc/ nubase/ Nubase2003. pdf). Nuclear Physics A 729:
3128. Bibcode: 2003NuPhA.729....3A (http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 2003NuPhA. 729. . . . 3A). doi:
10.1016/j.nuclphysa.2003.11.001 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. nuclphysa. 2003. 11. 001).
National Nuclear Data Center. "NuDat 2.1 database" (http:/ / www. nndc. bnl. gov/ nudat2/ ). Brookhaven
National Laboratory. Retrieved September 2005.
N. E. Holden (2004). "Table of the Isotopes". In D. R. Lide. CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (85th
ed.). CRC Press. Section 11. ISBN978-0-8493-0485-9.
Isotopes of aluminium
20
External links
Aluminum isotopes data from The Berkeley Laboratory Isotopes Project's (http:/ / ie. lbl. gov/ education/ parent/
Al_iso. htm)
Isotopes of magnesium Isotopes of aluminium Isotopes of silicon
Table of nuclides
Aluminium-26
Aluminium-26
Full table
General
Name, symbol
Aluminium-26,
26
Al
Neutrons 13
Protons 13
Nuclide data
Natural abundance trace (cosmogenic)
Half-life
7.1710
5
years
Spin 5+
Decay mode Decay energy
+, , x-rays
1.808,
[1]
MeV
fill in, please MeV
Aluminium-26,
26
Al, is a radioactive isotope of the chemical element aluminium, decaying by either of the modes
beta-plus or electron capture, both resulting in the stable nuclide magnesium-26. The half-life of
26
Al is 7.1710
5
years. This is far too short for the isotope to survive to the present, but a small amount of the nuclide is produced by
collisions of argon atoms with cosmic ray protons.
Aluminium-26 also emits gamma rays and X-rays, and is one of the few radionuclides to emit X-rays. Because it is
radioactive it should be stored behind at least 5 cm (2 in) of lead and special tools should be used for transfer, use,
and storage. Contact with
26
Al may result in radiological contamination.
Wikipedia:Please clarify
Wikipedia:Please clarify
Aluminium-26
21
Dating of meteorites
Aluminium-26 can be used to calculate the terrestrial age of meteorites. After the breakup of the meteorite parent
body, it will be bombarded by cosmic rays, which will saturate it in aluminium-26. After falling to earth,
26
Al
production ceases, which means that the amount of
26
Al in the sample can be used to calculate the date the meteorite
fell to earth.
Occurrence in the interstellar medium
The distribution of Al in Milky Way
The gamma emission at 1809keV was the first observed gamma
emission from the galactic center. The observation was made by
the HEAO-3 satellite in 1984.
The isotope is mainly produced in supernovae ejecting many
radioactive nuclides in the interstellar medium. The isotope is
believed to provide enough heat also to small planetary bodies,
such as has been in the early history of the asteroids 1 Ceres and 4
Vesta, heating so as to differentiate their interiors. This isotope
also features in hypotheses regarding the equatorial bulge of
Saturn's moon Iapetus.
History
Before 1954, the measured half-life of aluminium-26 was determined to be 6.3 seconds. After theoretical evidence
occurred that this could be the half-life of a metastable state (isomer) of aluminium-26, the ground state was
produced by bombardment of magnesium-26 and magnesium-25 with deuterons in the cyclotron of the University of
Pittsburgh. The first half-life was determined to be in the range of 10
6
years. The Fermi beta decay half-life of the
aluminium-26 metastable state is of interest in the experimental testing of two components of the standard model,
namely, the conserved-vector-current hypothesis and the required unitarity of the Cabibbo-Kobayashi-Maskawa
matrix.
[2]
The decay is superallowed. The 2011 measurement of the half life of Al-26(m) is 6346.54
0.46(statistical) 0.60(system) milliseconds.
[3]
References
[1] Thomas, J. H.; Rau, R. L.; Skelton, R. T.; Kavanagh, "Half-life of 26Al" R. W. Physical Review C (Nuclear Physics), Volume 30, Issue 1,
July 1984, pp.385-387.
[2] Scott, RJ; O'Keefe, GJ, Thompson, MN; Rassool, RP, "Precise measurement of the half-life of the Fermi beta decay of (26)Al(m),"
PHYSICAL REVIEW C Volume: 84 Issue: 2 Article Number: 024611, DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevC.84.024611 (http:/ / prc. aps. org/ abstract/
PRC/ v84/ i2/ e024611) AUG 22 2011.
[3] Finlay, P et al, "High-Precision Half-Life Measurement for the Superallowed beta(+) Emitter (26)Al(m)", Phys. Rev. Lett., 106 Issue: 3
Article Number: 032501 ( DOI: 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.032501 (http:/ / prl. aps. org/ abstract/ PRL/ v106/ i3/ e032501)) JAN 21 2011
22
Chemistry
Aluminium smelting
Overview of the Point Henry smelter, operated by Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
in Australia
Aluminium smelting is the process of
extracting aluminium from its oxide,
alumina, generally by the Hall-Hroult
process. Alumina is extracted from the
ore bauxite by means of the Bayer
process at an alumina refinery.
This is an electrolytic process, so an
aluminium smelter uses prodigious
amounts of electricity; they tend to be located very close to large power stations, often hydro-electric ones, and near
ports since almost all of them use imported alumina. A large amount of carbon is also used in this process, resulting
in significant amounts of GHG emissions.
Layout of an aluminium smelter
The Hall-Hroult electrolysis process is the major production route for primary aluminium. An electrolysis cell is
made of a steel shell with a series of insulating linings of refractory materials. The cell consists of a brick-lined outer
steel shell as a container and support. Inside the shell, cathode blocks are cemented together by ramming paste. The
top lining is in contact with the molten metal and acts as the cathode. The molten electrolyte is maintained at high
temperature inside the cell. The prebaked anode is also made of carbon in the form of large sintered blocks
suspended in the electrolyte. A single Soderberg electrode or a number of prebaked carbon blocks are used as anode,
while the principal formulation and the fundamental reactions occurring on their surface are the same.
An aluminium smelter consists of a large number of cell (pots) in which the electrolysis takes place. A typical
smelter contains anywhere from 300 to 720 pots, each of which produces about a ton of aluminium a day, though the
largest proposed smelters are up to five times that capacity. Smelting is run as a batch process, with the aluminium
metal deposited at the bottom of the pots and periodically siphoned off. Power must be constantly available, since
the pots have to be repaired at significant cost if the liquid metal solidifies.
Principle
Alumina is dissolved in molten cryolite, typically at 960C, according to the following simplified reactions:
Al
2
O
3
+3/2C=2Al+3/2CO
2
G=264460+3.75TlogT-92.52T cal
Al
2
O
3
+3C=2Al+3CO G=325660+3.75TlogT-155.07T cal
Although the formation of CO is thermodynamically favoured at this temperature, the presence of considerable
overvoltage (difference between reversible and polarization potentials) changes the thermodynamic equilibrium and
a mixture of CO and CO2 is produced.
[1][2]
Carbon anodes are thus consumed during electrolysis, resulting in high
energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions in smelting plants.
Boudouard reaction may also take place as a side reaction:
CO
2
+C2CO G=40800-41.7T cal
Aluminium smelting
23
CO
2
reacts with carbon dust as well as the anode to form carbon monoxide. Formation of CO consumes twice as
much carbon as required for CO2 formation. Carbon consumption shows that the primary anode product is CO
2
. By
increasing the current density up to 1 A/cm2, the proportion of CO2 increases and carbon consumption
decreases.
[3][4]
Cell components
Electrolyte: The electrolyte is a molten bath of cryolite (Na
3
AlF
6
) and dissolved alumina. Cryolite is a good solvent
for alumina with low melting point, satisfactory viscosity, low vapour pressure. Its density is also lower than that of
liquid aluminum (2 vs 2.3 g/cm
3
), which allows natural separation of the product from the salt at the bottom of the
cell. The cryolite ratio (NaF/AlF
3
) in pure cryolite is 3, with a melting temperature of 1010 C, and it forms a
eutectic with 11% alumina at 960 C. In industrial cells the cryolite ratio is kept between 2 and 3 to decrease its
melting temperature to 940-980 C.
[5][6]
Cathode: Carbon cathodes are essentially made of anthracite, graphite and petroleum coke, which are calcined at
around 1200 C and crushed and sieved prior to being used in cathode manufacturing. Aggregates are mixed with
coal-tar pitch, formed, and baked. Carbon purity is not as stringent as for anode, because metal contamination from
cathode is not significant. Carbon cathode must have adequate strength, good electrical conductivity and high
resistance to wear and sodium penetration. Anthracite cathodes have higher wear resistance
[7]
and slower creep with
lower amplitude [15] than graphitic and graphitized petroleum coke cathodes. Instead, dense cathodes with more
graphitic order have higher electrical conductivity, lower energy consumption [14], and lower swelling due to
sodium penetration.
[8]
Swelling results in early and non-uniform deterioration of cathode blocks.
Anode: Carbon anodes have a specific situation in aluminum smelting and depending on the type of anode,
aluminum smelting is divided in two different technologies; Soderberg and prebaked anodes. Anodes are also
made of petroleum coke, mixed with coal-tar-pitch, followed by forming and baking at elevated temperatures. The
quality of anode affects technological, economical and environmental aspects of aluminum production. Energy
efficiency is related to the nature of anode materials, as well as the porosity of baked anodes. Around 10% of cell
power is consumed to overcome the electrical resistance of prebaked anode (50-60 m).
[9]
Carbon is consumed
more than theoretical value due to a low current efficiency and non-electrolytic consumption. Inhomogeneous anode
quality due to the variation in raw materials and production parameters also affects its performance and the cell
stability.
Prebaked anodes are divided into graphitized and coke types. For manufacturing of the graphitized anodes,
anthracite and petroleum coke are calcined and classified. They are then mixed with coal-tar pitch and pressed. The
pressed green anode is then baked at 1200 C and graphitized. Coke anodes are made of calcined petroleum coke,
recycled anode butts, and coal-tar pitch (binder). The anodes are manufactured by mixing aggregates with coal tar
pitch to form a paste with a doughy consistency. This material is most often vibro-compacted but in some plants
pressed. The green anode is then sintered at 1100-1200 C for 300400 hours, without graphitization, to increase its
strength through decomposition and carbonization of the binder. Higher baking temperatures increase the mechanical
properties and thermal conductivity, and decrease the air and CO
2
reactivity.
[10]
The specific electrical resistance of
the coke-type anodes is higher than that of the graphitized ones, but they have higher compressive strength and lower
porosity.
[11]
Soderberg electrodes (in-situ baking), used for the first time in 1923 in Norway, are composed of a steel shell and a
carbonaceous mass which is baked by the heat being escaped from the electrolysis cell. Soderberg Carbon-based
materials such as coke and anthracite are crushed, heat-treated, and classified. These aggregates are mixed with pitch
or oil as binder, briquetted and loaded into the shell. Temperature increases bottom to the top of the column and
in-situ baking takes place as the anode is lowered into the bath. Significant amount of hydrocarbons are emitted
during baking which is a disadvantage of this type of electrodes. Most of the modern smelters use prebaked anodes
since the process control is easier and a slightly better energy efficiency is achieved, compared to Soderberg anodes.
Aluminium smelting
24
Environmental issues of aluminium smelters
The process produces a quantity of fluoride waste: perfluorocarbons and hydrogen fluoride as gases, and sodium and
aluminium fluorides and unused cryolite as particulates. This can be as small as 0.5kg per ton of aluminium in the
best plants in 2007, up to 4kg per ton of aluminium in older designs in 1974. Unless carefully controlled, hydrogen
fluorides tend to be very toxic to vegetation around the plants. The perfluorocarbons gases are strong greenhouse
gases with a long lifetime.
The Soderburgh process which bakes the Anthracite/pitch mix as the anode is consumed, produces significant
emissions of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as the pitch is consumed in the smelter.
The linings of the pots end up contaminated with cyanide-forming materials; Alcoa has a process for converting
spent linings into aluminium fluoride for reuse and synthetic sand usable for building purposes and inert waste.
Example aluminium smelters
Alcan Lynemouth Aluminium Smelter, powered by the coal-fired Lynemouth Power Station in North East
England
Anglesey Aluminium, powered by Wylfa nuclear power station in north-west Wales (shut down as of 30/09/09)
The Valco aluminium smelter in Ghana, powered by the Akosombo Dam hydro-electric dam
Fjaral in Iceland, to be powered by the Krahnjkar dam
Jharsuguda in Orissa, India, to be powered by its own 1215MW coal-fired power station.
Alcoa's Point Henry smelter near Geelong, Australia, powered by its own brown coal fueled power station and
grid electricity.
Aluminerie Alouette in Sept-les, Qubec.
Alba Smelter in Bahrain, powered by its own four power stations with a total generating capacity of 2,265MW.
Egypt Aluminium in Egypt, powered by the high dam.
Rio Tinto Alcan Kitimat Smelter, powered by the Kemano Hydro Electric Power station
SMD (Structural & Mechanical division) of AMA are the biggest producers of Aluminium smelters in Middle
east and have successfully exported the smelters to Rio Tinto (Kitimat), Maaden, EMAL .
References
[1] [1] K. Grjotheim and C. Krohn, Aluminium electrolysis: The chemistry of the Hall-Heroult process: Aluminium-Verlag GmbH, 1977.
[2] [2] F. Habashi, Handbook of Extractive Metallurgy vol. 2: Wiley-VCH, 1997.
[3] [3] Z. Kuang, et al., "Effect of baking temperature and anode current density on anode carbon consumption," Metallurgical and Materials
Transactions B, vol. 27, pp. 177-183, 1996.
[4] [4] R. Farr-Wharton, et al., "Chemical and electrochemical oxidation of heterogeneous carbon anodes," Electrochimica Acta, vol. 25, pp.
217-221, 1980.
[5] [5] F. Habashi, "Extractive metallurgy of aluminum," in Handbook of Aluminum: Volume 2: Alloy production and materials manufacturing. vol.
2, G. E. Totten and D. S. MacKenzie, Eds., First ed: Marcel Dekker, 2003, pp. 1-45
[6] P. A. Foster, "Phase diagram of a portion of system Na
3
AlF
6
-AlF
3
-Al
2
O
3
," Journal of the American Ceramic Society, vol. 58, pp. 288-291,
1975
[7] B. J. Welch, et al., "Future materials requirements for the high-energy-intensity production of aluminum," Jom-Journal of the Minerals Metals
& Materials Society, vol. 53, pp. 13-18, Feb 2001
[8] [8] P. Y. Brisson, et al., "X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study of sodium reactions in carbon cathode blocks of aluminium oxide reduction
cells," Carbon, vol. 44, pp. 1438-1447, 2006
[9] [9] F. Habashi, "Extractive metallurgy of aluminum," in Handbook of Aluminum: Volume 2: Alloy production and materials manufacturing. vol.
2, G. E. Totten and D. S. MacKenzie, Eds., First ed: Marcel Dekker, 2003, pp. 1-45
[10] [10] W. K. Fischer, et al., "Baking parameters and the resulting anode quality," in TMS Annual Meeting, Denver, CO, USA, 1993, pp. 683-689
[11] [11] M. M. Gasik and M. L. Gasik, "Smelting of aluminum," in Handbook of Aluminum: Volume 2: Alloy production and materials
manufacturing. vol. 2, G. E. Totten and D. S. MacKenzie, Eds., ed: Marcel Dekker, 2003, pp. 47-79
Aluminium recycling
25
Aluminium recycling
CEN Logo for Recyclable
Aluminium
Aluminium recycling is the process by which scrap aluminium can be reused
in products after its initial production. The process involves simply re-melting
the metal, which is far less expensive and energy intensive than creating new
aluminium through the electrolysis of aluminium oxide (Al
2
O
3
), which must
first be mined from bauxite ore and then refined using the Bayer process.
Recycling scrap aluminium requires only 5% of the energy used to make new
aluminium. For this reason, approximately 31% of all aluminium produced in
the United States comes from recycled scrap.
[1]
Used beverage containers are
the largest component of processed aluminum scrap, with most UBC scrap
manufactured back into aluminum cans.
Recycling
A common practice since the early 1900s and extensively capitalized during
World War II, aluminium recycling is not new. It was, however, a low-profile
activity until the late 1960s when the exploding popularity of aluminium
beverage cans finally placed recycling into the public consciousness.
Model promoting aluminium
recycling at Douglas Aircraft
Company, 1942
Sources for recycled aluminium include aircraft, automobiles, bicycles, boats,
computers, cookware, gutters, siding, wire, and many other products that need a
strong light weight material, or a material with high thermal conductivity. As
recycling does not transmute the element, aluminium can be recycled indefinitely
and still be used to produce any product for which new aluminium could have
been used.
[2]
Aluminium recycling
26
Baled cans ready for transport
Shredded aluminium beverage cans
Advantages
The recycling of aluminium generally produces significant cost
savings over the production of new aluminium even when the cost
of collection, separation and recycling are taken into account.
[3]
Over the long term, even larger national savings are made when
the reduction in the capital costs associated with landfills, mines
and international shipping of raw aluminium are considered.
Energy savings
Recycling aluminium uses about 5% of the energy required to
create aluminium from bauxite; the amount of energy required to
convert aluminium oxide into aluminium can be vividly seen when
the process is reversed during the combustion of thermite or
ammonium perchlorate composite propellant.
Environmental savings
Recycled aluminium uses 5% of the energy that would be needed
to create a comparable amount from raw materials. The benefit
with respect to emissions of carbon dioxide depends on the type of
energy used. Electrolysis can be done using electricity from
non-fossil-fuel sources, such as nuclear, geothermal, hydroelectric,
or solar. Aluminium production is attracted to sources of cheap
electricity. Canada, Brazil, Norway, and Venezuela have 61 to 99% hydroelectric power, and are major aluminium
producers.
The vast amount of aluminium used means that even small percentage losses are large expenses, so the flow of
material is well monitored and accounted for financial reasons. Efficient production and recycling benefits the
environment as well.
[4]
Process for beverage cans
Aluminium beverage cans are usually recycled in the following basic way:
[5]
1. Cans are first divided from municipal waste, usually through an eddy current separator, and cut into little, equal
pieces to lessen the volume and make it easier for the machines that separate them.
2. Pieces are cleaned chemically/mechanically, and blocked to minimize oxidation losses when melted. (The surface
of aluminium readily oxidizes back into aluminium oxide when exposed to oxygen.
[6]
).
3. 3. Blocks are loaded into the furnace and heated to 750 C 100 C to produce molten aluminium.
4. Dross is removed and the dissolved hydrogen is degassed. (Molten aluminium readily disassociates hydrogen
from water vapor and hydrocarbon contaminants.) This is typically done with chlorine and nitrogen gas.
Hexachloroethane tablets are normally used as the source for chlorine. Ammonium perchlorate can also be used,
as it decomposes mainly into chlorine, nitrogen, and oxygen when heated.
[7]
5. Samples are taken for spectroscopic analysis. Depending on the final product desired, high purity aluminium,
copper, zinc, manganese, silicon, and/or magnesium is added to alter the molten composition to the proper alloy
specification. The top five aluminium alloys produced are apparently 6061, 7075, 1100, 6063, and 2024.
Aluminium recycling
27
6. The furnace is tapped, the molten aluminium poured out, and the process is repeated again for the next batch.
Depending on the end product it may be cast into ingots, billets, or rods, formed into large slabs for rolling,
atomized into powder, sent to an extruder, or transported in its molten state to manufacturing facilities for further
processing.
[8]
Ingot production using reverberatory furnaces
The scrap aluminium is separated into a range of categories e.g. irony aluminium (engine blocks etc.), clean
aluminium (alloy wheels). Depending on the specification of the required ingot casting it will depend on the type of
scrap used in the start melt. Generally the scrap is charged to a reverberatory furnace (other methods appear to be
either less economical and/ or dangerous) and melted down to form a "bath". The molten metal is tested using
spectroscopy on a sample taken from the melt to determine what refinements are needed to produce the final casts.
After the refinements have been added the melt may be tested several times to be able to fine tune the batch to the
specific standard
Once the correct "recipe" of metal is available the furnace is tapped and poured into ingot moulds, usually via a
casting machine. The melt is then left to cool, stacked and sold on as cast silicon aluminium ingot to various
industries for re-use.
Recycling rates
Brazil recycles 98.2% of its aluminium can production, equivalent to 14.7 billion beverage cans per year, ranking
first in the world, more than Japan's 82.5% recovery rate. Brazil has topped the aluminium can recycling charts eight
years in a row.
Secondary aluminium recycling
White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful
quantities of aluminium which can be extracted industrially.
[9]
The process produces aluminium billets, together with
a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases
(including, among others, hydrogen, acetylene, and ammonia) which spontaneously ignites on contact with air;
[10]
contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, however,
the waste has found use as a filler in asphalt and concrete.
[11]
References
[1] minerals.usgs.gov (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ aluminum/ mcs-2008-alumi. pdf)
[2] WasteOnline: Metals aluminium and steel recycling (http:/ / www. wasteonline. org. uk/ resources/ InformationSheets/ metals. htm)
[3] International Aluminum Institute (http:/ / www. world-aluminium. org/ cache/ fl0000181. pdf)
[4] Aluminium organisation: Environmental issues (http:/ / world-aluminium. org/ Sustainability/ Environmental+ Issues)
[5] aluminum.org: How Is An Aluminum Can Recycled? (http:/ / www. aluminum. org/ Content/ NavigationMenu/ News_and_Stats/
CansForHabitat_org/ Aluminum_Recycling/ How_Is_An_Aluminum_Can_Recycled_/ How_Is_An_Aluminum_Can_Recycled_. htm)
[6] www.metalwebnews.com: Melting Practice (http:/ / www. metalwebnews. com/ howto/ furnace2/ melting. html)
[7] key-to-metals.com: Aluminum Casting Problems (http:/ / www. key-to-metals. com/ Article83. htm)
[8] Alcoa Primary Aluminum - North America: Products (http:/ / www. alcoa. com/ primary_na/ en/ products/ products. asp)
[9] Hwang, J.Y., Huang, X., Xu, Z. (2006), Recovery of Metals from Aluminum Dross and Salt cake, Journal of Minerals & Materials
Characterization & Engineering. Vol. 5, No. 1, pp 47-62
[10] Why are dross & saltcake a concern? (http:/ / www. ohiolandfills. org/ faq/ aluminum-dross-saltcake/ )
[11] [11] Dunster, A.M., Moulinier, F., Abbott, B., Conroy, A., Adams, K., Widyatmoko, D.(2005). Added value of using new industrial waste
streams as secondary aggregates in both concrete and asphalt. DTI/WRAP Aggregates Research Programme STBF 13/15C. The Waste and
Resources Action Programme
Aluminium recycling
28
External links
Youcanchangetheplanet.org (http:/ / www. youcanchangetheplanet. org) - an organization promoting aluminium
recycling and the rehabilitation of damaged ecosystems.
Thomasnet.com (http:/ / www. thomasnet. com/ articles/ custom-manufacturing-fabricating/
manufacturing-aluminum-extrusions) - Recycled Aluminium in Manufacturing
Secondary Aluminum Smelters of the World (http:/ / www. lightmetalage. com/ producers. php) - A list of
companies who produce secondary aluminium (i.e., recycled or remelted from scrap metal)
Bauxite
Bauxite with US penny for comparison
QEMSCAN mineral maps of bauxite ore-forming
pisoliths
Bauxite with core of unweathered rock
Bauxite, an aluminium ore, is the world's main source of aluminium. It
consists mostly of the minerals gibbsite Al(OH)
3
, boehmite
-AlO(OH) and diaspore -AlO(OH), mixed with the two iron oxides
goethite and haematite, the clay mineral kaolinite and small amounts of
anatase TiO
2
. Bauxite was named by the French geologist Pierre
Berthier in 1821 after the village of Les Baux in Provence, southern
France, where he discovered it and was the first to recognize that it
contained aluminium.
Formasi
Lateritic bauxites (silicate bauxites) are distinguished from karst
bauxite ores (carbonate bauxites). The early discovered carbonate
bauxites occur predominantly in Europe and Jamaica above carbonate
rocks (limestone and dolomite), where they were formed by lateritic
weathering and residual accumulation of intercalated clays or by clay
dissolution residues of the limestone.
The lateritic bauxites are found mostly in the countries of the tropics.
They were formed by lateritization of various silicate rocks such as
granite, gneiss, basalt, syenite, and shale. In comparison with the
iron-rich laterites, the formation of bauxites depends even more on
intense weathering conditions in a location with very good drainage.
This enables the dissolution of the kaolinite and the precipitation of the
gibbsite. Zones with highest aluminium content are frequently located
below a ferruginous surface layer. The aluminium hydroxide in the
lateritic bauxite deposits is almost exclusively gibbsite.
In the case of Jamaica, recent analysis of the soils showed elevated
levels of cadmium suggesting that the bauxite originates from recent
Miocene ash deposits from episodes of significant volcanism in Central
America.
Bauxite
29
Bauxite output in 2005
One of the world's largest bauxite mines in
Weipa, Australia
Production trends
In 2009, Australia was the top producer of bauxite with almost
one-third of the world's production, followed by China, Brazil, India,
and Guinea. Although aluminium demand is rapidly increasing, known
reserves of its bauxite ore are sufficient to meet the worldwide
demands for aluminium for many centuries. Increased aluminium
recycling, which has the advantage of lowering the cost in electric
power in producing aluminium, will considerably extend the world's
bauxite reserves.
Numbers for 2010's total proven bauxite reserves x1,000 tonne
Country Mine production Reserves Reserve base
2010 2011 (est.)
Guinea
17,400 18,000 7,400,000 8,600,000
Australia 68,400 67,000 6,200,000 7,900,000
Vietnam
80 80 2,100,000 5,400,000
Jamaica 8,540 10,200 2,000,000 2,500,000
Brazil
28,100 31,000 3,600,000 2,500,000
Guyana 1,760 2,000 850,000 900,000
India
18,000 20,000 900,000 1,400,000
China
44,000 46,000 830,000 2,300,000
Greece
2,100 2,100 600,000 650,000
Iran 500
Suriname
4,000 5,000 580,000 600,000
Sierra Leone
1,090 1,700 180,000 ?
Kazakhstan 5,310 5,400 160,000 450,000
Venezuela
2,500 4,500 320,000 350,000
Russia
5,480 5,800 200,000 250,000
United States 30 N/A 20,000 40,000
Other countries 2,630 2,600 3,300,000 3,800,000
World total (rounded) 209,000 220,000 29,000,000 38,000,000
Bauxite
30
In November 2010, Nguyen Tan Dung, the prime minister of Vietnam, announced that Vietnam's bauxite reserves
might total 11000Mt; this would be the largest in the world.
Processing
Bauxite being loaded at Cabo Rojo, Dominican Republic, to be shipped elsewhere for
processing; 2007
Bauxite is usually strip mined because
it is almost always found near the
surface of the terrain, with little or no
overburden. Approximately 70% to
80% of the world's dry bauxite
production is processed first into
alumina, and then into aluminium by
electrolysis as of 2010. Bauxite rocks
are typically classified according to
their intended commercial application:
metallurgical, abrasive, cement,
chemical, and refractory.
Usually, bauxite ore is heated in a pressure vessel along with a sodium hydroxide solution at a temperature of 150 to
200 C. At these temperatures, the aluminium is dissolved as an aluminate (the Bayer process). After separation of
ferruginous residue (red mud) by filtering, pure gibbsite is precipitated when the liquid is cooled, and then seeded
with fine-grained aluminium hydroxide. The gibbsite is usually converted into aluminium oxide, Al
2
O
3
, by heating.
This mineral is dissolved at a temperature of about 960 C in molten cryolite. Next, this molten substance can yield
metallic aluminium by passing an electric current through it in the process of electrolysis, which is called the
HallHroult process after its American and French discoverers in 1886.
Prior to the HallHroult process, elemental aluminium was made by heating ore along with elemental sodium or
potassium in a vacuum. The method was complicated and consumed materials that were themselves expensive at that
time. This made early elemental aluminium more expensive than gold.
References
Further reading
Bardossy, G. (1982): Karst Bauxites. Bauxite deposits on carbonate rocks. Elsevier Sci. Publ. 441 p.
Bardossy, G. and Aleva, G.J.J. (1990): Lateritic Bauxites. Developments in Economic Geology 27, Elsevier Sci.
Publ. 624 p.ISBN 0-444-988
Grant, C; lalor, G and Vutchkov, M (2005) Comparison of bauxites from Jamaica, the Dominican Republic and
Suriname. Journal of Radioanalytical and Nuclear Chemistry p.385-388 Vol.266, No.3
Hanili, N. (2013).Geological and geochemical evolution of the Bolkardai bauxite deposits, Karaman, Turkey:
Transformation from shale to bauxite. Journal of Geochemical Exploration
Bauxite
31
External links
USGS Minerals Information: Bauxite (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ bauxite/ )
Mineral Information Institute (http:/ / www. mii. org/ Minerals/ photoal. html)
"Bauxite". New International Encyclopedia. 1905.
Bayer process
The Bayer process is the principal industrial means of refining bauxite to produce alumina (aluminium oxide).
Bauxite, the most important ore of aluminium, contains only 3054% aluminium oxide, (alumina), Al
2
O
3
, the rest
being a mixture of silica, various iron oxides, and titanium dioxide. The aluminium oxide must be purified before it
can be refined to aluminium metal.
Process
The Bayer process
In the Bayer process, bauxite is
digested by washing with a hot
solution of sodium hydroxide, NaOH,
at 175 C, under pressure. This
converts the aluminium oxide in the
ore to soluble sodium aluminate,
2NaAl(OH)
4
, according to the
chemical equation:
Al
2
O
3
+ 2 NaOH + 3 H
2
O 2
NaAl(OH)
4
This treatment also dissolves silica, but
the other components of bauxite do not dissolve. Sometimes lime is added here, to precipitate the silica as calcium
silicate. The solution is clarified by filtering off the solid impurities, commonly with a rotary sand trap, and a
flocculent such as starch, to get rid of the fine particles. The mixture of solid impurities is called red mud. Originally,
the alkaline solution was cooled and treated by bubbling carbon dioxide into it, through which aluminium hydroxide
precipitates:
2 NaAl(OH)
4
+ CO
2
2 Al(OH)
3
+ Na
2
CO
3
+ H
2
O
But later, this gave way to seeding the supersaturated solution with high-purity aluminum hydroxide (Al(OH)
3
)
crystal, which eliminated the need for cooling the liquid and was more economically feasible:
NaAl(OH)
4
Al(OH)
3
+ NaOH
Then, when heated to 980C (calcined), the aluminium hydroxide decomposes to aluminium oxide, giving off water
vapor in the process:
2 Al(OH)
3
Al
2
O
3
+ 3 H
2
O
The left-over NaOH solution is then recycled. This, however, allows gallium and vanadium impurities to build up in
the liquors, so these are extracted.
For bauxites having more than 10% silica, Bayer process becomes infeasible due to insoluble sodium aluminum
silicate being formed, which reduces yield, and another process must be chosen.
A large amount of the aluminium oxide so produced is then subsequently smelted in the HallHroult process in
order to produce aluminium.
Bayer process
32
History of the Bayer process
The Bayer process was invented in 1887 by Carl Josef Bayer. Working in Saint Petersburg, Russia to develop a
method for supplying alumina to the textile industry (it was used as a mordant in dyeing cotton), Bayer discovered in
1887 that the aluminium hydroxide that precipitated from alkaline solution was crystalline and could be easily
filtered and washed, while that precipitated from acid medium by neutralization was gelatinous and difficult to wash.
A few years earlier, Henri tienne Sainte-Claire Deville in France developed a method for making alumina by
heating bauxite in sodium carbonate, Na
2
CO
3
, at 1200C, leaching the sodium aluminate formed with water, then
precipitating aluminium hydroxide by carbon dioxide, CO
2
, which was then filtered and dried. This process was
abandoned in favor of the Bayer process.
The process began to gain importance in metallurgy together with the invention of the HallHroult electrolytic
aluminium process invented just one year earlier in 1886. Together with the cyanidation process invented in 1887,
the Bayer process marks the birth of the modern field of hydrometallurgy.
Today, the process is virtually unchanged and it produces nearly all the world's alumina supply as an intermediate
step in aluminium production.
In 2010 large amounts of caustic red mud waste products were discharged into the Danube river during the Ajka
alumina plant accident.
References
Habashi, F. (2005). "A short history of hydrometallurgy". Hydrometallurgy 79: 1522. doi:
10.1016/j.hydromet.2004.01.008 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. hydromet. 2004. 01. 008).
Deville process
The Deville process was the first industrial process used to produce alumina from bauxite.
The Frenchman Henri Sainte-Claire Deville invented the process in 1859. It is sometimes called the
Deville-Pechiney process. It is based on the extraction of alumina with sodium carbonate.
The first stage is the calcination of the bauxite at 1200C with sodium carbonate and coke. The alumina is converted
in sodium aluminate. Iron oxide remains unchanged and silica forms a polysilicate.
In the second stage sodium hydroxide solution is added, which dissolves the sodium aluminate, leaving the
impurities as a solid residue. The amount of sodium hydroxide solution needed depends upon the amount of silica
present in the raw material. The solution is filtered off; carbon dioxide is bubbled through the solution, causing
aluminium hydroxide to precipitate, leaving a solution of sodium carbonate. The latter can be recovered and reused
in the first stage.
The aluminium hydroxide is calcined to produce alumina.
The process was used in France at Salindres until 1923 and in Germany and Great Britain until the outbreak of the
Second World War.
It has now been replaced by the Bayer process.
Deville process
33
Further readings
Wisniak, Jaime (2004). "Henri tienne Sainte-Claire Deville: A Physician Turned Metallurgist". Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance 13 (2): 117. Bibcode:2004JMEP...13..117W
[1]
.
doi:10.1361/10599490418271
[2]
.
Oesper, R. E.; Lemay, P. (1950). "Henri Sainte-Claire Deville, 1818-1881". Chymia 3: 205221.
JSTOR27757153
[3]
.
McNeil, Ian (2002-06-01). Encyclopaedia of the History of Technology
[4]
. p.103. ISBN9780203192115.
Jahresbericht uber die Fortschritte der chemischen Technologie fur Fabrikanten Hutten und Forsleute,
Cameralisten, Chemiker und Pharmaceuten
[5]
. 1856. p.5.
Banks, Alton (1990). "Sodium". Journal of Chemical Education 67 (12): 1046. Bibcode:1990JChEd..67.1046B
[6]
. doi:10.1021/ed067p1046
[7]
.
Hartmann, Grard. "Laluminium historique"
[8]
.
References
[1] http:/ / adsabs. harvard.edu/ abs/ 2004JMEP. . .13..117W
[2] http:/ / dx.doi. org/ 10. 1361%2F10599490418271
[3] http:/ / www. jstor. org/ stable/ 27757153
[4] http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=fj96Dpp3-5gC& pg=PA103
[5] http:/ / books. google. de/ books?id=zBwAAAAAMAAJ& pg=PA5
[6] http:/ / adsabs. harvard.edu/ abs/ 1990JChEd..67.1046B
[7] http:/ / dx.doi. org/ 10. 1021%2Fed067p1046
[8] http:/ / www. hydroretro.net/ etudegh/ aluminium_historique. pdf
Translated from the French Wikipedia article "Extraction de l'alumine".
HallHroult process
34
HallHroult process
The HallHroult process is the major industrial process for smelting aluminium. It involves dissolving alumina in
molten cryolite, and electrolysing the molten salt bath, typically in a purpose-built cell.
Process
A HallHroult industrial cell
Theory
Elemental aluminium cannot be
produced by the electrolysis of an
aqueous aluminium salt because
hydronium ions readily oxidize
elemental aluminium. Although a
molten aluminium salt could be used
instead, aluminium oxide has a melting
point of over 2,000C (3,630F) so
electrolyzing it is impractical. Enter
the HallHroult process.
In the HallHroult process alumina,
Al
2
O
3
, is dissolved in molten cryolite,
Na
3
AlF
6
and electrolyzed.
Pure cryolite has a melting point of
1,012C (1,854F). With a small
percentage of alumina dissolved in it,
its melting point drops to about
1,000C (1,830F). Aluminium fluoride, AlF
3
is added to the mixture to further reduce the melting point.
A molten mixture of cryolite, alumina and aluminium fluoride is electrolyzed by passing low voltage (3-5V) direct
current through it. This causes liquid aluminium metal to be deposited at the cathode while the oxygen from the
alumina combines with carbon from the anode to produce carbon dioxide. An industrial-scale smelter typically
consumes hundreds of thousands of amperes for each cell.
[1][2]
Cell operation
Temperature within the cell is maintained via electrical resistance. Oxidation of the carbon anode increases the
electrical efficiency at a cost of consuming the carbon electrodes and producing carbon dioxide.
While solid cryolite is denser than solid aluminium at room temperature, liquid aluminium is denser than molten
cryolite at temperatures around 1,000C (1,830F). The aluminium sinks to the bottom of the electrolytic cell,
where it is periodically collected. The liquid aluminium is removed from the cell via a siphon in order to avoid
having to use extremely high temperature valves and pumps. Alumina is added to the cells as the aluminum is
removed.
The cell produces gases at the anode. The exhaust is primarily CO
2
produced from the anode consumption and
hydrogen fluoride (HF) from the cryolite and flux. The gases are either treated or vented into the atmosphere; the
former involving neutralization of the HF to its sodium salt, sodium fluoride. Particulates are captured using
electrostatic or bag filters. The CO
2
is usually vented into the atmosphere.
HallHroult process
35
Agitation of the molten material in the cell increases its production rate at the expense of an increase in cryolite
impurities in the product. Properly designed cells can leverage magnetohydrodynamic forces induced by the
electrolyzing current to agitate the electrolyte. In non-agitating static pool cells the impurities either rise to the top of
the metallic aluminium, or else sink to the bottom, leaving high-purity aluminium in the middle area.
Variations
Today, there are two primary technologies using the HallHroult process: Sderberg and prebake. Sderberg uses a
continuously created anode made by addition of pitch to the top of the anode. The lost heat from the smelting
operation is used to bake the pitch into the carbon form required for reaction with alumina. Prebake technology is
named after its anodes, which are baked in very large gas-fired ovens at high temperature before being lowered by
various heavy industrial lifting systems into the electrolytic solution. In both technologies, the anode, attached to a
very large electrical bus, is slowly used up by the process because the oxygen generated by the electrolytic process
can oxidize the carbon anode. Prebake technology tends to be more efficient, but is more labor intensive. Prebake
technology is becoming preferred in the industry because of the various pollutant emissions related to the creation of
the anode from liquid pitch.
History
An existing need
Aluminium is the most abundant metallic element in the Earth's crust, but it is rarely found in its elemental state. It
occurs in many minerals but its primary commercial source is bauxite, a mixture of hydrated aluminium oxides and
compounds of other elements such as iron.
Prior to the HallHroult process, elemental aluminium was made by heating ore along with elemental sodium or
potassium in a vacuum. The method was complicated and consumed materials that were in themselves expensive at
that time. This meant the cost to produce the small amount of aluminium made in the early 19th century was very
high, higher than for gold or platinum. Bars of aluminium were exhibited alongside the French crown jewels at the
Exposition Universelle of 1855, and Emperor Napoleon III of France was said to have reserved his few sets of
aluminium dinner plates and eating utensils for his most honored guests.
Production costs using older methods did come down, but when aluminium was selected as the material for the
cap/lightning rod to sit atop the Washington Monument in Washington, D.C., it was still more expensive than silver.
Independent discovery
The HallHroult process was invented independently and almost simultaneously in 1886 by the American chemist
Charles Martin Hall and the Frenchman Paul Hroult. In 1888, Hall opened the first large-scale aluminium
production plant in Pittsburgh. It later became the Alcoa corporation.
In 1997 the HallHroult process was designated a National Historic Chemical Landmark by the American
Chemical Society in recognition of the importance of the commercialization of aluminium.
HallHroult process
36
Economic impact
Aluminum produced via the HallHroult process, in combination with cheaper electric power, helped make
aluminium (and incidentally magnesium) an inexpensive commodity rather than a precious metal.
This in turn helped make it possible for pioneers like Hugo Junkers to utilize aluminium and aluminium-magnesium
alloys to make items like metal airplanes by the thousands, or Howard Lund to make aluminium fishing boats.
[3]
References
[1] DUBAL 2008 installed cell amperage for DX Technology (http:/ / www. dubal. ae/ our-technologies/ growth-through-technology/
dx-technology. aspx)
[2] ABB Aluminium Smelter Project Qatalum PL1 and 2 in Qatar (http:/ / library. abb. com/ global/ scot/ scot227. nsf/ veritydisplay/
c1256a4600426ab5c1256d8a00421057/ $File/ Primary_Aluminium _Ref_List_0209. pdf)
[3] http:/ / www. idofishing. com/ forum/ showflat. php/ Number/ 69525/ fpart/ 1/ lund-boat-company-founder-dies-at-91 Lund Boat Company
Founder Dies at 91
Thermite reaction
A thermite mixture using iron (III) oxide
Thermite is a pyrotechnic composition of metal powder fuel and metal
oxide. When ignited by heat, thermite undergoes an exothermic
oxidation-reduction reaction. Most varieties are not explosive but can
create brief bursts of high temperature in a small area. Its form of
action is similar to that of other fuel-oxidizer mixtures, such as black
powder.
Thermites have diverse compositions. Fuels include aluminium,
magnesium, titanium, zinc, silicon, and boron. Aluminium is common
because of its high boiling point. Oxidizers include boron(III) oxide,
silicon(IV) oxide, chromium(III) oxide, manganese(IV) oxide, iron(III)
oxide, iron(II,III) oxide, copper(II) oxide, and lead(II,IV) oxide.
Chemical reactions
A thermite reaction using iron(III)
oxide. The sparks flying outwards
are globules of molten iron trailing
smoke in their wake.
The aluminium reduces the oxide of another metal, most commonly iron oxide,
because aluminium forms stronger bonds with oxygen than iron:
Fe
2
O
3
+ 2 Al 2 Fe + Al
2
O
3
The products are aluminium oxide, free elemental iron, and a large amount of
heat. The reactants are commonly powdered and mixed with a binder to keep the
material solid and prevent separation.
The reaction is used for thermite welding, often used to join rail tracks. Other
metal oxides can be used, such as chromium oxide, to generate the given metal in
its elemental form. Copper thermite, using copper oxide, is used for creating
electric joints in a process called cadwelding (however, it may react violently):
3 CuO + 2 Al 3 Cu + Al
2
O
3
Some thermite-like mixtures are used as pyrotechnic initiators as in fireworks.
Thermite reaction
37
Thermites with nanosized particles are described by a variety of terms, such as metastable intermolecular
composites, super-thermite, nano-thermite, and nanocomposite energetic materials.
History
The thermite (thermit) reaction was discovered in 1893 and patented in 1895 by German chemist Hans
Goldschmidt.
[1]
Consequently, the reaction is sometimes called the "Goldschmidt reaction" or "Goldschmidt
process". Goldschmidt was originally interested in producing very pure metals by avoiding the use of carbon in
smelting, but he soon discovered the value of thermite in welding.
The first commercial application of thermite was the welding of tram tracks in Essen, Germany, in 1899.
Types
A thermite reaction taking place on a cast iron
skillet
Red iron(III) oxide (Fe
2
O
3
, commonly known as rust) is the most
common iron oxide used in thermite. Magnetite also works. Other
oxides are occasionally used, such as MnO
2
in manganese thermite,
Cr
2
O
3
in chromium thermite, or copper(II) oxide in copper thermite,
but only for specialized purposes. All of these examples use aluminium
as the reactive metal. Fluoropolymers can be used in special
formulations, Teflon with magnesium or aluminium being a relatively
common example. Magnesium/teflon/viton is another pyrolant of this
type.
In principle, any reactive metal could be used instead of aluminium.
This is rarely done, however, because the properties of aluminium are nearly ideal for this reaction:
It is by far the cheapest of the highly reactive metals;
[citation needed]
It forms a passivation layer making it safer to handle than many other reactive metals.
Its relatively low melting point (660 C) means that it is easy to melt the metal, so that the reaction can occur
mainly in the liquid phase and thus proceeds fairly quickly.
Its high boiling point (2519 C) enables the reaction to reach very high temperatures, since several processes tend
to limit the maximum temperature to just below the boiling point. Such a high boiling point is common among
transition metals (e.g., iron and copper boil at 2887 C and 2582 C respectively), but is especially unusual among
the highly reactive metals (cf. magnesium and sodium which boil at 1090 C and 883 C respectively).
Further, the low density of the aluminium oxide formed as a result of the reaction tends to cause it to float on the
resultant pure metal. This is particularly important for reducing contamination in a weld.
Although the reactants are stable at room temperature, they burn with an extremely intense exothermic reaction when
they are heated to ignition temperature. The products emerge as liquids due to the high temperatures reached (up to
2500 C with iron(III) oxide)although the actual temperature reached depends on how quickly heat can escape to
the surrounding environment. Thermite contains its own supply of oxygen and does not require any external source
of air. Consequently, it cannot be smothered and may ignite in any environment, given sufficient initial heat. It will
burn well while wet and cannot be easily extinguished with water, although enough water will remove heat and may
stop the reaction. Small amounts of water will boil before reaching the reaction. Even so, thermite is used for
welding underwater.
The thermites are characterized by almost complete absence of gas production during burning, high reaction
temperature, and production of molten slag. The fuel should have high heat of combustion and produce oxides with
low melting point and high boiling point. The oxidizer should contain at least 25% oxygen, have high density, low
heat of formation, and produce metal with low melting and high boiling point (so the energy released is not
consumed in evaporation of reaction products). Organic binders can be added to the composition to improve its
Thermite reaction
38
mechanical properties, however they tend to produce endothermic decomposition products, causing some loss of
reaction heat and production of gases.
The temperature achieved during the reaction determines the outcome. In ideal case, the reaction produces a
well-separated melt of metal and slag. For this, the temperature has to be high enough to melt both the reaction
products, the resulting metal and the fuel oxide. Too low temperature will result in a mixture of sintered metal and
slag, too high temperature above boiling point of any reactant or product will lead to rapid production of gas,
dispersing the burning reaction mixture, sometimes with effects similar to a low-yield explosion. In compositions
intended for production of metal by aluminothermic reaction, these effects can be counteracted. Too low reaction
temperature (e.g. when producing silicon from sand) can be boosted with addition of a suitable oxidizer (e.g. sulfur
in aluminium-sulfur-sand compositions), too high temperatures can be reduced by using a suitable coolant and/or
slag flux. The flux often used in amateur compositions is calcium fluoride, as it reacts only minimally, has relatively
low melting point, low melt viscosity at high temperatures (therefore increasing fluidity of the slag) and forms a
eutectic with alumina. Too much of flux however dilutes the reactants to the point of not being able to sustain
combustion. The type of metal oxide also has dramatic influence to the amount of energy produced; the higher the
oxide, the higher the amount of energy produced. A good example is the difference between manganese(IV) oxide
and manganese(II) oxide, where the former produces too high temperature and the latter is barely able to sustain
combustion; to achieve good results a mixture with proper ratio of both oxides should be used.
The reaction rate can be also tuned with particle sizes; coarser particles burn slower than finer particles. The effect is
more pronounced with the particles requiring being heated to higher temperature to start reacting. This effect is
pushed to the extreme with nano-thermites.
The temperature achieved in the reaction in adiabatic conditions, when no heat is lost to the environment, can be
estimated using the Hess's law by calculating the energy produced by the reaction itself (subtracting the enthalpy
of the reactants from the enthalpy of the products) and subtracting the energy consumed to heating the products
(from their specific heat, when the materials only change their temperature, and their enthalpy of fusion and
eventually enthalpy of vaporization, when the materials melt or boil). In real conditions, the reaction loses heat to the
environment, the achieved temperature is therefore somewhat lower. The heat transfer rate is finite, so the faster the
reaction is, the closer to adiabatic condition it runs and the higher is the achieved temperature.
Iron thermite
The most common composition is the iron thermite. The oxidizer used is usually either iron(II) oxide or iron(II,III)
oxide. The former produces more heat. The latter is easier to ignite, likely due to the crystal structure of the oxide.
Addition of copper or manganese oxides can significantly improve the ease of ignition.
The original mixture, as invented, used iron oxide in the form of mill scale. The composition was very difficult to
ignite.
Copper thermite
Copper thermite can be prepared using either copper(I) oxide (Cu
2
O, red) or copper(II) oxide (CuO, black). The burn
rate tends to be very fast and the melting point of copper is relatively low so the reaction produces a significant
amount of molten copper in a very short time. Copper(II) thermite reactions can be so fast that copper thermite can
be considered a type of flash powder. An explosion can occur and send a spray of copper drops to considerable
distance.
Copper(I) thermite has industrial uses in e.g. welding of thick copper conductors ("cadwelding"). This kind of
welding is being evaluated also for cable splicing on the US Navy fleet, for use in high-current systems, e.g. electric
propulsion.
Thermite reaction
39
Thermates
Thermate composition is a thermite one enriched with a salt-based oxidizer (usually nitrates, e.g. barium nitrate, or
peroxides). In contrast with thermites, thermates burn with evolution of flame and gases. The presence of the
oxidizer makes the mixture easier to ignite and improves penetration of target by the burning composition, as the
evolved gas is projecting the molten slag and providing mechanical agitation. This mechanism makes thermate more
suitable than thermite for incendiary purposes and for emergency destruction of sensitive equipment (e.g.
cryptographic devices), as thermite's effect is more localized.
Ignition
A thermite reaction using iron(III) oxide
Metals are capable of burning under the right conditions, similar to the
combustion process of wood or gasoline. In fact, rust is the result of
oxidation of steel or iron at very slow rates. A thermite reaction is a
process in which the correct mixture of metallic fuels are combined
and ignited. Ignition itself requires extremely high temperatures.
Ignition of a thermite reaction normally requires a sparkler or easily
obtainable magnesium ribbon, but may require persistent efforts, as
ignition can be unreliable and unpredictable. These temperatures
cannot be reached with conventional black powder fuses, nitrocellulose
rods, detonators, pyrotechnic initiators, or other common igniting
substances. Even when the thermite is hot enough to glow bright red, it
will not ignite as it must be at or near white-hot to initiate the reaction.
[citation needed]
It is possible to start the reaction
using a propane torch if done correctly.
Often, strips of magnesium metal are used as fuses. Because metals burn without releasing cooling gases, they can
potentially burn at extremely high temperatures. Reactive metals such as magnesium can easily reach temperatures
sufficiently high for thermite ignition. Magnesium ignition remains popular among amateur thermite users, mainly
because it can be easily obtained.
The reaction between potassium permanganate and glycerol or ethylene glycol is used as an alternative to the
magnesium method. When these two substances mix, a spontaneous reaction will begin, slowly increasing the
temperature of the mixture until flames are produced. The heat released by the oxidation of glycerine is sufficient to
initiate a thermite reaction.
Apart from magnesium ignition, some amateurs also choose to use sparklers to ignite the thermite mixture. These
reach the necessary temperatures and provide enough time before the burning point reaches the sample. However,
this can be a dangerous method, as the iron sparks, like the magnesium strips, burn at thousands of degrees and can
ignite the thermite even though the sparkler itself is not in contact with it. This is especially dangerous with finely
powdered thermite.
Similarly, finely powdered thermite can be ignited by a regular flint spark lighter, as the sparks are burning metal (in
this case, the highly reactive rare-earth metals lanthanum and cerium). Therefore it is unsafe to strike a lighter close
to thermite.
A stoichiometric mixture of finely powdered iron(III) oxide and aluminium may be ignited using ordinary red-tipped
book matches by partially embedding one match head in the mixture, and igniting that match head with another
match, preferably held with tongs in gloves to prevent flash burns.
[citation needed]
Thermite reaction
40
Civilian uses
Thermite reaction proceeding for a railway
welding. Shortly after this, the liquid iron flows
into the mould around the rail gap
Residues of ceramic molds for thermite welding
like these, left by railway workers, can be found
along tracks
Thermite reactions have many uses. Thermite is not an explosive;
instead it operates by exposing a very small area of metal to extremely
high temperatures. Intense heat focused on a small spot can be used to
cut through metal or weld metal components together both by melting
metal from the components, and by injecting molten metal from the
thermite reaction itself.
Thermite may be used for repair by the welding in-place of thick steel
sections such as locomotive axle-frames where the repair can take
place without removing the part from its installed location.
[citation
needed]
Thermite can be used for quickly cutting or welding steel such as rail
tracks, without requiring complex or heavy equipment. However,
defects such as slag inclusions and voids (holes) are often present in
such welded junctions and great care is needed to operate the process
successfully. Care must also be taken to ensure that the rails remain
straight, without resulting in dipped joints, which can cause wear on
high speed and heavy axle load lines.
A thermite reaction, when used to purify the ores of some metals, is
called the thermite process, or aluminothermic reaction. An adaptation
of the reaction, used to obtain pure uranium, was developed as part of
the Manhattan Project at Ames Laboratory under the direction of Frank
Spedding. It is sometimes called the Ames process.
Copper thermite is used for welding together thick copper wires for the
purpose of electrical connections. It is used extensively by the
electrical utilities and telecommunications industries (exothermic welded connections).
Military uses
Thermite hand grenades and charges are typically used by armed forces in both an anti-materiel role and in the
partial destruction of equipment; the latter being common when time is not available for safer or more thorough
methods. For example, thermite can be used for the emergency destruction of cryptographic equipment when there is
a danger that it might be captured by enemy troops. Because standard iron-thermite is difficult to ignite, burns with
practically no flame and has a small radius of action, standard thermite is rarely used on its own as an incendiary
composition. It is more usually employed with other ingredients added to increase its incendiary effects.
Thermate-TH3 is a mixture of thermite and pyrotechnic additives which have been found to be superior to standard
thermite for incendiary purposes. Its composition by weight is generally about 68.7% thermite, 29.0% barium nitrate,
2.0% sulfur, and 0.3% of a binder (such as PBAN). The addition of barium nitrate to thermite increases its thermal
effect, produces a larger flame, and significantly reduces the ignition temperature. Although the primary purpose of
Thermate-TH3 by the armed forces is as an incendiary anti-material weapon, it also has uses in welding together
metal components.
A classic military use for thermite is disabling artillery pieces, and it has been used for this purpose since World War
2; such as at Pointe du Hoc, Normandy. Thermite can permanently disable artillery pieces without the use of
explosive charges, and therefore thermite can be used when silence is necessary to an operation. This can be done by
inserting one or more armed thermite grenades into the breech and then quickly closing it; this welds the breech shut
and makes loading the weapon impossible. Alternatively, a thermite grenade discharged inside the barrel of the gun
Thermite reaction
41
will foul the barrel, making the weapon very dangerous to fire; thermite can also be used to weld the traversing and
elevation mechanism of the weapon, making it impossible to aim properly.
[citation needed]
Thermite was used in both German and Allied incendiary bombs during World War II. Incendiary bombs usually
consisted of dozens of thin thermite-filled canisters (bomblets) ignited by a magnesium fuse. Incendiary bombs
destroyed entire cities due to the raging fires that resulted from their use.
[citation needed]
Cities that primarily consisted
of wooden buildings were especially susceptible. These incendiary bombs were utilized primarily during nighttime
air raids. Bombsights could not be used at night, creating the need to use munitions that could destroy targets without
the need for precision placement.
Hazards
The violent effects of thermite
Thermite usage is hazardous due to the extremely high temperatures
produced and the extreme difficulty in smothering a reaction once
initiated. Small streams of molten iron released in the reaction can
travel considerable distances and may melt through metal containers,
igniting their contents (see images). Additionally, flammable metals
with relatively low boiling points such as zinc (with a boiling point of
907 C, which is about 1,370 C below the temperature at which
thermite burns) could potentially spray superheated boiling metal
violently into the air if near a thermite reaction.
[citation needed]
If, for some reason, thermite is contaminated with organics, hydrated
oxides and other compounds able to produce gases upon heating or
reaction with thermite components, the reaction products may be sprayed. Moreover, if the thermite mixture contains
enough empty spaces with air and burns fast enough, the super-heated air also may cause the mixture to spay. For
this reason it is preferable to use relatively crude powders, so the reaction rate is moderate and hot gases could
escape the reaction zone.
Preheating of thermite before ignition can easily be done accidentally, for example by pouring a new pile of thermite
over a hot, recently ignited pile of thermite slag. When ignited, preheated thermite can burn almost instantaneously,
releasing light and heat energy at a much higher rate than normal and causing burns and eye damage at what would
normally be a reasonably safe distance.
[citation needed]
The thermite reaction can take place accidentally in industrial locations where abrasive grinding and cutting wheels
are used with ferrous metals. Using aluminium in this situation produces a mixture of oxides which is capable of a
violent explosive reaction.
Mixing water with thermite or pouring water onto burning thermite can cause a steam explosion, spraying hot
fragments in all directions.
[citation needed]
Thermite's main ingredients were also utilized for their individual qualities, specifically reflectivity and heat
insulation, in a paint coating or dope for the German zeppelin Hindenburg, possibly contributing to its fiery
destruction. This was a theory put forward by the former NASA scientist Addison Bain, and later tested in small
scale by the scientific reality-TV show MythBusters with semi-inconclusive results (it was proven not to be the fault
of the thermite reaction alone, but instead conjectured to be a combination of that and the burning of hydrogen gas
that filled the body of the Hindenburg). The MythBusters program also tested the veracity of a video found on the
Internet, whereby a quantity of thermite was allowed to drop onto a block of ice of similar mass, causing a sudden
explosion. They were able to confirm the results, finding huge chunks of ice as far as 50m from the point of
explosion. Co-host Jamie Hyneman conjectured that this was due to the thermite mixture aerosolizing, perhaps in a
cloud of steam, causing it to burn even faster. Hyneman also voiced skepticism about another theory explaining the
phenomenon: that the reaction somehow separated the hydrogen and oxygen in the ice and then ignited them. A far
Thermite reaction
42
more likely explanation is that the explosion is due to the reaction of high temperature molten aluminium with water.
Aluminium reacts violently with water or steam at high temperatures, releasing hydrogen and oxidizing in the
process. The speed of that reaction and the ignition of the resulting hydrogen can easily account for the explosion
verified. This process is akin to the explosive reaction caused by dropping metallic potassium into water.
References
[1] [1] H. Goldschmidt, "Verfahren zur Herstellung von Metallen oder Metalloiden oder Legierungen derselben" (Process for the production of
metals or metalloids or alloys of the same), Deutsche Reichs Patent no. 96317 (13 March 1895).
Further reading
L. L. Wang, Z. A. Munir and Y. M. Maximov (1993). "Thermite reactions: their utilization in the synthesis and
processing of materials". Journal of Materials Science 28 (14): 36933708. Bibcode: 1993JMatS..28.3693W
(http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1993JMatS. . 28. 3693W). doi: 10.1007/BF00353167 (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10.
1007/ BF00353167).
M. Beckert (2002). "Hans Goldschmidt and the aluminothermics". Schweissen und Schneiden 54 (9): 522526.
External links
Thermite Pictures & Videos (Including Exotic Thermite) (http:/ / www. amazingrust. com/ Experiments/ how_to/
Thermite_pics-videos. html)
Video steel casting with thermite (http:/ / www. theodoregray. com/ PeriodicTable/ Samples/ 026. 17/ index.
video. s12. html)
"Goldschmidt Process". Encyclopedia Americana. 1920.
Whler process
43
Whler process
The Whler process was the former way in which aluminium was extracted from its ore. However with the advent
of more efficient means of electrolysis, this chemical process of extraction became extinct. It involved the reduction
of anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium, and produced powdered aluminium.
In 1827, Friedrich Whler refined a process discovered by Hans Christian Oersted, a Danish chemist, who first
produced impure aluminium in 1825. This allowed him to establish the specific gravity of aluminium in 1845.
External links
International Aluminum Institute
[1]
Wired
[2]
References
[1] http:/ / www. world-aluminium.org/ ?pg=13/
[2] http:/ / www. wired. com/ science/ discoveries/ news/ 2008/ 04/ dayintech_0402/
44
Applications and uses
Aluminium alloy
Aluminium alloy bicycle wheel. 1960s Bootie
Folding Cycle
Aluminium alloys (or aluminum alloys; see spelling differences) are
alloys in which aluminium (Al) is the predominant metal. The typical
alloying elements are copper, magnesium, manganese, silicon and zinc.
There are two principal classifications, namely casting alloys and
wrought alloys, both of which are further subdivided into the
categories heat-treatable and non-heat-treatable. About 85% of
aluminium is used for wrought products, for example rolled plate, foils
and extrusions. Cast aluminium alloys yield cost-effective products due
to the low melting point, although they generally have lower tensile
strengths than wrought alloys. The most important cast aluminium
alloy system is AlSi, where the high levels of silicon (4.013%)
contribute to give good casting characteristics. Aluminium alloys are widely used in engineering structures and
components where light weight or corrosion resistance is required.
[1]
Alloys composed mostly of aluminium have been very important in aerospace manufacturing since the introduction
of metal skinned aircraft. Aluminium-magnesium alloys are both lighter than other aluminium alloys and much less
flammable than alloys that contain a very high percentage of magnesium.
[2]
Aluminium alloy surfaces will formulate a white, protective layer of corrosion aluminium oxide if left unprotected
by anodizing and/or correct painting procedures. In a wet environment, galvanic corrosion can occur when an
aluminium alloy is placed in electrical contact with other metals with more negative corrosion potentials than
aluminium, and an electrolyte is present that allows ion exchange. Referred to as dissimilar metal corrosion this
process can occur as exfoliation or intergranular corrosion. Aluminium alloys can be improperly heat treated. This
causes internal element separation and the metal corrodes from the inside out. Aircraft mechanics deal daily with
aluminium alloy corrosion.
Aluminium alloy compositions are registered with The Aluminum Association. Many organizations publish more
specific standards for the manufacture of aluminium alloy, including the Society of Automotive Engineers standards
organization, specifically its aerospace standards subgroups,
[3]
and ASTM International.
Engineering use and aluminium alloys properties
Overview
Aluminium alloys with a wide range of properties are used in engineering structures. Alloy systems are classified by
a number system (ANSI) or by names indicating their main alloying constituents (DIN and ISO). Selecting the right
alloy for a given application entails considerations of its tensile strength, density, ductility, formability, workability,
weldability, and corrosion resistance, to name a few. A brief historical overview of alloys and manufacturing
technologies is given in Ref.
[4]
Aluminium alloys are used extensively in aircraft due to their high strength-to-weight
ratio. On the other hand, pure aluminium metal is much too soft for such uses, and it does not have the high tensile
strength that is needed for airplanes and helicopters.
Aluminium alloy
45
Aluminium alloys versus types of steel
Aluminium alloys typically have an elastic modulus of about 70 GPa, which is about one-third of the elastic modulus
of most kinds of steel and steel alloys. Therefore, for a given load, a component or unit made of an aluminium alloy
will experience a greater elastic deformation than a steel part of the identical size and shape. Though there are
aluminium alloys with somewhat-higher tensile strengths than the commonly used kinds of steel, simply replacing a
steel part with an aluminium alloy might lead to problems.
With completely new metal products, the design choices are often governed by the choice of manufacturing
technology. Extrusions are particularly important in this regard, owing to the ease with which aluminium alloys,
particularly the AlMgSi series, can be extruded to form complex profiles.
In general, stiffer and lighter designs can be achieved with aluminium alloys than is feasible with steels. For
instance, consider the bending of a thin-walled tube: the second moment of area is inversely related to the stress in
the tube wall, i.e. stresses are lower for larger values. The second moment of area is proportional to the cube of the
radius times the wall thickness, thus increasing the radius (and weight) by 26% will lead to a halving of the wall
stress. For this reason, bicycle frames made of aluminium alloys make use of larger tube diameters than steel or
titanium in order to yield the desired stiffness and strength. In automotive engineering, cars made of aluminium
alloys employ space frames made of extruded profiles to ensure rigidity. This represents a radical change from the
common approach for current steel car design, which depend on the body shells for stiffness, known as unibody
design.
Aluminium alloys are widely used in automotive engines, particularly in cylinder blocks and crankcases due to the
weight savings that are possible. Since aluminium alloys are susceptible to warping at elevated temperatures, the
cooling system of such engines is critical. Manufacturing techniques and metallurgical advancements have also been
instrumental for the successful application in automotive engines. In the 1960s, the aluminium cylinder heads of the
Corvair earned a reputation for failure and stripping of threads, which is not seen in current aluminium cylinder
heads.
An important structural limitation of aluminium alloys is their lower fatigue strength compared to steel. In controlled
laboratory conditions, steels display a fatigue limit, which is the stress amplitude below which no failures occur the
metal does not continue to weaken with extended stress cycles. Aluminium alloys do not have this lower fatigue
limit and will continue to weaken with continued stress cycles. Aluminium alloys are therefore sparsely used in parts
that require high fatigue strength in the high cycle regime (more than 10
7
stress cycles).
Heat sensitivity considerations
Often, the metal's sensitivity to heat must also be considered. Even a relatively routine workshop procedure
involving heating is complicated by the fact that aluminium, unlike steel, will melt without first glowing red.
Forming operations where a blow torch is used can reverse or remove heat treating, therefore is not advised what so
ever. No visual signs reveal how the material is internally damaged. Much like welding heat treated, high strength
link chain, all strength is now lost by heat of the torch. The chain is dangerous and must be discarded.
Aluminium also is subject to internal stresses and strains when it is overheated; the tendency of the metal to creep
under these stresses tends to result in delayed distortions. For example, the warping or cracking of overheated
aluminium automobile cylinder heads is commonly observed, sometimes years later, as is the tendency of improperly
welded aluminium bicycle frames to gradually twist out of alignment from the stresses of the welding process. Thus,
the aerospace industry avoids heat altogether by joining parts with rivets of like metal composition, other fasteners,
or adhesives.
Stresses in overheated aluminium can be relieved by heat-treating the parts in an oven and gradually cooling itin
effect annealing the stresses. Yet these parts may still become distorted, so that heat-treating of welded bicycle
frames, for instance, can result in a significant fraction becoming misaligned. If the misalignment is not too severe,
Aluminium alloy
46
the cooled parts may be bent into alignment. Of course, if the frame is properly designed for rigidity (see above), that
bending will require enormous force.
Aluminium's intolerance to high temperatures has not precluded its use in rocketry; even for use in constructing
combustion chambers where gases can reach 3500 K. The Agena upper stage engine used a regeneratively cooled
aluminium design for some parts of the nozzle, including the thermally critical throat region; in fact the extremely
high thermal conductivity of aluminium prevented the throat from reaching the melting point even under massive
heat flux, resulting in a reliable lightweight component.
Household wiring
Because of its high conductivity and relatively low price compared with copper in the 1960s, aluminium was
introduced at that time for household electrical wiring in North America, even though many fixtures had not been
designed to accept aluminium wire. But the new use brought some problems:
The greater coefficient of thermal expansion of aluminium causes the wire to expand and contract relative to the
dissimilar metal screw connection, eventually loosening the connection.
Pure aluminium has a tendency to "creep" under steady sustained pressure (to a greater degree as the temperature
rises), again loosening the connection.
Galvanic corrosion from the dissimilar metals increases the electrical resistance of the connection.
All of this resulted in overheated and loose connections, and this in turn resulted in some fires. Builders then became
wary of using the wire, and many jurisdictions outlawed its use in very small sizes, in new construction. Yet newer
fixtures eventually were introduced with connections designed to avoid loosening and overheating. At first they were
marked "Al/Cu", but they now bear a "CO/ALR" coding.
Another way to forestall the heating problem is to crimp the aluminium wire to a short "pigtail" of copper wire. A
properly done high-pressure crimp by the proper tool is tight enough to reduce any thermal expansion of the
aluminium. Today, new alloys, designs, and methods are used for aluminium wiring in combination with aluminium
terminations.
Alloy designations
Wrought and cast aluminium alloys use different identification systems. Wrought aluminium is identified with a four
digit number which identifies the alloying elements.
Cast aluminium alloys use a four to five digit number with a decimal point. The digit in the hundreds place indicates
the alloying elements, while the digit after the decimal point indicates the form (cast shape or ingot).
Temper designation
The temper designation follows the cast or wrought designation number with a dash, a letter, and potentially a one to
three digit number, e.g. 6061-T6. The definitions for the tempers are:
-F
As fabricated
-H
Strain hardened (cold worked) with or without thermal treatment
-H1
Strain hardened without thermal treatment
-H2
Strain hardened and partially annealed
Aluminium alloy
47
-H3
Strain hardened and stabilized by low temperature heating
Second digit
A second digit denotes the degree of hardness
-HX2 = 1/4 hard
-HX4 = 1/2 hard
-HX6 = 3/4 hard
-HX8 = full hard
-HX9 = extra hard
-O
Full soft (annealed)
-T
Heat treated to produce stable tempers
-T1
Cooled from hot working and naturally aged (at room temperature)
-T2
Cooled from hot working, cold-worked, and naturally aged
-T3
Solution heat treated and cold worked
-T4
Solution heat treated and naturally aged
-T5
Cooled from hot working and artificially aged (at elevated temperature)
-T51
Stress relieved by stretching
-T510
No further straightening after stretching
-T511
Minor straightening after stretching
-T52
Stress relieved by thermal treatment
-T6
Solution heat treated and artificially aged
-T7
Solution heat treated and stabilized
-T8
Solution heat treated, cold worked, and artificially aged
-T9
Solution heat treated, artificially aged, and cold worked
Aluminium alloy
48
-T10
Cooled from hot working, cold-worked, and artificially aged
-W
Solution heat treated only
Note: -W is a relatively soft intermediary designation that applies after heat treat and before aging is completed. The
-W condition can be extended at extremely low temperatures but not indefinitely and depending on the material will
typically last no longer than 15 minutes at ambient temperatures.
Wrought alloys
The International Alloy Designation System is the most widely accepted naming scheme for wrought alloys. Each
alloy is given a four-digit number, where the first digit indicates the major alloying elements.
1000 series are essentially pure aluminium with a minimum 99% aluminium content by weight and can be work
hardened.
2000 series are alloyed with copper, can be precipitation hardened to strengths comparable to steel. Formerly
referred to as duralumin, they were once the most common aerospace alloys, but were susceptible to stress
corrosion cracking and are increasingly replaced by 7000 series in new designs.
3000 series are alloyed with manganese, and can be work hardened.
4000 series are alloyed with silicon. They are also known as silumin.
5000 series are alloyed with magnesium.
6000 series are alloyed with magnesium and silicon, are easy to machine, and can be precipitation hardened, but
not to the high strengths that 2000 and 7000 can reach.
7000 series are alloyed with zinc, and can be precipitation hardened to the highest strengths of any aluminium
alloy.
8000 series is a category mainly used for lithium alloys.
[citation needed]
Wrought aluminium alloy composition limits (% weight)
Alloy Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn V Ti Bi Ga Pb Zr
Limits
Al
Each Total
1050
[5]
0.25 0.40 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.05 0.03 99.5 min
1060 0.25 0.35 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 99.6 min
1100 0.95 Si+Fe 0.050.20 0.05 0.10 0.05 0.15 99.0 min
1199 0.006 0.006 0.006 0.002 0.006 0.006 0.005 0.002 0.005 0.002 99.99 min
2014 0.501.2 0.7 3.95.0 0.401.2 0.200.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder
2024 0.50 0.50 3.84.9 0.300.9 1.21.8 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder
2219 0.2 0.30 5.86.8 0.200.40 0.02 0.10 0.050.15 0.020.10 0.100.25 0.05 0.15 remainder
3003 0.6 0.7 0.050.20 1.01.5 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
3004 0.30 0.7 0.25 1.01.5 0.81.3 0.25 0.05 0.15 remainder
3102 0.40 0.7 0.10 0.050.40 0.30 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
4041 4.56.0 0.80 0.30 0.05 0.05 0.10 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
5005 remainder
5052 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.10 2.22.8 0.150.35 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
5083 0.40 0.40 0.10 0.401.0 4.04.9 0.050.25 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder
Aluminium alloy
49
5086 0.40 0.50 0.10 0.200.7 3.54.5 0.050.25 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder
5154 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.10 3.103.90 0.150.35 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
5356 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.10 4.505.50 0.050.20 0.10 0.060.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
5454 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.501.0 2.43.0 0.050.20 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
5456 0.25 0.40 0.10 0.501.0 4.75.5 0.050.20 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
5754 0.40 0.40 0.10 0.50 2.63.6 0.30 0.20 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder
6005 0.60.9 0.35 0.10 0.10 0.400.6 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
6005A
0.500.9 0.35 0.30 0.50 0.400.7 0.30 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
6060 0.300.6 0.100.30 0.10 0.10 0.350.6 0.05 0.15 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
6061 0.400.8 0.7 0.150.40 0.15 0.81.2 0.040.35 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder
6063 0.200.6 0.35 0.10 0.10 0.450.9 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
6066 0.91.8 0.50 0.71.2 0.61.1 0.81.4 0.40 0.25 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
6070 1.01.7 0.50 0.150.40 0.401.0 0.501.2 0.10 0.25 0.15 0.05 0.15 remainder
6082 0.71.3 0.50 0.10 0.401.0 0.601.2 0.25 0.20 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
6105 0.61.0 0.35 0.10 0.10 0.450.8 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
6162 0.400.8 0.50 0.20 0.10 0.71.1 0.10 0.25 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
6262 0.400.8 0.7 0.150.40 0.15 0.81.2 0.040.14 0.25 0.15 0.400.7 0.400.7 0.05 0.15 remainder
6351 0.71.3 0.50 0.10 0.400.8 0.400.8 0.20 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
6463 0.200.6 0.15 0.20 0.05 0.450.9 0.05 0.05 0.15 remainder
7005 0.35 0.40 0.10 0.200.70 1.01.8 0.060.20 4.05.0 0.010.06 0.080.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
7022 0.50 0.50 0.501.00 0.100.40 2.603.70 0.100.30 4.305.20 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
7068 0.12 0.15 1.602.40 0.10 2.203.00 0.05 7.308.30 0.01 0.050.15 0.05 0.15 remainder
7072 0.7 Si+Fe 0.10 0.10 0.10 0.81.3 0.05 0.15 remainder
7075 0.40 0.50 1.22.0 0.30 2.12.9 0.180.28 5.16.1 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
7079 0.3 0.40 0.400.80 0.100.30 2.93.7 0.100.25 3.84.8 0.10 0.05 0.15 remainder
7116 0.15 0.30 0.501.1 0.05 0.81.4 4.25.2 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.15 remainder
7129 0.15 0.30 0.500.9 0.10 1.32.0 0.10 4.25.2 0.05 0.05 0.03 0.05 0.15 remainder
7178 0.40 0.50 1.62.4 0.30 2.43.1 0.180.28 6.37.3 0.20 0.05 0.15 remainder
8000 remainder
7178 remainder

Manganese plus chromium must be between 0.120.50%.

This column lists the limits that apply to all elements, whether a table column exists for them or not, for which no other limits are specified.
Aluminium alloy
50
Cast alloys
The Aluminum Association (AA) has adopted a nomenclature similar to that of wrought alloys. British Standard and
DIN have different designations. In the AA system, the second two digits reveal the minimum percentage of
aluminium, e.g. 150.x correspond to a minimum of 99.50% aluminium. The digit after the decimal point takes a
value of 0 or 1, denoting casting and ingot respectively. The main alloying elements in the AA system are as
follows:
[citation needed]
1xx.x series are minimum 99% aluminium
2xx.x series copper
3xx.x series silicon, copper and/or magnesium
4xx.x series silicon
5xx.x series magnesium
7xx.x series zinc
8xx.x series tin
9xx.x other elements
Minimum tensile requirements for cast aluminium alloys
[6]
Alloy type Temper Tensile strength (min) [ksi] ([MPa]) Yield strength (min) [ksi] ([MPa]) Elongation in 2 in [%]
ANSI UNS
201.0 A02010 T7 60.0 (414) 50.0 (345) 3.0
204.0 A02040 T4 45.0 (310) 28.0 (193) 6.0
242.0 A02420 O 23.0 (159) N/A N/A
T61 32.0 (221) 20.0 (138) N/A
A242.0 A12420 T75 29.0 (200) N/A 1.0
295.0 A02950 T4 29.0 (200) 13.0 (90) 6.0
T6 32.0 (221) 20.0 (138) 3.0
T62 36.0 (248) 28.0 (193) N/A
T7 29.0 (200) 16.0 (110) 3.0
319.0 A03190 F 23.0 (159) 13.0 (90) 1.5
T5 25.0 (172) N/A N/A
T6 31.0 (214) 20.0 (138) 1.5
328.0 A03280 F 25.0 (172) 14.0 (97) 1.0
T6 34.0 (234) 21.0 (145) 1.0
355.0 A03550 T6 32.0 (221) 20.0 (138) 2.0
T51 25.0 (172) 18.0 (124) N/A
T71 30.0 (207) 22.0 (152) N/A
C355.0 A33550 T6 36.0 (248) 25.0 (172) 2.5
356.0 A03560 F 19.0 (131) 9.5 (66) 2.0
T6 30.0 (207) 20.0 (138) 3.0
T7 31.0 (214) N/A N/A
T51 23.0 (159) 16.0 (110) N/A
T71 25.0 (172) 18.0 (124) 3.0
Aluminium alloy
51
A356.0 A13560 T6 34.0 (234) 24.0 (165) 3.5
T61 35.0 (241) 26.0 (179) 1.0
443.0 A04430 F 17.0 (117) 7.0 (48) 3.0
B443.0 A24430 F 17.0 (117) 6.0 (41) 3.0
512.0 A05120 F 17.0 (117) 10.0 (69) N/A
514.0 A05140 F 22.0 (152) 9.0 (62) 6.0
520.0 A05200 T4 42.0 (290) 22.0 (152) 12.0
535.0 A05350 F 35.0 (241) 18.0 (124) 9.0
705.0 A07050 T5 30.0 (207)
17.0 (117)
5.0
707.0 A07070 T7 37.0 (255)
30.0 (207)
1.0
710.0 A07100 T5 32.0 (221) 20.0 (138) 2.0
712.0 A07120 T5 34.0 (234)
25.0 (172)
4.0
713.0 A07130 T5 32.0 (221) 22.0 (152) 3.0
771.0 A07710 T5 42.0 (290) 38.0 (262) 1.5
T51 32.0 (221) 27.0 (186) 3.0
T52 36.0 (248) 30.0 (207) 1.5
T6 42.0 (290) 35.0 (241) 5.0
T71 48.0 (331) 45.0 (310) 5.0
850.0 A08500 T5 16.0 (110) N/A 5.0
851.0 A08510 T5 17.0 (117) N/A 3.0
852.0 A08520 T5 24.0 (165) 18.0 (124) N/A

Only when requested by the customer

Named alloys
Alclad aluminium sheet formed from high-purity aluminium surface layers bonded to high strength aluminium
alloy core material
Birmabright (aluminium, magnesium) a product of The Birmetals Company, basically equivalent to 5251
Duralumin (copper, aluminium)
Hindalium (aluminium, magnesium, manganese, silicon) product of Hindustan Aluminium Corporation Ltd, made
in 16ga rolled sheets for cookware
Pandalloy Pratt&Whitney proprietary alloy, supposedly having high strength and superior high temperature
performance.
Magnalium
Magnox (magnesium, aluminium)
Silumin (aluminium, silicon)
Titanal (aluminium, zinc, magnesium, copper, zirconium) a product of Austria Metall AG. Commonly used in
high performance sports products, particularly snowboards and skis.
Y alloy, Hiduminium, R.R. alloys: pre-war nickel-aluminium alloys, used in aerospace and engine pistons, for
their ability to retain strength at elevated temperature.
Aluminium alloy
52
Applications
Aerospace alloys
Scandiumaluminium
Parts of the Mig29 are made from AlSc alloy.
The addition of scandium to aluminium creates nanoscale Al
3
Sc
precipitates which limit the excessive grain growth that occurs in the
heat-affected zone of welded aluminium components. This has two
beneficial effects: the precipitated Al
3
Sc forms smaller crystals than
are formed in other aluminium alloys and the width of precipitate-free
zones that normally exist at the grain boundaries of age-hardenable
aluminium alloys is reduced. Scandium is also a potent grain refiner in
cast aluminium alloys, and atom for atom, the most potent strengthener
in aluminium, both as a result of grain refinement and precipitation
strengthening. However, titanium alloys, which are stronger but
heavier, are cheaper and much more widely used.
The main application of metallic scandium by weight is in aluminium-scandium alloys for minor aerospace industry
components. These alloys contain between 0.1% and 0.5% (by weight) of scandium. They were used in the Russian
military aircraft Mig 21 and Mig 29.
Some items of sports equipment, which rely on high performance materials, have been made with
scandium-aluminium alloys, including baseball bats, lacrosse sticks, as well as bicycle frames and components, and
tent poles. U.S. gunmaker Smith & Wesson produces revolvers with frames composed of scandium alloy and
cylinders of titanium.
List of aerospace aluminium alloys
The following aluminium alloys are commonly used in aircraft and other aerospace structures:
[7]
7068 aluminium
7075 aluminium
6061 aluminium
6063 aluminium
2024 aluminium
5052 aluminium
Note that the term aircraft aluminium or aerospace aluminium usually refers to 7075.
The following list of aluminium alloys are currently produced,
[citation needed]
but less widely
[citation needed]
used:
2090 aluminium
2124 aluminium
2195 aluminium Al-Li alloy, used in Space Shuttle Super Lightweight external tank,
[8]
and the SpaceX Falcon 9
and Falcon 1e second stage launch vehicles.
2219 aluminium Al-Cu alloy, used in the original Space Shuttle Standard Weight external tank
2324 aluminium
5059 aluminium Used in experimental rocket cryogenic tanks
6013 aluminium
7050 aluminium
7055 aluminium
7150 aluminium
7475 aluminium
Aluminium alloy
53
Marine alloys
These alloys are used for boat building and shipbuilding, and other marine and salt-water sensitive shore
applications.
[9]
5052 aluminium alloy
5059 aluminium alloy
5083 aluminium alloy
5086 aluminium alloy
6061 aluminium alloy
6063 aluminium alloy
4043, 5183, 6005A, 6082 also used in marine constructions and off shore applications.
Cycling alloys
These alloys are used for cycling frames and components
[citation needed]
2014 aluminium
6061 aluminium
6063 aluminium
7005 aluminium
7075 aluminium
Scandium aluminium
Automotive alloys
6111 aluminium and 2008 aluminium alloy are extensively used for external automotive body panels, with 5083 and
5754 used for inner body panels. Hoods have been manufactured from 2036, 6016, and 6111 alloys. Truck and
trailer body panels have used 5456 aluminum.
Automobile frames often use 5182 aluminium or 5754 aluminium formed sheets, 6061 or 6063 extrusions.
Wheels have been cast from A365.0 aluminium or formed 5xxx sheet.
References
[1] I. J. Polmear, Light Alloys, Arnold, 1995
[2] http:/ / www. materials. manchester. ac.uk/ pdf/ research/ latest/ magnesium/ elke_hombergsmeier_AEROMAG%20Paper_07. pdf
[3] SAE aluminium specifications list (http:/ / www.sae. org/ servlets/ product?PROD_TYP=STD& PARENT_BPA_CD=AERO&
TECH_CD=ALUMI), accessed 8 October 2006. Also SAE Aerospace Council (http:/ / www. sae. org/ about/ board/ committees/ arsp. htm),
accessed 8 October 2006.
[4] R.E. Sanders, Technology Innovation in aluminium Products, The Journal of The Minerals, 53(2):2125, 2001. Online ed. (http:/ / www. tms.
org/ pubs/ journals/ JOM/ 0102/ Sanders-0102. html)
[5] ASM Metals Handbook Vol. 2, Properties and Selection of Nonferrous Alloys and Special Purpose Materials, ASM International (p. 222)
[6] ASTM B 26 / B 26M 05
[7] Fundamentals of Flight, Shevell, Richard S., 1989, Englewood Cliffs, Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-339060-8, Ch 18, pp 373386.
[8] Super Lightweight External Tank (http:/ / www.nasa.gov/ sites/ default/ files/ 113020main_shuttle_lightweight. pdf), NASA, retrieved 12
Dec 2013.
[9] Boatbuilding with aluminium, Stephen F. Pollard, 1993, International Marine, ISBN 0-07-050426-1
Aluminium alloy
54
External links
Aluminium alloys for die casting according to the Japanese Standards, China National Standards, U.S. Standards
and German Standards (http:/ / www. gwp-ag. com/ media/ www. gwp-ag. com/ org/ med_645/
804_aluminum_alloys_for_die_casting. pdf)
Aluminium alloys for chill casting and low pressure casting according to the Japanese, Chinese, American and
German industrial standard (http:/ / www. gwp-ag. com/ media/ www. gwp-ag. com/ org/ med_645/
803_aluminum_alloys_for_chill_casting_and_low_pressure_casting. pdf)
Aluminium alloys for extrusion according to the German Standards (http:/ / www. gwp-ag. com/ media/ www.
gwp-ag. com/ org/ med_645/ 805_aluminum_alloys_for_extrusion. pdf)
The Aluminium Association's chemical composition standards for wrought aluminium (http:/ / www. aluminum.
org/ Content/ NavigationMenu/ TheIndustry/ IndustryStandards/ Teal_Sheets. pdf)
"The EAA Alumatter" computer-based reference database containing technical information on the most widely
used aluminium alloys, their mechanical, physical and chemical properties (http:/ / www. aluminium. matter. org.
uk/ aluselect/ )
"Applications for Aluminium Alloys and Tempers. (http:/ / www. pa-international. com. au/ images/ stories/
Applications-for-Aluminum-Alloys-and-Tempers. pdf)
Aluminiumair battery
55
Aluminiumair battery
Aluminiumair battery
Specific energy 1300 (practical), 6000/8000 (theoretical) Wh/kg
Energy density N/A
Specific power 200 W/kg
Nominal cell voltage 1.2 V
Aluminiumair batteries or Alair batteries produce electricity from the reaction of oxygen in the air with
aluminium. They have one of the highest energy densities of all batteries, but they are not widely used because of
problems with high anode cost and byproduct removal when using traditional electrolytes and this has restricted their
use to mainly military applications. However, an electric vehicle with aluminium batteries has the potential for up to
eight times the range of a lithium-ion battery with a significantly lower total weight.
Aluminiumair batteries are primary cells; i.e., non-rechargeable. Once the aluminium anode is consumed by its
reaction with atmospheric oxygen at a cathode immersed in a water-based electrolyte to form hydrated aluminium
oxide, the battery will no longer produce electricity. However, it is possible to mechanically recharge the battery
with new aluminium anodes made from recycling the hydrated aluminium oxide. Such recycling would be essential
if aluminiumair batteries are to be widely adopted.
Aluminium powered vehicles have been under discussion for some decades.
[1]
Hybridisation mitigates the costs and
in 1989 road tests of a hybridised aluminium-air/lead-acid battery in an electric vehicle were reported.
[2]
An
aluminium powered plug-in hybrid minivan was demonstrated in Ontario in 1990.
[3]
On March 2013, Phinergy
[4]
released a video demonstration of an electric car using Aluminum-Air cells driven
330km using a special cathode and potassium hydroxide.
[5]
May 27th 2013 Channel 10 evening news broadcast in
Israel showed a driving car with Phinergy battery in the back, being "fueled" with "pure" drinkable water, claiming
2,000 km operational run for one battery before replacement of the aluminum anodes is necessary.
Electrochemistry
The anode oxidation half-reaction is Al + 3OH

Al(OH)
3
+ 3e

2.31 V.{{}}
The cathode reduction half-reaction is O
2
+ 2H
2
O + 4e

4OH

+0.40V.
The total reaction is 4Al + 3O
2
+ 6H
2
O 4Al(OH)
3
+ 2.71V.
About 1.2 volts potential difference is created by these reactions, and is achievable in practice when potassium
hydroxide is used as the electrolyte. Saltwater electrolyte achieves approximately 0.7volts per cell.
Commercialization
Issues
Aluminium as a "fuel" for vehicles has been studied by Yang and Knickle. They concluded the following:
The Al/air battery system can generate enough energy and power for driving ranges and acceleration
similar to gasoline powered cars...the cost of aluminium as an anode can be as low as US$ 1.1/kg as
long as the reaction product is recycled. The total fuel efficiency during the cycle process in Al/air
electric vehicles (EVs) can be 15% (present stage) or 20% (projected), comparable to that of internal
combustion engine vehicles (ICEs) (13%). The design battery energy density is 1300 Wh/kg (present) or
2000 Wh/kg (projected). The cost of battery system chosen to evaluate is US$ 30/kW (present) or US$
Aluminiumair battery
56
29/kW (projected). Al/air EVs life-cycle analysis was conducted and compared to lead/acid and nickel
metal hydride (NiMH) EVs. Only the Al/air EVs can be projected to have a travel range comparable to
ICEs. From this analysis, Al/air EVs are the most promising candidates compared to ICEs in terms of
travel range, purchase price, fuel cost, and life-cycle cost.
There are some technical problems still to solve in order to make Alair batteries suitable for powering electric
vehicles. Anodes made of pure aluminium are corroded by the electrolyte, so the aluminium is usually alloyed with
tin or other elements. The hydrated alumina that is created by the cell reaction forms a gel-like substance at the
anode and reduces the electricity output. This is an issue being addressed in the development work on Alair cells.
For example, additives that form the alumina as a powder rather than a gel have been developed.
Modern air cathodes consist of a reactive layer of carbon with a nickel-grid current collector, a catalyst (e.g., cobalt),
and a porous hydrophobic PTFE film that prevents electrolyte leakage. The oxygen in the air passes through the
PTFE then reacts with the water to create hydroxide ions. These cathodes work well but they can be expensive.
Traditional Alair batteries had a limited shelf life
[6]
because the aluminium reacted with the electrolyte and
produced hydrogen when the battery was not in usealthough this is no longer the case with modern designs. The
problem can be avoided by storing the electrolyte in a tank outside the battery and transferring it to the battery when
it is required for use.
These batteries can be used, for example, as reserve batteries in telephone exchanges and as backup power sources.
Alair batteries could be used to power laptop computers and cell phones and are being developed for such
use.
[citation needed]
Aluminium based batteries
Different types of aluminium batteries had been investigated:
Aluminium-chlorine battery was patented by United States Air Force in the 1970s and designed mostly for
military applications. They use aluminium anodes and chlorine on graphite substrate cathodes. Required elevated
temperatures to be operational.
Aluminium-sulfur batteries worked on by American researchers with great claims, although it seems that they are
still far from mass production. It is unknown as to whether they are rechargeable.
AlFeO, AlCuO and AlFeOH batteries were proposed by some researchers for military hybrid vehicles.
Corresponding practical energy densities claimed are 455, 440, and 380 Wh/kg
[7]
Al-MnO manganese dioxide battery using acidic electrolyte. Produces a high voltage of 1.9 volts. Another
variation uses a base (potassium hydroxide) as the anolyte and sulfuric acid as the catholyte. The two parts being
separated by a slightly permeable film to avoid mixing of the electrolyte in both half cells. This configuration
gives a high voltage of 2.62.85 volts.
References
[1] http:/ / papers. sae.org/ 830290/
[2] http:/ / papers. sae.org/ 891690/
[3] http:/ / pluginhighway. ca/ PHEV2007/ proceedings/ PluginHwy_PHEV2007_PaperReviewed_Fitzpatrick. pdf
[4] http:/ / phinergy.com
[5] http:/ / www. youtube.com/ watch?v=k6kIJlgqezE
[6] Aluminium/air batteries (http:/ / www. ectechnic.co.uk/ ALUMAIR. HTML)
[7] http:/ / books. nap.edu/ openbook. php?record_id=10595& page=24
Aluminiumair battery
57
External links
Simple homemade aluminum-air battery (http:/ / exo. net/ ~pauld/ activities/ AlAirBattery/ alairbattery. html)
Aluminum Air Fuel Cell Becoming Commercially Viable (http:/ / aluminum. org/ AM/ Template.
cfm?Section=Home& template=/ CM/ HTMLDisplay. cfm& ContentID=15793)
(http:/ / driving-dutchman. com/ long-distance-ev-travel-arrives--600-km-on-one-battery-charge/
)Wikipedia:Link rot
Semi-finished casting products
Semi-finished casting products are intermediate castings produced in a foundry that need further processing before
being a finished good. There are four types: ingots, billets, blooms, and slabs.
Ingot
An aluminum ingot
Ingots are large rough castings designed for storage and transportation.
The shape usually resembles a rectangle or square with generous
fillets. They are tapered, usually with the big-end-down.
Billet
Steel billets
A billet is a length of metal that has a round or square cross-section,
with an area less than 36sqin (230cm
2
). Billets are created directly
via continuous casting or extrusion or indirectly via hot rolling an
ingot. Billets are further processed via profile rolling and drawing.
Final products include bar stock and wire.
Centrifugal casting is also used to produce short circular tubes as
billets, usually to achieve a precise metallurgical structure. They are commonly used as cylinder sleeves where the
inner and outer diameters are ground and machined to length. Because their size is not modified significantly, they
are not always classified as semi-finished casting products.
Bloom
Blooms
[1]
are similar to billets except the cross-sectional area is greater than 36sqin (230cm
2
). Blooms are usually
further processed via rotary piercing, structural shape rolling and profile rolling. Common final products include
structural shapes, rails, rods, and seamless pipes.
Slab
A slab is a length of metal that is rectangular in cross-section. It is created directly from continuous casting or
indirectly by rolling an ingot. Slabs are usually further processed via flat rolling, skelping, and pipe rolling. Common
final products include sheet metal, plates, strip metal, pipes, and tubes.
Semi-finished casting products
58
An oxygen gas torch cutting a slab Steel slabs
References
[1] http:/ / www. ironandsteeldictionary.com/ bloom/
Aluminium foil
A sheet of aluminium foil
Aluminium foil (or aluminum foil) is aluminium prepared in thin
metal leaves with a thickness less than 0.2 millimetres (8 mils);
thinner gauges down to 6 micrometres (0.24 mil) are also
commonly used.
[1]
In the United States, foils are commonly
gauged in thousandths of an inch or mils. Standard household foil
is typically 0.016mm (0.63 mil) thick, and heavy duty household
foil is typically 0.024mm (0.94 mil). The foil is pliable, and can
be readily bent or wrapped around objects. Thin foils are fragile
and are sometimes laminated to other materials such as plastics or
paper to make them more useful. Aluminium foil supplanted tin
foil in the mid 20th century.
Annual production of aluminium foil was approximately 800,000
tonnes (880,000 tons) in Europe and 600,000 tonnes (660,000
tons) in the USA in 2003.
[2]
Approximately 75% of aluminium foil
is used for packaging of foods, cosmetics, and chemical products,
and 25% used for industrial applications (e.g. thermal insulation,
cables and electronics).
In North America, aluminium foil is known as aluminum foil. It
was popularized by Reynolds Metals, the leading manufacturer in
North America. In the United Kingdom and United States it is,
informally, widely called tin foil, for historical reasons (similar to how aluminum cans are often still called "tin
cans"). Metallised films are sometimes mistaken for aluminium foil, but are actually polymer films coated with a thin
layer of aluminium. In Australia, aluminium foil is widely called alfoil.
Aluminium foil
59
History
Before aluminium foil
Foil made from a thin leaf of tin was commercially available before its aluminium counterpart. Tin foil was marketed
commercially from the late nineteenth into the early twentieth century. The term "tin foil" survives in the English
language as a term for the newer aluminium foil. Tin foil is less malleable than aluminium foil and tends to give a
slight tin taste to food wrapped in it. Tin foil has been supplanted by aluminium and other materials for wrapping
food.
The first audio recordings on phonograph cylinders were made on tin foil.
The first aluminium foil
Tin was first replaced by aluminium in 1910, when the first aluminium foil rolling plant, "Dr. Lauber, Neher & Cie."
was opened in Emmishofen, Switzerland. The plant, owned by J.G. Neher & Sons, the aluminium manufacturers,
started in 1886 in Schaffhausen, Switzerland, at the foot of the Rhine Falls, capturing the falls' energy to produce
aluminium. Neher's sons, together with Dr. Lauber, discovered the endless rolling process and the use of aluminium
foil as a protective barrier in December 1907.
In 1911, Bern-based Tobler began wrapping its chocolate bars in aluminium foil, including the unique triangular
chocolate bar, Toblerone.
[citation needed]
By 1912, aluminium foil was being used by Maggi (today a Nestl brand) to
pack soups and stock cubes.
[citation needed]
The first use of foil in the United States was in 1913 for wrapping Life Savers, candy bars, and gum.
[3]
Processes
evolved over time to include the use of print, colour, lacquer, laminate and the embossing of the aluminium.
Manufacture
A roll of aluminium foil, with micrometer showing a thickness of
13m (0.5 mils)
Aluminium foil is produced by rolling sheet ingots cast
from molten billet aluminium, then re-rolling on sheet
and foil rolling mills to the desired thickness, or by
continuously casting and cold rolling. To maintain a
constant thickness in aluminium foil production, beta
radiation is passed through the foil to a sensor on the
other side. If the intensity becomes too high, then the
rollers adjust, increasing the thickness. If the intensities
become too low and the foil has become too thick, the
rollers apply more pressure, causing the foil to be made
thinner.
The continuous casting method is much less energy
intensive and has become the preferred process.
[4]
For
thicknesses below 0.025mm (1 mil), two layers are
usually put together for the final pass and afterwards
separated which produces foil with one bright side and one matte side. The two sides in contact with each other are
matte and the exterior sides become bright, this is done to reduce tearing, increase production rates, control
thickness, and get around the need for a smaller diameter roller.
Some lubrication is needed during the rolling stages; otherwise, the foil surface can become marked with a
herringbone pattern. These lubricants are sprayed on the foil surface before passing through the mill rolls. Kerosene
based lubricants are commonly used, although oils approved for food contact must be used for foil intended for food
Aluminium foil
60
packaging.
Aluminium becomes work hardened during the cold rolling process and is annealed for most purposes. The rolls of
foil are heated until the degree of softness is reached, which may be up to 340C (644F) for 12 hours. During this
heating, the lubricating oils are burned off, leaving a dry surface. Lubricant oils may not be completely burnt off for
hard temper rolls, which can make subsequent coating or printing more difficult.
The rolls of aluminium foil are then slit on slitter rewinding machines into smaller rolls. Roll slitting and rewinding
is an essential part of the finishing process.
Properties
Microscopic close-up of aluminium foil on the back of an
intumescent rubber strip.
Aluminium foils thicker than 25m (1 mil) are
impermeable to oxygen and water. Foils thinner than
this become slightly permeable due to minute pinholes
caused by the production process.
Aluminium foil has a shiny side and a matte side. The
shiny side is produced when the aluminium is rolled
during the final pass. It is difficult to produce rollers
with a gap fine enough to cope with the foil gauge,
therefore, for the final pass, two sheets are rolled at the
same time, doubling the thickness of the gauge at entry
to the rollers. When the sheets are later separated, the
inside surface is dull, and the outside surface is shiny.
This difference in the finish has led to the perception
that favouring a side has an effect when cooking. While
many believe that the different properties keep heat out when wrapped with the shiny finish facing out, and keep heat
in with the shiny finish facing inwards, the actual difference is imperceptible without instrumentation. The
reflectivity of bright aluminium foil is 88% while dull embossed foil is about 80%.
Uses
Packaging
Chocolates in aluminium foil packaging
Aluminium foil acts as a total barrier to light and
oxygen (which cause fats to oxidise or become rancid),
odours and flavours, moistness, and germs, it is used
broadly in food and pharmaceutical packaging. The
purpose of aluminium is to make long-life packs
(aseptic processing|aseptic packaging) for drinks and
dairy goods, which allows storing without refrigeration.
Aluminium foil containers and trays are used to bake
pies and to pack takeaway meals, ready snacks and
long life pet foods.
Aluminium foil is widely sold into the consumer
market, often in rolls of 500mm (20in) width and
several metres in length.
[5]
It is used for wrapping food in order to preserve it, for example, when storing leftover
food in a refrigerator (where it serves the additional purpose of preventing odour exchange), when taking sandwiches
Aluminium foil
61
on a journey, or when selling some kinds of take-away or fast food. Tex-Mex restaurants in the United States, for
example, typically provide take-away burritos wrapped in aluminium foil.
Insulation
Aluminium foil is widely used for thermal insulation (barrier and reflectivity), heat exchangers (heat conduction) and
cable liners (barrier and electrical conductivity). Aluminium foil's heat conductive qualities make it a common
accessory in hookah smoking: a sheet of perforated aluminium foil is frequently placed between the coal and the
tobacco, allowing the tobacco to be heated without coming into direct contact with the burning coal.
Electromagnetic shielding
The shielding effectiveness of aluminium foil depends upon the type of incident field (electric, magnetic, or plane
wave), the thickness of the foil, and the frequency (which determines the skin depth). Shielding effectiveness is
usually broken down into a reflection loss (the energy bounces off the shield rather than penetrates it) and an
absorption loss (the energy is dissipated within the shield).
Although aluminium is non-magnetic, it is a good conductor, so even a thin sheet reflects almost all of an incident
electric wave. At frequencies less than 100MHz, the electric field is attenuated by more than 80 decibels (dB) (only
10
8
= 0.00000001 of the energy gets through).
[6]
Thin sheets of aluminium are not very effective at attenuating low-frequency magnetic fields. A refrigerator magnet
will hold a sheet of aluminium foil to the refrigerator. The shielding effectiveness is dependent upon the skin depth.
A field traveling through one skin depth will lose about 63 percent of its energy (it is attenuated to 1/e = 1/2.718... of
its original energy). Thin shields also have internal reflections that reduce the shielding effectiveness. For effective
shielding from a magnetic field, the shield should be several skin depths thick. Aluminium foil is about 1 mil
(25m); a thickness of 10 mils (250m) (ten times thicker) offers less than 1 dB of shielding at 1kHz, about 8dB at
10kHz, and about 25dB at 100kHz.
Cooking
Aluminium foil is also used for barbecuing more delicate foods, such as mushrooms and vegetables; food is wrapped
in foil, then placed on the grill, preventing loss of moisture that may result in a less appealing texture.
As is the case with all metallic items, aluminium foil reacts to being placed in a microwave oven. This is because of
the electromagnetic fields of the microwaves inducing electric currents in the foil and high potentials at the sharp
points of the foil sheet; if the potential is sufficiently high, it will cause electric arcing to areas with lower potential,
even to the air surrounding the sheet. Modern microwave ovens have been designed to prevent damage to the cavity
magnetron tube from microwave energy reflection, and aluminium packages designed for microwave heating are
available.
[7]
Aluminium foil
62
Art and decoration
Aluminium foil decoration
Heavier foils made of aluminium are used for art, decoration, and
crafts, especially in bright metallic colours. Metallic aluminium,
normally silvery in colour, can be made to take on other colours
through anodization. Anodizing creates an oxide layer on the
aluminium surface that can accept coloured dyes or metallic salts,
depending on the process used. In this way, aluminium is used to
create an inexpensive gold foil that actually contains no gold, and
many other bright metallic colours. These foils are sometimes used in
distinctive packaging.
Geochemical sampling
Foil is used by organic/petroleum geochemists for protecting rock samples taken from the field and in the lab, where
the sample is subject to biomarker analysis. While plastic or cloth bags are normally used for a geological sampling
exercise, cloth bags are permeable and may allow organic solvents or oils (such as oils imparted from the skin) to
taint the sample, and traces of the plastics from plastic bags may also taint the sample. Foil provides a seal to the
ingress of organic solvents and does not taint the sample. Foil is also used extensively in geochemical laboratories to
provide a barrier for the geochemist, and for sample storage.
Ribbon microphones
The material used in many ribbon microphones is aluminium leaf, or "imitation silver leaf", as it is sometimes called.
This is pure aluminium and is around 0.6 to 2.0 micrometres thick. It is virtually the same material that the BBC
used on Coles ribbons, with the exception that they also hand beat the leaf even thinner. They did this by
sandwiching the ribbon between toilet paper and beating with a ball-peen hammer. This "cold forges" the leaf. The
aluminium leaf was then annealed for an hour in an oven to restore flexibility. Corrugations must also be imparted
into the ribbon: Coles used 25 per inch (1mm cycle). RCA 44BX has 19 corrugations per inch (0.7mm cycle) and is
around 50mm (2.0in) long; RCA 77 has 13 corrugations per inch (0.5mm cycle). RCA ribbon material is around 1
to 1.5 micrometers (0.00005inch) thick. The new Nady ribbon plus AEA both state that they use 2 micrometre
aluminium ribbon in their microphones.Wikipedia:Vagueness
Environmental issues
Some aluminium foil products can be recycled at around 5% of the original energy cost, although many aluminium
laminates are not recycled due to difficulties in separating the components and low yield of aluminium metal.
References
[1] European Aluminium Foil Association (http:/ / www.alufoil. org/ eng/ alufoil_343. html)
[2] Aluminum Association (USA) (http:/ / www.aluminum. org/ Content/ ContentGroups/ Tech_Q_and_A/
New_Aluminum_Foil_Manual_Covers_It_All. htm)
[3] [3] Hanlon, J. (1992). 1st ed. Handbook of Package Engineering, Lancaster, Pennsylvaia, and Technomic Publishing: ISBN 0-87762-924-2.
Chapter 3 Films and Foils.
[4] Robertson, G. (2006). 2nd ed. Food Packaging, Principles and Practise, Boca Raton, FL, Taylor & Francis Group: ISBN 0-8493-3775-5.
Chapter 7 Metal Packaging Materials.
[5] Examples of products (http:/ / www.reynoldspkg. com/ reynoldskitchens/ en/ product_category. asp?cat_id=1337)
[6] [6] . graphs reflection loss for copper, and shows electric field and plane wave losses at greater than 90dB.
[7] [7] Huss, G. (1997) Microwaveable Packaging and Dual-Ovenable Materials in The Wiley Encyclopedia of Packaging Technology, 2nd ed.,
edited by Brody, A. and Marsch, K. New York, John Wiley and Sons
Aluminium foil
63
External links
European Aluminium Foil Association (http:/ / www. alufoil. org)
Aluminium Association (USA) (http:/ / www. aluminum. org)
Aluminium Foil (http:/ / www. madehow. com/ Volume-1/ Aluminum-Foil. html) from How Products Are Made,
vol. 1, Thomson Gale (2005).
How It's Made: Aluminium Foil (http:/ / www. youtube. com/ watch?v=f4OTj9yNOak) - HowItsMadeEpisodes
channel on YouTube.
Aluminum wire
Aluminum wire is a type of wiring used in houses, power grids, and airplanes. Aluminum provides a better
conductivity to weight ratio than copper, and therefore is used in power wiring of some aircraft.
[1]

[2]
Utility companies have used aluminum wire for electrical transmission in power grids since the early 1900s. It has
cost and weight advantages over copper wires. Aluminum wire in transmission and distribution applications is still
the preferred material today.
In North American residential construction, aluminum wire was used to wire entire houses for a short time from the
late 1960s to the late 1970s during a period of high copper prices. Wiring devices (outlets, switches, fans, etc.) at the
time were not designed with the particular properties of aluminum wire in mind and there were problems with the
properties of the wire itself. Older wiring devices not originally rated for aluminum wiring present a fire hazard.
Revised manufacturing standards for wiring devices were required.
Increased copper prices
Heavy duty outdoor aluminum wire
In the mid-1960s when the price of copper spiked, aluminum wire was
manufactured in sizes small enough to use in homes. Aluminum wire
requires a larger wire gauge than copper to carry the same current.
When first used in branch circuit wiring, aluminum wire installed the
same way as copper. Typical connections from electrical wire to
electrical devices, also called terminals, are usually made by wrapping
the wire around screw terminals and tightening the screw. Over time,
many of these terminations to aluminum wire began to fail due to
improper connection techniques and dissimilar metals having different
resistances and different coefficients of thermal expansion. These
connection failures generated heat under electrical load and caused
overheated connections.
In the late 1960s, a device specification known as CU/AL was created that specified standards for devices intended
for use with aluminum wire. Because of more rigorous testing, larger undercut screw terminals were designed to
hold the wire more suitably. Unfortunately, CU/AL switches and receptacles failed to work well enough with
aluminum wire, and a new specification called CO/ALR (meaning copper-aluminum, revised) was created. These
devices employ screw terminals that have even deeper undercuts and are designed to act as a similar metal to
aluminum and to expand at a similar rate. CO/ALR applies only to standard light switches and receptacles; CU/AL is
the standard marking for circuit breakers and larger equipment.
Aluminum wire
64
ACM wire
The first 8000 series electric conductor alloy, still widely used, was developed and patented in 1972 by Aluminum
Company of America (ALCOA).
[3]
This alloy, along with AA-8030 (patented by Olin in 1973) and AA-8176
(patented by Southwire in 1975 and 1980) perform mechanically like copper. Unlike the AA-1350 series, these 8000
series alloys retain their tensile strength after the standard current cycle test or the Current Cycle Submersion Test
(CCST); both tests are described in ANSI C119.4:2004. Depending on the annealing grade, AA-8176 may elongate
up to 30% with less springback effect and possesses a higher yield strength (19.8 KSI for a coldworked AA-8076
wire).
[citation needed]
Building wire in US jurisdictions now uses the new 8000 alloy of aluminum as specified by the National Electrical
Code (NEC). Contractors are also using a larger gauge aluminum building wire for low voltage feeders where the
savings over copper is significant due the lower weight. Aluminum building wire has half the weight of copper, even
though the aluminum conductor must have 50% greater cross-sectional area than copper to carry the same current.
The aluminum conductors used for building wire may be compacted in such a way that the overall diameter of the
aluminum wire is approximately the same as copper.
This alloy, when used with CO/ALR devices and aluminum-rated twist-on connectors, can be just as safe as copper
wiring. However it is extremely rare in branch circuit wiring, and most twist-on connectors in typical branch-circuit
sizes, even those designed to connect copper to aluminum wiring, are not rated for aluminum-to-aluminum
connections (an exception is the Marette 63 and Marette 65). A home with aluminum wiring installed prior to 1972
probably has the older 1350 series alloy that was designed for power transmission. Due to their undesirable
mechanical properties, most 1350 alloys were not suitable for branch wiring.
Problems with aluminum wires
Aluminum wires have been implicated in house fires.
[4][5]
There are several possible reasons why these connections
failed. The two main reasons were improper installation and the differences in the coefficient of expansion between
aluminum wire used in the 1960s and the terminations.
Aluminum oxidation
Most metals (with a few exceptions, such as gold) oxidize freely when exposed to air. Aluminum oxide is not an
electrical conductor, but rather an electrical insulator. Consequently, the flow of electrons through the oxide layer
can be greatly impeded. However, since the oxide layer is only a few nanometers thick, the added resistance is not
noticeable under most conditions. When aluminum wire is terminated properly, the mechanical connection breaks
the thin, brittle layer of oxide to form an excellent electrical connection. Unless this connection is loosened, there is
no way for oxygen to penetrate the connection point to form further oxide.
Coefficient of expansion and creep
Aluminum wire used before the mid-1970s has a coefficient of expansion that varies significantly from the metals
common in devices, outlets, switches, and screws. Many terminations of aluminum wire installed in the 1960s and
1970s continue to operate with no problems. However, problems can develop in the future and some connections
were not made properly when installed, including not wrapping wires around terminal screws and inadequate torque
on the connection screws. There can also be problems with connections made with too much torque as it causes
damage to the wire.
Aluminum and steel both expand and contract at different rates under thermal load, so a connection can become
loose, and loose connections get progressively worse over time. This cycle results in the connection loosening
slightly, overheating, and allowing intermetallic steel/aluminum alloying to occur between the conductor and the
screw terminal. This results in a high-resistance junction, leading to additional overheating. Although many believe
Aluminum wire
65
that oxidation was the issue, studies have shown
[citation needed]
that oxidation was not significant in these cases. The
problems related to aluminum wire are typically associated with older pre-1970s solid wire smaller than No. 8 AWG,
as the properties of that wire result in significantly more expansion and contraction than modern day AA-8000 series
aluminum wire. Older solid aluminum wire also had problems with a property called creep, which made the wire
permanently deform or relax over time under load.
Aluminum wire smaller than No. 8 AWG is typically not used in new house wiring, but larger stranded aluminum
wires are fairly common in much of North America. The larger size stranded aluminum wires don't have the same
historical problems as solid aluminum wires, and most common terminations for larger sizes are dual-rated lugs
made of an aluminum alloy. Proper termination of larger stranded aluminum wiring is considered safe, since
long-term installations have proven its reliability. Larger aluminum wire is often used in residential applications for
services and large branch circuit loads such as ranges and air-conditioning units.
Joining aluminum and copper wires
Terminals joining aluminum wires to copper
wires
Result improperly joined aluminum and copper
wires in old USSR apartments, done by qualified
electrician
Another issue is the joining of aluminum wire to copper wire. As
aluminum and copper are dissimilar metals, galvanic corrosion can
occur in the presence of an electrolyte and these connections can
become unstable over time.
Special twist-on connectors have been designed for the purpose of
joining aluminum to copper wire, which use a special antioxidant paste
to prevent corrosion of the connection. They are not recommended for
permanent retrofit of entire homes.
COPALUM connectors are a special crimp-type connector for
attaching aluminum and copper wires. However the connection
requires special tools and training, and there can be limited space in
existing enclosures for these connectors. At least one manufacturer,
AlumiConn, also offers UL/CSA listed lug type connectors for smaller
solid aluminum branch circuit size wiring similar to those used for
larger gauge aluminum-aluminum and aluminum-copper connections.
These would appear to make a more reliable connection than wire
nut-type connectors with aluminum wire due to its higher coefficient of
expansion. These connectors may have the same problem with limited
enclosure space as the COPALUM system (also described under
"Upgrading aluminum-wired homes"). A listed connector should
always be used for connecting aluminum to copper wire.
Aluminum wire
66
Hazard insurance
In some states of the United States, home hazard insurance do not cover homes with any aluminum wiring, and some
insurance companies that claim to cover it charge a higher premium than for homes with copper wiring.
Upgrading or repairing aluminum-wired homes
Flat 81 is waiting to be upgraded from Soviet-era
aluminum cable to modern copper cable.
Several upgrades or repairs are available for homes with pre-1974
aluminum branch circuit wiring:
Completely rewiring the house with copper wires
"Pigtailing" involves splicing a short length of copper wire (pigtail)
to the original aluminum wire, and then attaching the copper wire to
the existing electrical device. The splice of the copper pigtail to the
existing aluminum wire uses special wire nuts, special crimp
connectors, or special miniature lug-type connectors.
The Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC) recommends that,
for a permanent repair, pigtailing be done with special crimp
connectors called COPALUM, or a special miniature lug-type
connectors called AlumiConn connectors.
[6]
And any repairs should be done by qualified electricians familiar with
aluminum wire problems and repair methods.
COPALUM connectors are a sophisticated crimping system that creates a cold weld between the copper and
aluminum wire, and is considered a permanent, maintenance-free repair. These connections are sometimes too large
to install in existing enclosures. Surface enclosures or larger enclosures may be installed to remedy this problem.
COPALUM connectors can be costly to install and require special tools and electricians certified to use them. It can
be difficult to find local certified electricians.
As of April 2011, the CPSC has also approved the AlumiConn miniature lug connector as an alternate to the
COPALUM connectors for a permanent repair.
[7]
The AlumiConn pigtail connectors are easier for local electricians
to install as they only require the electrician to use a special torque screwdriver.
CPSC considers the use of pigtails with wire nuts a temporary repair, and problems have been reported. In some
cases, using wire nuts increases the risks of fire. However, the problems primarily relate to improper installation
procedures or products. Ideal, the manufacturer of one brand of wire nut often used for wire nut pigtails, has stated
that special procedures are required when using the wire nuts to pigtail older pre-1970s ("old technology") aluminum
wire, such as pre-twisting and slightly abrading the wires, and the manufacturer of another brand has stated that they
are not to be used to retrofit older aluminum wiring, even though some websites recommend their use.
[8]
Presently
Ideal No. 65 wire nuts, which are a distinctive purple color, are the only wire nuts listed by UL for repairing
aluminum wiring. However these are described by their manufacturer as not suitable for permanent retrofit of
aluminum wiring in testimony to the CPSC leaving the COPALUM and AlumiConn systems as the only systems
approved by the CPSC and unequivocally recommended by their manufacturers as safe for permanent long term
retrofit of older aluminum wiring. Properly installed wire nuts by qualified electricians using approved products and
special installation procedures can offer a viable option for a temporary repair to improve the safety of older
aluminum wiring, but should not be considered a permanent correction of the problem.
Repairing older pre-1970s aluminum can be done by replacing electrical devices (switches, outlets, etc.) with ones
that are rated for use with aluminum wire (CO/ALR rated devices). These modern devices are tested and listed for
both AA-1350 and AA-8000 series alumimum wire. Although the CPSC does not recognize this as an acceptable
repair method, they are not the Authority Having Jurisdiction. The devices are tested and listed for use with
aluminum wire and are acceptable according to the National Electrical Code.
Aluminum wire
67
References
Friedman, Daniel & Jesse Aronstein. (1996). Reducing The Fire Hazard in Aluminum-Wired Homes
[9]
. The
Home Inspection & Construction Information Website]. Accessed on October 7, 2005.
Hunter, Christel. (2006). "Aluminum Building Wire Installation and Terminations" [10] Accessed on December
29, 2013.
Repairing Aluminum Wiring
[11]
, Consumer Product Safety Commission, 1994.
Chemical And Physical Property Of 3003 Aluminum Coil
[12]
[1] [1] Telecommunications and networks, Khateeb M. Hussain, Donna Hussain
[2] Aircraft Wire (http:/ / www. mechanicsupport. com/ aircraft_wire. html). mechanicsupport.com
[3] [3] Patent application filed in 1969
[4] Home Inspection and Building Inspection: The Hazards of Aluminum Wiring (http:/ / www. heimer. com/ information/ aluminum_wiring.
html)
[5] Aluminum wiring (http:/ / www. faqs. org/ faqs/ electrical-wiring/ part2/ section-16. html)
[6] http:/ / www. cpsc. gov/ cpscpub/ pubs/ 516. pdf
[7] http:/ / www. cpsc. gov/ LIBRARY/ FOIA/ ballot/ ballot11/ pub516. pdf
[8] http:/ / www. cpsc. gov/ library/ foia/ meetings/ mtg95/ aluminumwire2. pdf
[9] http:/ / www. inspectapedia. com/ aluminum/ alreduce. htm
[10] http:/ / www.iaei. org/ blogpost/ 890108/ 159173/ Aluminum-Building-Wire-Installation-and-Terminations?hhSearchTerms=%22hunter+
and+ aluminum%22& terms=
[11] http:/ / www.cpsc.gov/ CPSCPUB/ PUBS/ 516. pdf
[12] http:/ / www.hubshouts.com/ 2014/ 03/ chemical-physical-property-3003-aluminum-coil/
68
Metal quality
Hydrogen gas porosity
Hydrogen gas porosity is an aluminium casting defect under the form of a porosity or void in an aluminium casting
caused by a high level of hydrogen gas (H
2
) dissolved in the aluminium at liquid phase. Because the solubility of
hydrogen in solid aluminium is much smaller than in liquid aluminium, when the aluminium freezes, the dissolved
hydrogen gas creates porosity in solid aluminium.
Aluminum smelters and aluminum foundries want to produce high quality aluminum and shape castings with
minimum porosity. This can be obtained by reducing the amount of hydrogen in the liquid aluminium alloy.
The hydrogen problem
Hydrogen forms whenever molten aluminium comes into contact with water vapor, and easily dissolves into the
melt. The gas tends to come out of the solution and forms bubbles when the melt solidifies.
The detrimental effects arising from the presence of an excess of dissolved hydrogen in aluminium are numerous.
Hydrogen causes porosity in aluminum products leading to many casting defects, reduced mechanical properties like
fatigue and lower corrosion resistance. Several methods are used to reduce the amount of dissolved hydrogen from
the melt, such as furnace fluxing prior to the casting process or using in-line degasing equipment
[1]
during the
casting process.
Direct hydrogen measurement
An on-line method of measuring hydrogen in aluminum is then required to characterize and optimize the process,
which helps ensure the quality of outgoing products and monitors the performance of these degassing processes.
Traditional laboratory methods, such as hot extraction, are too expensive for routine quality assurance, and too slow
for effective process control. The Reduced Pressure Test (RPT) is often used on the foundry floor. The RPT is a
semi-quantitative method with limited accuracy that provides an indication of the hydrogen level.
Hydrogen analyzer
Hydrogen Gas Analyser
An hydrogen analyzer
[2]
can be used for direct measurement of
hydrogen in liquid aluminium. Direct monitoring of hydrogen is
possible using an on-line quantitative measurement technology based
on a closed-loop gas recirculation method though a porous ceramic
probe.
Since its introduction in 1989, this gas recirculation method has been
used more and more by all major aluminum producers.
[3]
Hydrogen gas porosity
69
Operation principle
The closed loop recirculation is a proven method of directly monitoring hydrogen in molten aluminium. A small
volume of carrier gas, usually nitrogen, is brought in contact with the melt by means of an immersed probe, and is
continuously recirculated in the closed loop until its hydrogen content reaches equilibrium with the vapor pressure of
H
2
in the melt. The H
2
concentration in the gas is measured and converted into a reading of the gas concentration in
the metal. This method is fast, reproducible and accurate, and can be used on-line on the cast shop floor.
The amount of H
2
in the gas loop of the instrument is determined by a thermal conductivity sensor, which provides
high reproducibility and a broad measurement range.
References
[1] Bernd Prillhofer, Holm Bttcher, DEVELOPMENT AND PRACTICAL PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF A NEW IMPELLER
FOR METAL TREATMENT IN CASTING/HOLDING FURNACES, Light Metals 2009, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society
[2] [2] Peter D. Waite, IMPROVED METALLURGICAL UNDERSTANDING OF THE ALCAN COMPACT DEGASSER, Light Metals 1998,
The Minerals, Metals and Materials Society, 1998, pp 791-796
[3] [3] In Situ Hydrogen Measurements in Liquid Al-Si foundry Alloys, Florence Paray, McGill University
Aluminium alloy inclusions
An inclusion is a solid particle in liquid aluminium alloy. It is usually non-metallic and can be of different nature
depending on its source.
Problems related to inclusions
Inclusions can create problems in the casting when they are large and in too high concentration. Here are examples
of problems related to inclusions:
Pinholes in light gauge foil
Flange cracks in Beverage containers
Surface streaks in bright automotive trim and lithographic material
Breakage in wire drawing operation
Increased tool wear and tear
Increased porosity
Loss of pressure tightness of engine blocks
Poor machinability
Cosmetic defect in apparent surfaces
Aluminium alloy inclusions
70
Inclusion types
Spinel and magnesium oxide inclusions as seen
under microscope from a PoDFA sample
Oxide films
In contact with ambient air, liquid aluminium reacts with the oxygen
and form an oxide film layer (gamma-Al
2
O
3
). This layer becomes
thicker with time. When aluminium is moved, this oxide film gets
mixed inside the melt.
Aluminium carbide
In primary aluminium production, aluminium carbides (Al
4
C
3
)
originates from the reduction of alumina where carbon anodes and
cathodes are in contact with the mix. Later in the process, any carbon
tools in contact with the liquid aluminium can react and create carbides.
Magnesium oxides
In aluminium alloys containing magnesium, magnesium oxides (MgO), cuboids (MgAl
2
O
4
-cuboid) and
metallurgical spinel (MgAl2O4-spinel) can form. They result from the reaction between magnesium and oxygen in
the melt. More of them will form with time and temperature.
Spinel can be highly detrimental because of its big size and high hardness.
Refractory materials
Particles of refractory material in contact with aluminium can detach and become inclusions. We can find graphite
inclusions (C), alumina inclusions (alpha-Al
2
O
3
), CaO, SiO
2
,
After some time, graphite refractory in contact with aluminium will react to create aluminum carbides (harder and
more detrimental inclusions).
In aluminium alloy containing magnesium, the magnesium reacts with some refractories to create rather big and hard
inclusions similar to spinels.
Unreacted refractory particles coming from the degradation of refractory materials which comes in contact with the
melt.
Chlorides
Chloride inclusions (MgCl
2
, NaCl, CaCl
2
, ) are a special type of inclusion as they are liquid in liquid metal. When
aluminium solidifies, they form spherical voids similar to hydrogen gas porosity but the void contains a chloride
crystal formed when aluminium became colder.
Fluxing salt
Fluxing salt, like chlorides are also liquid inclusions. They come from flux treatments added to the melt for cleaning.
Intentionally added inclusions
Titanium boride (TiB
2
) is intentionally added to the melt for grain refinement to improve mechanical properties.
Phosphorus is added to the melt hypereutectic alloys for modification of the silicon phase for better mechanical
properties. This creates AlP inclusions.
Aluminium alloy inclusions
71
Boron treatment inclusions ( (Ti, V)B
2
) form when boron is added to the melt to increase conductivity by
precipitating vanadium and titanium.
Less frequently found inclusions
The following inclusion types can also be found in aluminium alloys: alumina needles (Al2O3), nitrides (AlN), iron
oxides (FeO), manganese oxides (MnO), fluorides (Na
3
AlF
6
, NaF, CaF
2
, ), aluminium borides (AlB
2
, AlB
12
),
borocarbides (Al
4
C
4
B).
Bone ash (Ca
3
(PO
4
)
2
) sometimes added to patch cracks in the through can be found as inclusions in the melt.
Inclusion measurement
Several methods exist to measure the inclusion content in liquid aluminium.
[1]
The most common methods are
PoDFA, Prefil, K-Mold and LiMCA. Measuring the inclusions is of great help to understand the impact of furnace
preparation, alloying practice, feedstock mix, settling time, and similar parameters on melt cleanliness.
PoDFA
The PoDFA method provides information on the composition and concentration of the inclusions in molten
aluminum. PoDFA is widely used for process characterization and optimization, as well as product improvement. It
allows to quickly and accurately assess the effects of various operating practices on metal cleanliness or identify
filtration efficiency.
The PoDFA method was developed by Rio Tinto Alcan in the 70s. The metallographic analysis method has been
optimized for over the years on a wide variety of alloys.
The measurement principle is the following: A predetermined quantity of liquid aluminum is filtered under
controlled conditions using a very fine porosity filter. Inclusions in the melt are concentrated at the filter surface by a
factor of about 10,000. The filter, along with the residual metal, is then cut, mounted and polished before being
analyzed under an optical microscope by a trained PoDFA metallographer.
Prefil
Pressure Filtration Melt Cleanliness Analyzer:
Prefil-Footprinter for inclusion measurement in
liquid aluminium
The Prefil method
[2]
is similar to PoDFA but, in addition to the
metallographic analysis, Prefil provides also an immediate feedback on
metal cleanliness from the metal flowrate through the filter. Because
everything about the filtration is well controlled (pressure, metal
temperature, ...), the only parameter affecting the filtration speed is the
inclusion content. One can determine the cleanliness level from the
filtration curve (weight of metal filtered as a function of time).
K-Mold
K-Mold is a fracture test method. Liquid metal is cast into a mold
containing notches. Once solidified, the resulting bar is bent to expose
a fracture surface. The visual observation of inclusions on the fracture
is used to determine a K-value for the melt and compared to a preset
standard. This method is rather imprecise and therefore only suitable
when metal contents large inclusions and inclusion clusters.
[3]
Aluminium alloy inclusions
72
LiMCA
The LiMCA method
[4]
measures the total concentration and size distribution of inclusions present in aluminum
alloys. Its measuring principle is based on an objective and user-independent method. The LiMCA CM system can
characterize the cleanliness of a melt at time intervals in the order of one minute. It can therefore monitor, in
real-time, the evolution of cleanliness along a cast as a function of process parameters and melt-handling practices.
The heart of the LiMCA measuring system consists of a closed glass tube (electrically insulating material) bearing a
small orifice at its bottom. The tube is positioned in liquid metal. By creating a vacuum inside the tube, the metal
with the suspended inclusions to be detected is forced through the small orifice. Two electrodes are necessary: one
inside the tube and the other outside. Both electrodes are immersed in the liquid metal. A constant electrical current
is applied between the electrodes. The current flows through the liquid metal by the small orifice in the tube. When
an inclusion enters the orifice, it displaces its volume of conducting fluid, temporarily rising electrical resistance.
The increase of resistance generates a voltage pulse. The magnitude of the voltage pulse is a function of the volume
of the particle. The duration of the pulse is related to the transit time of the inclusion. The voltage pulses are
amplified and their amplitude measured digitally. The size distribution and total concentration are displayed in
real-time on a computer screen.
Inclusion removal
In order to get a good quality product, removing the inclusion becomes necessary. Liquid metal filtration through a
ceramic media is an efficient way to clean the metal. Different types of ceramic media are used in-line in foundries,
such as, ceramic foam filters, porous tube filters, bonded ceramic filters, and deep bed filters.
References
[1] [1] Doutre, D., Gariepy, B., Martin, J.P. and Dube, G., "Aluminum Cleanliness Monitoring: Methods and Applications in Process Development
and Quality Control, Light Metals, pp 1 1 79-1196 (1985)
[2] [2] NONMETALLIC INCLUSIONS IN THE SECONDARY ALUMINUM INDUSTRY FOR THE PRODUCTION OF AEROSPACE
ALLOYS, Bernd Prillhofer, Helmut Antrekowitsch, Holm Bttcher, Phil Enright, Light Metals 2008
[3] [3] O. Majidi, S.G. Shabestari, and M.R. Aboutalebi, "Study of fluxing temperature in molten aluminum refining process", Journal of Materials
Processing Technology, Volume 182, Issues 1-3, 2 February 2007, Pages 450-455
[4] [4] Guthrie, R. and Doutre, D.A., "On-Line Measurements of Inclusions in Liquid Metals, " Refining and Alloying of Liquid, Aluminum and
Ferro Alloys, pp 145-164 (Aug 1985)
73
Associations
The Aluminum Association
The Aluminum Association
Type 501(c)(6) non-profit organization
Industry Aluminum production
Aluminum fabrication
Aluminum recycling
Headquarters Arlington, Virginia, U.S.
Key people Heidi Brock, President
Employees 16
Website www.aluminum.org
The Aluminum Association is a trade association for the aluminum production, fabrication and recycling industries,
and their suppliers. The Association is a 501(c)(6) non-profit organization based in Arlington, Virginia, United
States. (The Association was based in Washington, D.C. until c. 2005.)
Pursuant to seven ANSI H35 standards, The Aluminum Association registers and publishes specifications describing
the composition, mechanical properties and nomenclature of aluminum alloys in the United States. These alloys are
identified by the abbreviation "AA", for example AA 6061-T6.
Mission, vision, and goals
The Aluminum Association works globally to promote aluminum as the most sustainable and recyclable automotive,
packaging, and construction material in todays market. The Association provides leadership to the industry through
its programs and services and assists in achieving the industry's environmental, societal, and economic objectives.
Member companies operate more than 200 plants in the United States, with many conducting business
worldwide.
[citation needed]
History
In 1933, Congress passed the National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA), a New Deal measure requesting each
industry to establish codes and guidelines of fair competition.
Representatives of 13 aluminum companies met in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania to set up these codes and formed the
Association of Manufacturers in the Aluminum Industry. Members of the Association included the Aluminum
Company of America (Alcoa) (Arthur Vining Davis), Reynolds Metals Company (Walter Hunt), and United
Smelting & Aluminum (Milton Rosenthal).
After the Act was repealed in May 1934, these industry leaders convened a special meeting in June, ultimately
deciding to continue the Association of Manufacturers in the Aluminum Industry on a reorganized basis.
The Association was reorganized and renamed "The Aluminum Association," and its first official meeting was held
in October 1935 in New York. The Association defined its purpose as promoting the general welfare of the
aluminum industry and its members.
The Aluminum Association
74
Through the end of the 1930s, the Association would focus on expanding the uses of aluminum. Its first formal
program in market expansion was a technical report called, Corrosion Resistance of Aluminum Cylinder Heads,
which was distributed to engineers, automobile dealers, and repair shops.
With the onset of World War II, and aluminum's designation as a strategic material, the Association would serve as a
central conduit for information relating to aluminums use in the war effortdisseminating government material,
representing the industry on government boards, and providing statistical information to the industry and the general
public.
During the course of the war, the aluminum industry would design and build 52 new aluminum production and
fabrication plants for the U.S. government and add on to 37 existing plants. After the war, the government-owned
aluminum plants were offered to bidders under the Surplus Property Act of 1944.
Post-war Growth
The sale of these plants would help create Kaiser Aluminum and expand the operations of Reynolds Aluminum.
Both companies joined Alcoa as major primary aluminum producers.
After the war, the Association, now with three principal divisionssheet, extrusion, and foundryrepresented 36
companies, including all three primary producers and companies whose output represented 85 percent of the total
amount of the nation's aluminum fabricated products.
By the late 1940s, the Aluminum Association would recommence fulfilling its original purpose to promote the
general welfare of the industry. In doing so, it instituted a number of projects, including:
Redirecting the efforts of the Publicity Committee, formed during the war, toward publicizing aluminum on
behalf of the industry
Initiating a program of standardization of aluminum specifications
Creating the Foil Division
Forming the Building Industry Committee to effect the change of the material-specified codes to performance
codesand eventually to standardize the codes across the country
Production (in 1959) of the Aluminum Construction Manual, precursor to the current Aluminum Design Manual.
The 1950s were a period of great expansion for the aluminum industry in the building, transportation, household
products, electrical, and packaging markets. The public relations program of the time promoted aluminum as The
Modern Metal for Modern Uses.
As the demand for technical data on aluminum grew, the Technical Committee was created. In the mid-50s this
committee produced the precursor to the Aluminum Standards and Data.
A promotional symbolthe "Mark of Aluminum"was developed by the Public Relations Committee in the early
1960s. The marks, which proclaimed aluminum as variously "lightweight," "durable," "versatile," and "rust-free,"
would appear on thousands of consumer products to proclaim the special attributes of aluminum.
Environmental and Energy Initiatives
The early 1970s saw the rise of the environmental movement. The industry would become heavily involved in
establishing the nation's aluminum can recycling infrastructure. The Association also established new committees in
energy and recycling.
In 1977, the Association would move its headquarters from New York to Washington, D.C. The Government
Relations Committee formed that same year.
By the end of the decade, the Association would announce that the aluminum industry had met and surpassed its
energy conservation goal almost two years ahead of schedule. The industry had reduced the amount of energy
required to make a pound of aluminum by 10.77 percent compared with the base year of 1972.
The Aluminum Association
75
As the 20th century came to a close, the Association and its members would take an increasingly active and leading
role in pursuing energy efficiency and emission reductions in our primary operations. The Voluntary Aluminum
Industrial Partnership,(VAIP) launched in 1995 between the Environmental Protection Agency and the aluminum
industry, has since succeeded in achieving dramatic reductions in perfluorocarbon (PFCs) gas emissions. The VAIP
represented 18 of the 19 American aluminum smelters and represented 98% of total aluminum smelting in the U.S.
The program reduced PFC emission by 77% over 14 years. In 2002, the Environmental Protection Agency awarded
its Climate Change Award to the Aluminum Association for this program.
The Aluminum Association today carries out its role in promoting aluminum via a diverse set of activities:
developing technical standards and data, collecting and publishing industry statistics, promoting plant safety and
health, and monitoring and promoting technological developments that advance the metal's use across a range of
applications.
Standards
United States' aluminum industry standards, which are voluntary, have been developed and continue to evolve to
meet the need for a communication system to facilitate aluminum commerce.
The structure for this communication system is defined by a group of six American National Standards, which
include the authorization for The Aluminum Association to administer the registration of chemical composition
limits and mechanical properties of cast and wrought aluminum alloys, with the accompanying assignment of alloy
and temper designations.
The ANS H35 standards are developed under approval by the Accredited Standards Committee H35 - Aluminum
and Aluminum Alloys, which is an ANSI accredited standards committee. Aluminum Association (AA) standards
are promulgated by the Technical Committee on Product Standards.
In addition to registering alloy compositions and designations, the TCPS also registers alloy-temper product
standards. Most industry product standards for aluminum mill products are published in Aluminum Standards and
Data, available in both customary and metric editions. Similarly, the Association publishes the Standards for
Aluminum Sand and Permanent Mold Castings, which provides engineering and metallurgical standards for casting
alloys in metric and U.S. units of measurements.
Aluminum Association designations and product standards information are used throughout all facets of aluminum
commerce, as well as in other organizations codes and standards. Aluminum alloy and temper designations,
chemical composition limits and registered properties in North America all originate from the above system of ANSI
and AA standards. These standards are also the basis for several international agreements for the worldwide producer
registration of wrought alloys, unalloyed aluminum, and aluminum hardeners (aluminum alloy materials and grain
refiners).
Public Policy
Climate Change
The aluminum industry recognizes that climate change presents a challenge that requires cooperative action on
a global basis, and promotes international participation.
Climate policies should recognize the benefits of recycling toward GHG emissions reduction. After the initial
energy investment in primary aluminum production, the recycling of aluminum saves 95 percent of energy and
greenhouse gas emissions. The industrys complementary primary and reclamation system thereby reduces the
overall energy consumption in total U.S. aluminum production by approximately 46 percent, and reduces
GHGs by approximately 38 percent. The industry sees opportunity for further reduction and supports policy
that provides incentives for recycling.
The Aluminum Association
76
The industry supports efficient and economically sound emissions trading programs and registries that
recognize early emissions reductions. It supports an economy-wide, fair-market-driven approach that may
include a cap and trade program that limits GHG emissions. The approach should result in market incentives
that stimulate investment and innovation in technologies necessary to grow while achieving environmental
reduction targets.
To reduce potential negative impacts on the U.S. manufacturing sector, which by 2005 had already reduced
total GHG emissions below 1990 levels, provision should be made in any GHG program to reduce the
expected negative impacts of energy cost increases such as through corporate tax credits.
The industry participates in and recommends public/private partnerships to spur pre-competitive research to
reduce greenhouse gas process emissions and to promote energy saving aluminum product applications.
The industry supports a responsible approach to growth in demand for its products and the consequent growth
in activity and related emissions, noting that solutions to the climate change issue involve both reducing
emissions at the source, and also over the full life cycle of the material or products.
Energy Policy
Energy represents about one-third of the total production cost of primary aluminum. Electricity is an essential
ingredient in primary aluminum production. These factors together make energy efficiency and energy
management prime objectives for the industry. While the industry is a large consumer of both natural gas and
electricity, the annual expenditure for electricity by the aluminum industry is more than $2 billion.
Since the 1970s, manufacturing energy consumption has grown at twice the rate of domestic energy
production. This gap between energy use and production will continue to adversely affect manufacturing if the
country does not resolve national energy policy with a comprehensive U.S. energy strategy that enhances
supply, improves infrastructure, and increases efficiency, without compromising environmental safeguards or
imposing efficiency mandates.
The Aluminum Association supports the principles of electricity consumer choice and open access
transmission, applied uniformly in the U.S. through a national system. However the industry does not support
proposals for total federal pre-emption in all areas related to deregulation and restructuring. The Aluminum
Association supports the establishment of a system that recognizes some inherent regional advantages in the
cost of electricity. Consumer-choice legislation should not be tied to excessive taxing of electricity consumers
to fund public benefits or a national mandatory Standard Market Design.
With artificial-market disadvantages, it may be impossible to operate or restore primary smelting capacity in
the Northwest U.S., and other regional aluminum plants will be subject to similar concerns. The recommended
approach is to provide short-term policies to help the industry survive the transition to a rational market
situation, and provide long-term policies to restore supply-demand balance in electricity markets.
Certainty of an affordable energy supply is essential to capital investment in the manufacturing sectors that
provide high-paying jobs. Putting the U.S. on the path to a reliable and affordable supply of domestic energy is
essential to this country's short-term economic rebound and future long-term growth prospects. All supply
options should be considered to contribute to a diverse and robust supply of energy
Trade Position
The members of the Aluminum Association are fully committed to a fair and open world market for aluminum.
The Aluminum Association strongly supports the initiation of global trade negotiations in the World Trade
Organization (WTO).
The Association supports a comprehensive approach to the phased-in reduction and elimination of tariffs over
a multi-year period, not to exceed 10 years.
The free flow of aluminum products on a global scale is vital to the future success of the U.S. aluminum
industry.
Partnership With Department of Energy (DOE)
The Aluminum Association
77
The Aluminum Association and the United States Department of Energy partner to develop the aluminum
technologies needed to achieve the industry's long-term economic, energy and environmental goals.
Aluminum is one of the United States Department of Energy's nine designated industries of the future.
Sustainability
Lifecycle Considerations
The U.S. aluminum industry strives to maximize energy efficiency and minimize emissions from its upstream and
downstream plant operations.
According to the International Aluminium Institute, the average energy consumption per ton of aluminum
production has fallen worldwide by 70 percent over the past century. A century ago, primary smelters took
roughly 28,000 kilowatt hours (kWh) to produce a metric ton of aluminum from alumina. Todays state-of-the-art
smelters use 13,000 kWh to produce the same amount of aluminum.
Since 1995, U.S. primary aluminum producers have reduced perfluorocarbon emissions over 70 percent under the
Voluntary Aluminum Industry Partnership. Partners have achieve reductions by reducing the frequency and
duration of anode effects via a mix of management and technological changes, employing the best options on a
smelter-by-smelter basis. U.S. aluminum producers have exceeded the DOEs Climate Vision emission-reduction
targets, reducing direct smelting emissions over 25 percent.
Product Life
Much of aluminums contribution to reducing emissions, fuel use, and energy consumption comes during a products
lifespan, particularly in aluminums largest end market: automotive and transportation. Aluminums light weight,
combined with its durability, can result in dramatic energy and emissions savings.
Studies recently undertaken by the International Aluminium Institute show just how dramatic those savings can be.
Among their findings:
A doubling of the aluminum tonnage in cars worldwide between 2000 and 2010 will curb greenhouse gas
emissions by 180 metric tons annually.
The use of one pound of aluminum in place of 1.5lbs. of steel in a typical bus or truck application reduces
greenhouse gas emissions by almost 90lbs over the lifetime of the bus or truck.
Use of one pound of aluminum in place of 1.6lbs. of steel in a typical railway car reduces greenhouse gas
emissions by almost 450lbs. over the railcars lifetime.
Global use of aluminum in the automotive sector increased from 5.5 billion lbs. in 1991 (source: IAI) to 12 billion
pounds in 2006 (source: Ducker Worldwide).
Assuming that 12 billion lbs. of aluminum is used to replace denser materials, the potential savings in greenhouse
gas emissions over the lifetimes of those vehicles would be approximately 240 billion lbs.
So great is the potential for emissions savings from aluminums use in the automotive and transportation industries
that Alcoa, among others, has forecast that the aluminum industry is well on pace to become greenhouse gas
neutral in the next decade. That is, the global warming impacts of aluminum production will be fully offset by the
amount of carbon-dioxide saved by its use in the transportation industry.
Aluminum Association Sustainability Initiative
The Aluminum Association's Sustainability Initiative, launched in April 2008, promotes increased recycling,
energy-efficient product applications, and increased operating efficiency.
Among the projects that will form the basis of the initiative are:
Expanding the Curbside Value Partnership
[1]
which the aluminum industry is partnered with the paper, glass,
plastic, and steel industries to increase curbside recycling participation and collections. As of January 2011,
Curbside Value Partnership became an independent 501(c)3 with a five member Board of Directors and continues
The Aluminum Association
78
to grow.
World Aluminum Automotive SustainabilityIn partnership with the IAI and the European Aluminium
Association, the Aluminum Association will demonstrate that aluminum automotive applications can lead to
potential savings of 140 million tons of carbon-dioxide-equivalent emissions and energy savings equal to 55
billion liters of crude oil over the lifecycle of such vehicles.
Sustainable Technologies
Through participation in such partnerships as the Department of Energys (DOEs) Industrial Technologies Program,
the U.S. aluminum industry works to increase energy efficiency and lower emissions associated with the aluminum
production process.
Promising new technologies include:
Researchers at the DOEs Argonne National Laboratory and NorandaFalconbridge are developing a way to
produce aluminum at significantly reduced temperatures. Specifically, researchers are modifying the cell
electrolyte to operate at lower temperatureswhich could eventually permit the use of an inert anode.
The ITPworking with Aleris Inc., among othershas supported the development of a radically new concept for
melting aluminumisothermal meltingthat can dramatically improve energy efficiency in melting and other
molten metal processes.
Alcoa has launched a carbon capture technology at its Kwinana alumina refinery in Western Australia. The
system mixes bauxite residue with carbon-dioxide to lock up large volumes of carbon dioxide that would
otherwise be released into the atmosphere.
International Partnerships
The aluminum industry continues to move forward on both the national and international fronts to advance
sustainability efforts.
In July 2005, the U.S. entered into an agreement known as the Asia-Pacific Partnership on Clean Development and
Climate
[2]
or AP6with Australia, India, China, Japan, and South Korea (Canada has since also joined).
Together these countriesand their energy-intensive industries, such as aluminumare working to develop and
deploy more efficient technologies and to meet national pollution-reduction, energy-security, and climate-change
concerns.
The Aluminum Task Force, co-chaired by the U.S., is developing realistic work plans and identifying
aluminum-specific projects that will be carried out to help achieve the partnerships goals. Among those goals are to
realize a 20 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions from the seven countries by 2050 compared with current
projections if no action were taken.
References
[1] http:/ / www. recyclecurbside. org/ under
[2] http:/ / www. asiapacificpartnership.org/ english/ default. aspx
External links
Aluminum Association official Web site (http:/ / www. aluminum. org/ )
AA's Aluminum Statistics (http:/ / www. aluminum. org/ Content/ NavigationMenu/ NewsStatistics/
StatisticsReports/ default. htm)
What is aluminum? (http:/ / whatisaluminum. com)
Institute for the History of Aluminium
79
Institute for the History of Aluminium
The Institute for the History of Aluminium (French: Institut pour lhistoire de laluminium) is a French
non-profit organisation. Founded in 1986, its aims are to foster multidisciplinary study of the history of aluminium in
its technical, economic, industrial, commercial and cultural aspects and to protect the aluminium industry's heritage.
The IHA edits the Cahiers d'histoire de l'aluminium and an electronic newsletter. It provides support for students
who are interested in the history of aluminium through research grants. Access to its specialised library and archives
is open to researchers in the reading room of the IHA in Gennevilliers.
External links
Official Website
[1]
References
[1] http:/ / www. histalu. org/ english/ iha-rubrique. php?rub=2
80
Companies
Alcoa
Alcoa Inc.
Alcoa logo designed by Saul Bass in 1963
Type Public
Traded as
NYSE:AA
[1]
Industry Metals
Founded Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S. (1888)
Founder(s) Charles Martin Hall
Headquarters Lever House, Midtown Manhattan, New York
City
(Operational base in Pittsburgh)
Area served Worldwide
Key people Klaus Kleinfeld
(Chairman and CEO)
Products Aluminum, fabricated aluminum, and alumina
Revenue $ 25.9 billion (FY 2011)
Operating income $ 1.06 billion (FY 2011)
Net income $ 611 million (FY 2011)
Total assets $ 40.1 billion (FY 2011)
Total equity $ 17.1 billion (FY 2011)
Employees 61,000 (December 2011)
Subsidiaries Halco Mining
Kawneer
Howmet Castings
Website
Alcoa.com
[2]
Alcoa Inc. (from Aluminum Company of America) is the world's third largest producer of aluminum, behind Rio
Tinto Alcan and Rusal, with corporate headquarters in New York City. From its operational base in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania in the United States, Alcoa conducts operations in 31 countries. Alcoa is a major producer of primary
aluminum, fabricated aluminum, and alumina combined, through its active and growing participation in all major
aspects of the industry: technology, mining, refining, smelting, fabricating, and recycling. Aluminum and alumina
represent more than three-fourths of Alcoas revenue. Non-aluminum products include precision castings and
aerospace and industrial fasteners. Alcoas products are used worldwide in aircraft, automobiles, commercial
transportation, packaging, building and construction, oil and gas, defense, and industrial applications.
In May 2007 Alcoa made a US$27 billion hostile takeover bid for Alcan, aiming to unite the two companies and
form the world's largest aluminum producer. The takeover bid was withdrawn after Alcan announced a friendly
takeover by Rio Tinto in July 2007.
Alcoa
81
Among Alcoa's other businesses are fastening systems, building products (Kawneer) and Howmet Castings. The sale
of the packaging unit was announced on December 21, 2007 and closed in the first quarter of 2008.
History
In 1886, Charles Martin Hall, a graduate of Oberlin College, discovered the process of smelting aluminum, almost
simultaneously with Paul Hroult in France. He realized that by passing an electrical current through a bath of
cryolite and aluminum oxide, the then semi-rare metal aluminum remained as a byproduct. This discovery, now
called the Hall-Hroult process, is still the only process used to make aluminum.
Probably fewer than ten sites in the US and Europe produced any aluminum at the time.
[citation needed]
In 1887, Hall
made an agreement to try his process at the Electric Smelting and Aluminum Company plant in Lockport, New
York, but it was not used and Hall left after one year. On Thanksgiving Day 1888, with the help of Alfred E. Hunt,
he started the Pittsburgh Reduction Company with an experimental smelting plant on Smallman Street in Pittsburgh,
Pennsylvania. In 1891, the company went into production in New Kensington, Pennsylvania. In 1895, a third site
opened at Niagara Falls. By about 1903, after a settlement with Hall's former employer, and while its patents were in
force, the company was the only legal supplier of aluminum in the US.
"The Aluminum Company of America" became the firm's new name in 1907. The acronym "Alcoa" was coined in
1910, given as a name to two of the locales where major corporate facilities were located (although one of these has
since been changed), and in 1999 was adopted as the official corporate name.
In 1938, the Justice Department charged Alcoa with illegal monopolization, and demanded that the company be
dissolved. The case of United States v. Alcoa was settled six years later.
On April 5, 2001, Alcoa restated its net income for the effects of the change in accounting for revenue recognition.
Alcoa purchased an 8% stake of Aluminium Corporation of China (Chalco) in 2001. It tried to form a strategic
alliance with China's largest aluminum producer, at its Pingguo facility; however, it was unsuccessful. Alcoa sold
their stake in Chalco on September 12, 2007 for around $2 billion.
In 2004, Alcoa's specialty chemicals business was sold to two private equity firms led by Rhne Group for an
enterprise value of $342, which included the assumption of debt and other unfunded obligations. Rhne Group then
changed the name to Almatis, Inc..
In 2005 Alcoa acquired two major production facilities in Russia, at Samara and Belaya Kalitva.
In 2005, Alcoa began construction in Iceland on Alcoa Fjaral, a state-of-the-art aluminum smelter and the
company's first greenfield smelter in more than 20 years, albeit under heavy criticism by local and international
NGOs related to a controversial dam project exclusively dedicated to supplying electricity to this smelter. Also,
Alcoa has completed or is undergoing primary aluminum expansion projects in Brazil, Jamaica, and Pinjarra,
Western Australia.
In 2006, Alcoa relocated its top executives from Pittsburgh to New York City. Although the company's principal
office is located in New York City, the company's operational headquarters are still located at its Corporate Center in
Pittsburgh. Alcoa employs approximately 2,000 people at its Corporate Center in Pittsburgh and 60 at its principal
office in New York.
Alcoa was named one of the top three most sustainable corporations in the world at the World Economic Forum in
Davos, Switzerland.
On May 8, 2008, Klaus Kleinfeld was appointed new CEO of Alcoa, succeeding Alain Belda. On April 23, 2010,
Alcoas Board of Directors elected Kleinfeld to the office of Chairman, following Beldas planned retirement.
On July 16, 2012, Alcoa announced that it will take over full ownership and operation of Evermore Recycling and
make it part of Alcoa's Global Packaging group. Evermore Recycling is a leader in used beverage can recycling,
purchasing more recycled cans than any other group worldwide.
Alcoa
82
In June 2013, Alcoa announced it would permanently close its Fusina primary aluminium smelter, in Venice where
production had been curtailed since June 2010.
Environmental record
The Political Economy Research Institute ranks Alcoa 15th among corporations emitting airborne pollutants in the
United States. The ranking is based on the quantity (13 million pounds in 2005) and toxicity of the emissions. In
April 2003, Alcoa Inc. agreed to spend an estimated $330 million to install a new coal-fired power plant with
state-of-the-art pollution controls to eliminate the vast majority of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide emissions
from the power plant at Alcoa's aluminum production facility in Rockdale, Texas. The settlement was the ninth case
the Bush administration pursued to bring the coal-fired power plant industry into full compliance with the Clean Air
Act. Alcoa was unlawfully operating at the Rockdale facility since it overhauled the Rockdale power plant without
installing necessary pollution controls and without first obtaining proper permits required by "New Source Review"
program of the Clean Air Act. In February 1999, Alcoa cleaned soils and sediment contaminated with
polychlorinated biphenyls (PCB) and lead at the York Oil federal Superfund site in Moira, New York in accordance
with the Environmental Protection Agency. The site, a former waste oil recycling storage facility, accepted waste oil
from a number of companies, including Alcoa. The facility was improperly managed and operated and, as a result,
soils on the York Oil Property and nearby wetlands sediments and groundwater were contaminated. The United
States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a Superfund Unilateral Order on December 31, 1998
requiring Alcoa to excavate, treat and dispose of the contaminated wetlands sediments.
Allegations of Bribery of Bahraini Officials and Criminal Charges
On January 9, 2014 it was reported that Alcoa had reached a settlement with the U.S. Securities and Exchange
Commission and the Department of Justice over charges of bribing Bahraini officials.
Under the terms of the settlement they will pay the SEC $175 million to settle the charges, $14 million of which will
be satisfied by the companys one-time forfeiture payment to the DOJ. In total, Alcoa will pay the SEC $161 million
in five equal installments over the next four years. To settle the criminal claims with the DOJ, Alcoa World Alumina
(AWA, a company within Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals) is pleading guilty to one count of violating the
anti-bribery provisions of the Foreign Corrupt Practices Act (FCPA). AWA will pay the DOJ $223 million in five
equal installments over the next four years, bringing the companys total bill for the scandal to $384 million.
Operations
Jamaica
Alcoa formed the Alcoa Minerals of Jamaica subsidiary on the island in 1959, shipping their first load of bauxite in
1963 from Rocky Point. Later in 1972, Alcoa established a 500,000 metric tonne per year refinery where they
process bauxite into alumina. They have continued to upgrade the plant through the years and its now capable 1.425
metric tonnes per year. In 1988 the Jamaican government gained a 50% share in the subsidiary and renamed the
operation to Jamalco, Alcoa being the managing partner. Expansion of the operation in 2007 resulted in Alcoa
owning a total of 55% of the operation. Alcoa continues to mine bauxite in the Jamaican parishes of Clarendon and
Manchester while competitors' operations take place in nearby parishes.
Alcoa
83
Ghana
Alcoa's affiliate in Ghana, the Volta Aluminum Company, was completely closed between May 2003 and early
2006, due to problems with its electricity supply.
[3]
Iceland
The Fjardal smelter in eastern Iceland was completed in June 2007, and brought into full operation the following
April. The plant processes 940 tons of aluminum a day, with a capacity of 346,000 metric tons a year,
[4]
making it
Alcoa's second largest capacity smelter. For power, the plant relies on the Krahnjkar Hydropower Plant,
constructed and operated by the state owned Landsvirkjun specifically for the smelting operation. That project was
subject to controversy due to its impact on the environment.
In 2006, Alcoa and the government of Iceland signed an agreement on instigating a thorough feasibility study for a
new 250,000 tpy (Tons Per Year) smelter in Bakki by Hsavk in Northern Iceland. In October 2011, the proposed
project was dropped because "the power availability and proposed pricing would not support an aluminum smelter".
United Kingdom
Alcoa owns a division in Exeter, known as Howmet Castings. The division here is home to a both an Alloy and
Casting facility. As of 2012 the plant employed around 600 employees.
Birmingham, England
Established shortly before World War II, the facility at Kitts Green, Birmingham has produced many aluminium
products. Throughout the 1960s, 70s and 80s the plant became focused on flat-rolled products for the aerospace
industry.
[5]
As of 2007 the plant employed approx 530 employees.
Swansea, Wales
On November 21, 2006, Alcoa announced that it planned to close the Waunarlwydd works in Swansea, with the loss
of 298 jobs. Production ceased at the Swansea plant on January 27, 2007. A small site closure team worked at the
site until the 31st December 2008. The site is still owned by Alcoa, but is now managed locally and renamed,
Westfield Industrial Park.
[citation needed]
Several of the large buildings are leased out to local businesses.
Australia
Alcoa operates bauxite mines, alumina refineries and aluminum smelters through Alcoa World Alumina and
Chemicals, which is a joint venture between Alumina Limited and Alcoa. Alcoa operates two bauxite mines in
Western Australia - the Huntly and Willowdale mines. Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals owns and operates
three alumina refineries in Western Australia: Kwinana, Pinjarra and Wagerup. The Wagerup expansion plans have
been put on hold due to the Global Financial Crisis. Two aluminum smelters are also operated in the state of Victoria
at Portland and Point Henry; the Point Henry smelter is scheduled to be closed in August 2014. Alcoa Australia
Rolled Products, a 100% Alcoa Inc. venture, operates two rolling mills. The Point Henry Rolling mill in Victoria and
the Yennora rolling mill in N.S.W. have a combined rolling capacity of approx. 200,000 tonnes. Alcoa uses 12,600
GWh or 15% of Victoria's electricity annually.
Alcoa's Western Australian Wagerup plant has a troubled history in the context of claims that pollution from the
plant has had an adverse impact on the health of members of the adjacent local community.
Alcoa
84
United States
Barack Obama speaking to Alcoa workers at the
Riverdale, Iowa plant.
On January 3, 2003 Alcoa opened its new operations headquarters on
the North Shore Pittsburgh. This move came about after it donated its
50 year old skyscraper headquarters in Downtown Pittsburgh to the
Regional Development Authority.
Forged aluminum wheels. Made by Alcoa with
their typical design.
Alcoa created a plant just outside of Maryville, Tennessee in Blount
County, Tennessee, which was the biggest provider of aluminum in the
South. The area needed housing for workers, so Alcoa built many
houses. The area eventually turned into a city and the wife of Alcoa
hydro engineer James Rickey came up with the name Alcoa as an
acronym for Aluminum Company of America. The name Alcoa was,
therefore, created specifically to name the town Alcoa, Tennessee,
which was founded in 1919. Over time, the name Alcoa was
unofficially used to reference the company as well. The Aluminum
Company of America officially changed its name to Alcoa, Inc. in
1999.
Alcoa's Massena West plant is the longest operating smelter in the
United States, having been in continuous operation since 1902. The
Reynolds Aluminum Plant became Massena East when the companies
merged in 2000.
Alcoa has a plant in Davenport, Iowa, which was founded in 1947 on
the banks of the Mississippi River. It is the company's hub for their
aerospace supply hub and premier aerospace supply plant. It has produced at least one piece of metal on every space
vehicle and contributed to the moon landing.
[citation needed]
Alcoa had a smelting plant in Badin, North Carolina from 1917 to 2007 and continues a hydroelectric power
operation there.
Alcoa also operates an aluminum smelting plant of similar size to the one in Tennessee in Warrick County, Indiana,
just east of Newburgh, Vectren Energy operates a coal power plant on the site to provide electricity.
Alcoa maintains several Research and Development Centers in the United States. The largest one, Alcoa Technical
Center, is located East of its Pittsburgh Headquarters at Alcoa Center, Pennsylvania. The "Tech Center" is as large as
some college campuses, has its own Zip Code and maintains an extensive intellectual and physical resource for
innovation. Alcoa's extensive safety program continuously improves safety at the Tech Center. After Paul O'Neill
became Alcoa CEO in 1987, Alcoa became one of the safest companies in the world, despite the aluminum
industry's inherent risks.
[6]
Alcoa makes tire rims for cars, buses, and vehicles. The rims for cars, buses, and vehicles are made at Alcoa's
Cleveland, Ohio plant on a campus on Harvard Avenue, near the massive Arcelor Mittal steel plant. Alcoa also has
offices in nearby Independence, Ohio, which is some four miles south of the Harvard Avenue plant.
Alcoa
85
Alcoa makes cans for the soft drink industry.
Alcoa also has a subsidiary called Alcoa Fastening Systems, which manufactures aerospace fasteners. AFS
Headquarters is located in Torrance, CA and in France, with half of the manufacturing locations located in southern
California and others located in Arizona, New York, France, Germany, China, Hungary, Mexico, UK and Morocco.
AFS also compromises Sales and Distribution/Logistics.
Russia
Alcoa first began commercial operations in Russia and opened an office in Moscow in 1993. Today, the Company
employs approximately 5,370 people at its manufacturing operations in Samara and Belaya Kalitva. Since 2005, the
company's reported investments reached over $787 million in its Russia operations, which has included a complete
modernization of production equipment and processes at Samara and Belaya Kalitva. Alcoa Samara and Alcoa
Belaya Kalitva plants produce a wide range of aluminum semi-fabricated products, including flat-rolled products,
hard alloy extrusions and forgings for packaging, aerospace, automotive, building and construction, commercial
transportation, oil and gas and industrial markets.
Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
Alcoa owns and operates the majority of its alumina refineries through its 60% share of Alcoa World Alumina and
Chemicals.
Alcoa primary aluminum smelters
Alcoa has interests in 25 primary aluminum smelters in 8 countries.
Alcoa smelters
Country Location Equity
ownership
Plant Total Nameplate capacity (kt per
year)
Alcoa's Capacity (kt per
year)
Australia Point Henry 100% 190 190
Australia Portland 55% 358 197
Brazil
Poos de Caldas 100% 96 96
Brazil
So Lus (Alumar) 60% 447 268
Canada Baie-Comeau* 100% 385 385
Canada Bcancour 75% 413 310
Canada Deschambault 100% 260 260
Iceland
Fjaral 100% 344 344
Italy
Fusina 100% 44 44
Italy
Portovesme 100% 150 150
Norway
Lista, Farsund 100% 150 150
Norway
Mosjen 100% 188 188
Spain
Avils 100% 93 93
Spain
La Corua 100% 87 87
Spain
San Cibrao 100% 228 228
United
States
Alcoa, TN** 100% 215 215
Alcoa
86
United
States
Badin, NC** 100% 60 60
United
States
Newburgh, IN (Warrick)* 100% 309 309
United
States
Ferndale, WA (Intalco)* 100% 279 279
United
States
Frederick, MD
(Eastalco)**
100% 195 195
United
States
Massena (East Plant), NY 100% 125 125
United
States
Massena (West Plant), NY 100% 130 130
United
States
Mount Holly, SC 50% 229 115
United
States
Rockdale, TX** 100% 267 267
United
States
Wenatchee, WA*** 100% 184 184
*One idle potline
**Temporarily curtailed
***Two idle potlines
References
[1] http:/ / www. nyse.com/ about/ listed/ quickquote.html?ticker=aa
[2] http:/ / alcoa. com
[3] Aluworks limited (ALW) Half year best performing stock (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20070926005005/ http:/ / www. gcsinvestments.
com/ downloads/ companyreports/ ALW+ REPORT+ 2006. pdf) July, 2006
[4] Iceland Reydarfjordur (http:/ / www.alcoa. com/ locations/ iceland_reydarfjordur/ en/ home. asp)
[5] Case study Alcoa (http:/ / web. archive.org/ web/ 20050411224622/ http:/ / www. le. ac. uk/ business/ case_alcoa. html) University of
Lancaster Business School
[6] Fast Company magazine (http:/ / www. fastcompany. com/ magazine/ 137/ made-to-stick-in-defense-of-feelings. html) Jul 1, 2009 - Note:
Dubious Source
External links
Official Web site (http:/ / www. alcoa. com)
Alcoa SEC Filings (http:/ / www. secdatabase. com/ CIK/ 4281/ Company-Name/ ALCOA-INC)
Alcoa companies (http:/ / opencorporates. com/ corporate_groupings/ alcoa) grouped at OpenCorporates
Alcoa Video and Audio on MarketWatch (http:/ / video. marketwatch. com/ alcoa. htm?cpg=1)
Top Companies of the Decade (http:/ / www. businessweek. com/ magazine/ content/ 05_50/ b3963415. htm)
From Business Week magazine
The Bad Neighbor: Alcoa's Dirty Dealings in Texas (http:/ / www. dollarsandsense. org/ archives/ 2004/
0704cervantes. html) From Dollars & Sense magazine.
Russia dethrones US metals king (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ business/ 6033589. stm)
Something in the Air - The Clash Between a Giant Industry that makes an essential product and a small
community dogged by illness and struggling for survival (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ 4corners/ content/ 2005/
s1471209. htm)
Alcoa
87
Protesters plan to lodge Supreme Court writ over Alcoa smelter (http:/ / www. abc. net. au/ news/ australia/ wa/
bunbury/ 200609/ s1741727. htm)
Alcoa expands despite toxins (http:/ / www. news. com. au/ perthnow/ story/ 0,21598,20391434-2761,00. html)
Rio Tinto Alcan
Rio Tinto Alcan Inc.
Type
Subsidiary of Rio Tinto PLC (LSE: RIO
[1]
)
Industry Aerospace, Mass Transportation, Building, Construction, Packaging, Aluminium, Alumina.
Founded 1902 as a subsidiary of Alcoa
Headquarters Maison Alcan, Montreal, Quebec, Canada
Key people Jacynthe Ct, President and CEO
Products Aluminas, aluminium sheet, extrusion billet, rod and remelt ingot, alloys, cable, packaging
Net income $2.786 billion USD (2006)
Employees 68,000 (including joint-ventures)
Parent Rio Tinto
Website
www.riotintoalcan.com
[2]
Rio Tinto Alcan Inc. is a Canadian company based in Montreal. It was created on November 15, 2007 as the result
of the merger between Rio Tinto PLC's Canadian subsidiary, Rio Tinto Canada Holding Inc., and Canadian company
Alcan Inc. On the same date, Alcan Inc. was renamed Rio Tinto Alcan Inc..
Rio Tinto Alcan Inc. is the global leader of aluminium mining and production, above its one time parent Alcoa (from
which it split in 1928), Rusal and some Chinese public companies.
History
Founded in 1902 as the Canadian unit of Alcoa, it was spun off in 1928. R.E. Powell left Alcoa to become Vice
President of the Aluminium Company of Canada (later Alcan) in Montreal, was President from 193757 and was
then Chancellor of McGill University from 1957-64.
Alcan has gone through several name changes:
Northern Aluminum Company Limited - 1902
Aluminum Company of Canada Limited - 1925
registers the name Alcan - 1945
added French name Aluminium du Canada, Limite - 1965
introduce the use of the name Alcan Aluminium Limited in English and Alcan Aluminium Limite 1966; later
used as the official name of the parent company in 1987
Alcan Inc. - 2001
Rio Tinto Alcan Inc. - 2008 (current company name)
In 2008 Alcan Inc was amalgamated with Rio Tinto Canada Holding Inc following Rio Tinto Canada Holding Inc's
acquisition of a majority of the share capital in Alcan Inc. Following the acquisition which was carried out by way of
amalgamation Rio Tinto Canada Holding Inc was renamed Rio Tinto Alcan Inc.
[3]

[4]
Rio Tinto Alcan
88
From 1935 to 1945, the use of Aluminum in Alcan's name was being disputed by Alcoa, but a decision by the United
States Circuit Court of Appeals ended the legality of the company's name.
Historically, Alcan was one of Canada's most important and powerful companies, and was listed as the sixth
"largest" in 1975.
[5]
In 1982 the company acquired the British Aluminium Company, renaming the operation British Alcan. In 1999,
Alcan made a failed attempt to make a three-way merger between it and Algroup (Alusuisse Lonza Group) of
Switzerland and Pechiney of France. The proposed merger was blocked by the European Commission due to fears of
anti-competition. After the deal fell through, Alcan acquired Algroup in 2000. Then in 2003, Alcan acquired
Pechiney, completing the original three-way merger plan of 1999.
In July 2007, Hindalco Industries announced it is buying the stake of Alcan in the Utkal Alumina Project in Orissa,
India marking an exit of Alcan from the project.
On January 20, 2009 Rio Tinto Alcan announced plans to close the Beauharnois smelter and reduce output from the
Vaudreuil refinery; both facilities are in Quebec. It is part of a larger plan to reduce aluminum output by a further 6%
(following a cut of 5% in late 2008), while cutting 1,100 jobs worldwide. The company will also sell its half-interest
in the Chinese Alcan Ningxia joint venture.
[6]
Rio Tinto sold assets from Alcan, including Alcan Packaging, in 2009, and Alcan Engineered Products in 2011.
Alcan Packaging was acquired by Australian packaging giant Amcor.
After the union's contract expired on December 31, 2011 the company has locked out nearly 800 employees at its
smelter plant in Saguenay-Lac-Saint-Jean, Quebec since midnight of the end of the year. The action was following
nearly 3 months of unsuccessful bargaining and the further plant operations will be handled by the staff.
In 2015, Rio Tinto Alcan is scheduled to move its HQ from the Maison Alcan and relocate to the Deloitte Tower,
which will be situated between Windsor Station and the Bell Centre.
Product groups
Bauxite and alumina
Alcan owns, operates or has an interest in six bauxite mines and deposits, five smelter-grade alumina refineries and
six specialty aluminas plants. Its Bauxite & Alumina group refines bauxite ore into smelter-grade alumina for
Alcans Primary Metal group and external customers and specialty-grade alumina for third parties. It also owns an
extensive transportation network, including trucking, rail, marine shipping and port facilities worldwide.
Primary metal
Alcan Primary Metal group includes Alcans aluminum smelting facilities and power generation installations,
smelting technology and equipment sales, engineering services and aluminum trading operations, anode and cathode
production facilities and aluminum fluoride plants.
Alcan owns or has an interest in 22 smelters in 11 countries and regions.
Rio Tinto Alcan
89
Alcan smelters
Location Annual Capacity (kt) Ownership (%)
Boyne Smelters Limited, Queensland, Australia 556 59.39
Bell Bay, Tasmania, Australia 177 100
Tomago, NSW, Australia 520 51.5
Tiwai Point, NZ 330 79.36
Edea, Cameroon (Alucam) 100 46.7
Alma, Quebec 438 100
Arvida, Quebec 166 100
Beauharnois, Quebec 52 100
Becancour, Quebec 404 25
Grande-Baie, Quebec 207 100
Kitimat, British Columbia 277 100
Laterriere, Quebec 228 100
Sept-les, Quebec (Alouette) 572 40
Shawinigan, Quebec 99 100
Qingtongxia, China 152 50
Dunkerque, France 259 100
Lannemezan, France 50 100
Saint-Jean-de-Maurienne, France 135 100
Hafnarfjrur, Iceland (ISAL) 179 100
Husnes, Norway (SORAL) 164 50
Sohar (Muscat), Oman 360 20
Lochaber, Scotland, UK 43 100
Lynemouth, UK (closed March 2012) [7]
178 100
Sebree, Kentucky, USA 196 100
Alcan is based in Montreal, Quebec and had revenues of US$23.6 billion and 68,000 employees in 61 countries in
2007.
Corporate governance
As of March 6, 2007, members of the board of directors of Alcan were: Roland Berger, L. Denis Desautels, Dick
Evans, Yves Fortier, Jean-Paul Jacamon, William R. Loomis Jr., Yves Mansion, Christine Morin-Postel, H. Onno
Ruding, Guy Saint-Pierre, Gerhard Schulmeyer, Paul M. Tellier, and Milton K. Wong.
It should be noted this was the last board of directors of Alcan prior to its renaming and becoming a wholly owned
subsidiary of Rio Tinto PLC. Rio Tinto added several Alcan directors to its corporate board in London, including
Dick Evans, who was Chief Executive of Rio Tinto Alcan.
Rio Tinto Alcan
90
Takeover
Alcoa Inc. announced a hostile take over bid for its progeny on May 7, 2007, in a deal worth $27 billion USD. The
combined companies would have formed the largest aluminum producer in the world. On May 22, 2007, Alcan's
board of directors unanimously recommended that shareholders reject Alcoas unsolicited offer to acquire Alcan. The
board determined that the offer was inadequate in multiple respects and was contrary to the best interests of Alcans
shareholders. On July 12, 2007, Alcan announced a friendly takeover deal with Anglo-Australian mining giant Rio
Tinto, worth $38.1 billion USD. Alcan's board of directors unanimously recommended the deal to shareholders.
Alcoa withdrew its bid later in the day. On October 25, 2007, the merger was completed and Rio Tinto Alcan (the
amalgamation of Alcan and Rio Tinto Aluminum) became the world's largest aluminum company. However, while
Rio Tinto won overwhelming shareholder support on October 25, 2007, the acquisition was not formally
consummated until November 15, 2007, the date on which the corporate name changed and integration was finally
completed.
References
[1] http:/ / www. londonstockexchange.com/ en-gb/ pricesnews/ prices/ system/ detailedprices.
htm?sym=GB0007188757GBGBXSET10718875RIO
[2] http:/ / www. riotintoalcan. com/
[3] (https:/ / www. ic.gc. ca/ app/ scr/ cc/ CorporationsCanada/ fdrlCrpDtls. html?corpId=3101452) Corporations Canada.
[4] (http:/ / www.riotinto.com/ media/ 5157_6844.asp) Acquisition of Alcan, Inc.
[5] The Top 200 - Canada's Largest Companies c1973-74 - Business (http:/ / www. lib. uwo. ca/ business/ 200TopCompanies. html)
[6] Staff writer. "Rio Tinto Alcan permanently shutting Quebec smelter, reducing refinery output". (http:/ / www. cbc. ca/ cp/ business/ 090120/
b0120198A. html) Canadian Press. January 20, 2009.
[7] http:/ / www. bbc.co.uk/ news/ uk-england-tyne-17545827
External links
Rio Tinto Alcan website (http:/ / www. riotintoalcan. com/ )
Alcan is named Americas Most Admired Metals Company by Fortune (http:/ / money. cnn. com/ magazines/
fortune/ mostadmired/ 2007/ snapshots/ 6489. html)
Limpact de la perte de contrle dune entreprise florissante la prise de contrle dAlcan par Rio Tinto (http:/ /
www. rlt. ulaval. ca/ mutationsdutravail/ upload/ fichier37. pdf)
Continuity Agreement Between Alcan and Gouvernement of Qubec 2006 (http:/ / www. mdeie. gouv. qc. ca/
fileadmin/ contenu/ documents_soutien/ salle_presse/ communiques/ annexes/ en_20070712_alcan. pdf)
Rio Tinto Alcan AP Technology (https:/ / www. ap-technology. com)
United Company RUSAL
91
United Company RUSAL
United Company RUSAL Plc
Type Public limited company
Traded as
MCX:RUALR
[1]
SEHK:0486
[2]
Euronext:RUSAL
[3]
Industry Mining
Founded 2007
Headquarters Moscow, Russia
Key people Oleg Deripaska (CEO)
Mattias Warnig (Chairman)
Products Aluminium
Aluminium alloys
Bauxite
Alumina
Revenue US$10.8 billion (2012)
Net income - US$55.0 million (2012)
Employees 72,202
Website
www.rusal.ru
[4]
United Company RUSAL (Russian: , /OK RUSAL/) is the world's largest aluminium company.
[5]
UC
RUSAL accounts for almost 9% of the world's primary aluminium output and 9% of the worlds alumina production.
The United Company was formed by the merger of RUSAL (Russian: -), SUAL, and the alumina
assets of Glencore, completed in March 2007. The company operates in 19 countries over five continents and
employs over 72,000 people across its international operations and offices.
[6]
The company is incorporated in Jersey,
where it has its financial centre, but its headquarters are in Moscow, Russian Federation.
History
RUSAL is the global leader in the aluminium industry and accounts for approximately 9% of global aluminium
production and 9% of the worlds alumina output. It has played a decisive role in the consolidation of the Russian
aluminium industry during its establishment as a large, vertically integrated aluminium holding.
1930-1980
The Russian aluminium industry dates back to 1932, the year when the Volkhov aluminium smelter produced the
first batch of aluminium. Following that, construction of smelters began to meet the growing demand of the national
economy. During WW2, the production facilities in the country were evacuated to the Urals and Western Siberia,
and the relocated equipment was used to build the Bogoslovsk and Novokuznetsk aluminium smelters. In the 1950s,
new aluminium smelters were built for strategic purposes in Kandalaksha, Nadvoitsy and Volgograd. In the 1960s
and 1970s, smelters in Irkutsk, Krasnoyarsk, and Bratsk were constructed in close proximity to the largest hydro
power plants in Siberia. By the early 1980s, Russia was the worlds second largest producer of aluminium after the
US.
United Company RUSAL
92
Russia has been historically short of bauxite, which is used to produce alumina, the main raw material in the
aluminium production process. Due to the weak development of raw materials production in Russia, and amid
growing aluminium output, the domestic producers were forced to purchase alumina from other countries like
Guinea and India.
1990-2000
In the early 1990s, as Russia was going through market reforms, its aluminium industry was hit hard by the
economic downturn and the political uncertainty that the country experienced in the years following the collapse of
the USSR. The shock therapy economic measures mostly hit the defence and engineering industries, the key
consumers in the Russian aluminium sector. Alumina refineries in Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Azerbaijan became
foreign operations located in the independent countries, while Russian production facilities were only able to meet
40% of business demand for raw aluminium materials. Following the collapse of the USSR, the lack of raw material
sources, the closed nature of the Soviet economy and poor ties with global alumina producers jeopardised the
aluminium industry in the country. By 1994, aluminium consumption in Russia fell to around 2kg per capita,
compared with 17kg per capita in 1990. The only way the industry could survive was to re-orient itself towards
external markets; and so in 1992 export of aluminium exceeded 1 mln tonnes for the first time.
In 1993, the Russian government launched the privatization of the aluminium industry. International traders who
obtained access to Russias largest aluminium smelters during the privatisation were not interested in developing the
sector and did not invest in production, opting for immediate profits instead.
Russian businessman Oleg Deripaska started his business as a commodities agent and broker at the Moscow Trade
Stock Exchange (Moskovskaya Tovarnaya Birzha (MTB)) and then at the Russian Commodities and Raw Materials
Exchange (Rossiyskaya Tovarno-Syryevaya Birzha (RTSB)), dealing in a wide range of commodities, including
aluminium. His work included trading with major Russian aluminium smelters. Between 1991 and 1994, companies
set up by Mr. Deripaska started investing trading profits in the shares of Sayanogorsk Aluminum Smelter (SAZ), one
of the newest and most modern aluminium plants built in Soviet times (19801985). In 1994, Mr. Deripaska was
elected the General Director of SAZ.
Since then, gradual strategic acquisitions and growth projects have led to the creation of the worlds largest
aluminium and alumina producer, based on production in 2008. RUSAL has historically adopted the policy of fully
integrating assets it acquires and controls under centralised operational and management control. The company has
achieved increased production and efficiency in most of its acquired facilities through so-called production creep
(improvements achieved through targeted improvements to key processes), as well as by undertaking key
modernisation and expansion projects.
In 1997, as part of a general restructuring of the companies controlled by Mr. Deripaska, Sibirsky Aluminium was
established to manage aluminium and alumina assets acquired by companies related to Mr. Deripaska. By 2000,
Sibirsky Aluminium managed, among other aluminium-related assets, majority interests in the Sayanogorsk
aluminium smelter, the Sayanal foil mill, a fabricating plant in Samara, Russia, and a minority interest in the
Nikolaev alumina refinery in Ukraine.
2000-2010
In 2000, Sibirsky Aluminium and Millhouse Capital agreed to manage jointly the aluminium and alumina assets they
controlled and founded RUSAL. By 2002, Sibirsky Aluminium and Millhouse Capital were managing controlling
stakes in the Armenal foil mill in Armenia and the Belaya Kalitva metallurgical plant and Novokuznetsk aluminium
smelter in Russia, and also took under management the Friguia bauxite and alumina complex and Bauxite of Kindia
Company in Guinea to secure bauxite and alumina supply for its Russian smelters.
In 2003, companies related to Mr. Deripaska increased their stake in those companies under common management to
75% by acquiring half of the interest managed by Millhouse Capital. In Ukraine, RUSAL increased its share in the
United Company RUSAL
93
Nikolaev alumina refinery to 98%.
In 2004, the consolidation of RUSALs ownership by companies related to Mr. Deripaska was completed with the
acquisition of the remaining 25% equity interest in RUSAL managed by Millhouse Capital. At this time, RUSAL
made the strategic decision to focus on the upstream business and began disposing of its downstream assets,
including the sale of its fabricating division to Alcoa in January 2005. This divestiture process was largely completed
in 2006 with the distribution of certain aluminium construction plants and other non-core assets to companies
controlled by RUSALs beneficial owner.
Having completed integration in Russia, RUSAL still required additional sources of raw materials, and so it began an
active international expansion. Within four years after its creation, RUSAL had established its presence on all five
continents and included Guinea, Australia, Guyana, China, and Nigeria in its geographical portfolio.
From 2004 to 2006, RUSAL acquired several strategically important assets. In 2004, RUSAL acquired a 90%
interest in the Boxitogorsk alumina refinery in Russia and increased its holding in the Nikolaev alumina refinery to
100%. In 2005, RUSAL bought a 50% stake in the Komi alumina project from SUAL and became its partner in the
project, which involved the construction of an integrated bauxite and alumina complex in Russias Komi Republic.
In the same year, RUSAL completed the acquisition of a 20% equity interest in one of the worlds largest alumina
refineries in terms of production capacity, Queensland Alumina Limited, located in Queensland, Australia. RUSALs
joint venture partner in Queensland Alumina Limited is Rio Tinto.
In 2005, RUSAL purchased assets of a cathode plant in Lingshi County of Shanxi Province, China. In April 2008,
the company acquired assets of another cathode plant in Taigu County of Shanxi Province, China, which have been
integrated into the existing cathode plant in Lingshi.
In 2006, RUSAL acquired assets of the Aroaima Mining Company in Guyana, acquired the remaining equity interest
in the Friguia bauxite and alumina complex in Guinea, completed an extensive retrofit of the Armenal foil mill and
commissioned the Khakas aluminium smelter in Russia one of the most advanced aluminium production facilities
in the world. RUSAL also acquired a 56.16% equity interest in the Italian alumina refinery, Eurallumina.
In May 2006, RUSAL and RusHydro signed a co-operation agreement for the construction of the Boguchanskaya
hydropower station (HPP) and the Boguchansky aluminium smelter. RUSAL increased ownership in the Bratsk,
Krasnoyarsk, Sayanogorsk, and Novokuznetsk aluminium smelters, the Achinsk and Boksitogorsk alumina refineries
and the Russian National Aluminium and Magnesium Institute (VAMI) to 100% in November 2006, and in Sayanal
in June 2007.
Long-term competitiveness is impossible without a solid in-house research and design platform. The VAMI and
SibVAMI aluminium and magnesium research institutes became the backbone for engineering and technology
centres involved in the development of new unique production technologies including RA-300 and RA-400
reduction cells for RUSAL. The new technologies allowed for large-scale greenfield and brownfield projects. In
2005, RUSAL created its own engineering and construction subsidiary responsible for modernisation and
construction projects.
In December 2006, RUSAL acquired through a privatisation process a 77.5% equity interest in the Aluminium
Smelter Company of Nigeria (ALSCON). The Group acquired a further 7.5% equity interest in ALSCON from
MAN Ferrostaal AG in January 2008.
In late March 2007, the merger between RUSAL, SUAL and alumina assets of Glencore created UC RUSAL
including 16 aluminium smelters, 12 alumina refineries, eight bauxite mines, three powder metallurgy plants, three
silicon smelters, three secondary aluminium plants, three aluminium foil mills, two cryolite plants, and one cathode
plant. This transaction completed the 15-year process of consolidating the Russian aluminium industry, and created
the worlds largest aluminium producer (based on production in 2008) with operations in 19 countries across five
continents and more than 75,000 employees.
United Company RUSAL
94
In 2008, RUSAL produced 4.4 million tonnes of aluminium and 11.2 million tonnes of alumina. In November 2007,
RUSAL signed a cooperation agreement with Samruk-Energo, a subsidiary of Samruk-Kazyna, on the creation of a
50/50 joint venture in respect of the operation of the Bogatyr Komir LLP, the largest coal mining company in
Kazakhstan, with an annual production of approximately 40 million tonnes of coal, that ensured stable fuel supply to
Urals thermal power stations that provide electricity for RUSALs Urals plants.
In April 2008, the Group completed the acquisition from Onexim of a 25% plus one share equity interest in Norilsk
Nickel, the worlds largest nickel and palladium producer. The acquisition allowed the Group to diversify its asset
base. The consideration for the shares in Norilsk Nickel was partially paid in cash and partially in shares. This
strategic transaction paved the way to develop RUSAL into a global, diversified metals, mining and energy group.
[7]
As of December 2009, En+ Group owns a 53.35% stake in the United Company, SUALs shareholders hold 17.78%,
19.46% is owned by ONEXIM, and the remaining 9.70% is owned by Amokenga Holdings, a wholly owned
subsidiary of Glencore.
[8]
In January 2010, RUSAL was listed on the Hong Kong Stock Exchange with its IPO price of HK$10.8
[9]
per share
and capital raising of US$2.6 billion. The IPO attracted a list of big-name investors including Nathaniel
Rothschild[10], Robert Kuok, Paulson & Co, John Paulson and Vneshekonombank.
[11][12]
Operations
Russia
Rusal owns and operates six aluminium smelters, two alumina refineries and two foil rolling mills in Russia:
Bratsk Aluminium Smelter, Bratsk
Irkutsk Aluminium Smelter, Shelekhov
Krasnoyarsk Aluminium Smelter, Krasnoyarsk
Novokuznetsk Aluminium Smelter, Novokuznetsk
Sayanogorsk Aluminium Smelter, Sayanogorsk
Khakas Aluminium Smelter, Sayanogorsk
Bogoslovsk Aluminium Smelter
Achinsk Alumina Refinery
Boksitogorsk Alumina Refinery
SAYANAL foil rolling mill
Urals Foil
A new Boguchany Aluminium Smelter is currently under construction, expected to be launched in 2012.
Armenia
Rusal Armenal aluminum foil mill, Yerevan. Formerly known as the Kanaker aluminium smelter.
Australia
Queensland Alumina Refinery - minority ownership
Guinea
Alumina Company of Guinea (ACG) - Friguia alumina production facilities
Compagnie des Bauxites de Kindia - development of the Debele bauxite deposit
Compagnie de Bauxite et d'Alumine de Dian - in Dian Dian
United Company RUSAL
95
Guyana
Bauxite Company of Guyana
Ireland
Rusal Aughinish, Europe's largest bauxite refinery.
Italy
Eurallumina Alumina Refinery
Montenegro
Aluminium Plant Podgorica
Nigeria
Aluminium Smelter Company of Nigeria (ALSCON) - Smelter in Akwa Ibom state of Nigeria
Sweden
KUBAL - Kubal is one of the largest industrial facilities in Central Sweden and the only primary aluminium
producer in the country.
Ukraine
Nikolaev Alumina Refinery
Zaporozhye Aluminium Complex
References
[1] http:/ / moex. com/ en/ issue.aspx?board=EQNL& code=RUALR
[2] http:/ / www. hkex. com. hk/ eng/ invest/ company/ quote_page_e. asp?WidCoID=0486& WidCoAbbName=& Month=& langcode=e
[3] http:/ / europeanequities.nyx. com/ en/ search_instruments/ US9098832093?type=Stock
[4] http:/ / www. rusal. ru
[5] Bloomberg Top 10 Aluminium Companies in 2011 (http:/ / www. bloomberg. com/ news/ 2012-02-27/
top-10-aluminum-companies-in-2011-by-production-table-. html)
[6] http:/ / www. rusal. com
[7] http:/ / www. rusal. ru/ en/ history. aspx
[8] http:/ / www. rusal. ru/ en/ facts. aspx
[9] Shares of Russian aluminum giant UC Rusal slide in Hong Kong trading debut (http:/ / www. canadianbusiness. com/ markets/ market_news/
article. jsp?content=D9DFSS500)
[10] http:/ / toolserver.org/ %7Edispenser/ cgi-bin/ dab_solver. py?page=Rusal& editintro=Template:Disambiguation_needed/ editintro&
client=Template:Dn
[11] RUSAL announces $2.6 bln IPO plan, reveals poor H1 (http:/ / www. reuters. com/ article/ idUSTOE5BU00A20091231)
[12] Rusal IPO Draws Initial Investors (http:/ / online.wsj.com/ article/ SB10001424052748703510304574625452262729652.
html?mod=WSJ_hpp_MIDDLTopStories)
United Company RUSAL
96
External links
Official website (http:/ / www. rusal. com)
Oleg Deripaska / Oleg deripaska website (http:/ / www. deripaska. com/ )
Official website (http:/ / portal. int. rual. ru/ RU/ SitePages/ Index. aspx)
MBendi:Mining:Bauxite:Asia:Russia (http:/ / www. mbendi. co. za/ indy/ ming/ baux/ as/ ru/ p0005. htm)
List of alumina refineries
This is a list of alumina refineries in the world. The list is incomplete and missing some data.
Smelter-grade alumina refineries
Country Location Coordinates Total Annual Capacity
(kt)
Ownership
Australia Gove, Northern Territory
121117S
1364111E
[1]
3,700 (suspended in
2013)
[2]
100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
Australia Gladstone, Queensland
23521S
1511725E
[3]
3,954 80% Queensland Alumina Limited
Australia Yarwun, Queensland
234936S
151913E
[4]
1,400 100% Rio Tinto Alcan
Australia Kwinana
321140S
1154638E
[5]
2,150 100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
Australia Pinjarra, Western Australia
323840S
1155658E
[6]
4,200 100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
Australia Wagerup, Western Australia
32552S
1155450E
[7]
2,400 100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
Australia Worsley, Western Australia
331357S
11646E
[8]
3,528 86% BHP Billiton, 10% Japan Alumina
Associates, 4% Sojitz Alumina
Azerbaijan Ganja 450 DET.Al Holding
Azerbaijan Gyandzha Alumina peak of 410 in 1988,
closed as of 1997 due to
energy issues
Azeralyuminii (Levine, 1996)
Bosnia
Herzegovina
Birac 600 Energoinvest Alumina, (United Nations 2000),
Bosnia
Herzegovina
Mostar Alumina
431630N
174914E
[9]
Energoinvest Alumina
Brazil Alumar, Sao Luis, Maranhao
24232S
442049W
[10]
3,500 19% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals, 35%
Alcoa, 36% BHP Billiton, 10% Rio Tinto Alcan
Brazil Pocos De Caldas, Alcominas
215030S
463524W
[11]
390 100% Alcoa
Brazil Belem, Alunorte, Barcarena,
Par
13243S
48444W
[12]
6,200, expansion to
6,400 concluded in 2008.
86.0% Norsk Hydro, 3.6% CBA, 1.2% Japan
Alunorte Investment, 0.1% Mitsubishi Corp.,
0.2% Mitsui & Co, 3.8% NAAC (Hydro
Aluminium 2004)
List of alumina refineries
97
Brazil Alumnio
233153S
471559W
[13]
940 100% Cia Brasileira de Aluminio
Brazil Alumina Rondon
41727S
481215W
[14]
3,000 in 2017 and 6,000
in 2021
100% Cia Brasileira de Aluminio
Brazil Ouro Preto 150 66.67% Hindustan Aluminium, 33.33% Novelis
Canada Saguenay, Quebec
482537N
71944W
[15]
1,400 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
China Guizhou Alumina 1,100 100% Chinalco, (United Nations 2000)
China Pingguo Alumina
232012N
1072943E
[16]
955 100% Chinalco, (United Nations 2000)
China Shandong Alumina 1,650 100% Chinalco, (United Nations 2000)
China Shanxi Alumina 2,250 100% Chinalco, (United Nations 2000)
China Dingtai Tuoyuan 150
China East Hope (Sanmenxia)
344435N
1111418E
[17]
650
China Guixi Huayin 200
China Jiaokou 50
China Kaiman 1100
China Lubei 320
China Luneng Jinbei 975
China Nanchuan 0
China Nanshan 400
China Pingdingshan 375
China Shanxi Tongde 0
China Luneng Jinbei 975
China Wanji Xiangjiang
344514N
112420E
[18]
400
China Weiqiao 2500
China Wusheng (Pinglu) 200
China Xinfa Huayu (Chiping Xinfa) 2300
China Yangquan 400
China Yimei 150
China Yunnan 0
China Zhengzhou 2490
China Zhongmei 83
China Zhongzhou 2000
China Zunyi 0
France Gardanne
43279N
52741E
[19]
650 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
Germany Martinswerk Alumina 0 100% Albemarle Corporation
List of alumina refineries
98
Germany Stade Alumina 650 Dadco Alumina and Chemicals Ltd, VAW
aluminium AG, (United Nations 2000)
Greece Distomon Alumina 830 100% Mytilineos Holdings through Rio Tinto
Alcan through Pechiney
Guinea Friguia 755 100% Alumina Company of Guinea
Guinea Sangaredi - currently in
Feasibility Study
11526N
135938W
[20]
0 33% Global Alumina, 33% BHP Billiton, 25%
Dubai Aluminium Company Limited, 8.3%
Mubadala Development Company PJSC
Hungary Ajka
47517N
172950E
[21]
300 100% Hungalu, (United Nations 2000)
Hungary Aloxid Alumina 100% Hungalu,
Hungary MOTIM-Magyarovar Alumina 75 United Company of Rusal, (United Nations
2000)
India Visakhapatnam, Andhra
Pradesh
173534N
82458E
[22]
1500 Anrak Aluminium Ltd,
India Belgaum, Karnataka 390 Indal, Hindalco, (United Nations 2000)
India Damanjodi, Orissa
184626N
825337E
[23]
1,600 NALCO, (United Nations 2000)
India Gujarat Alumina Project
India Korba Alumina, Chhattisgarh
222339N
824353E
[24]
205 BALCO, Sterlite Industries, (United Nations
2000)
India Vedanta Alumina, Lanjigarh,
Orissa ( Worly Technology )
194224N
832200E
[25]
1000 (to be 1400 in
2011)
Vedanta Resources
India Mettur Alumina, Tamil Nadu
114832N
774944E
[26]
100 Malco, Sterlite Industries, (United Nations
2000)
India Muri Alumina 120 Indal, Hindalco, (United Nations 2000)
India Renukoot Alumina, Uttar
Pradesh
700 Hindalco, (United Nations 2000)
India Utkal Alumina Project,
Kashipur, Orissa
191123N
83143E
[27]
1500 Hindalco
Iran Jajarm Alumina 280 100% Iran Alumia co, (United Nations 2000)
Ireland Aughinish
523735N
9353W
[28]
1,900 United Company of Rusal 100%, (Rusal 2007)
Italy Eurallumina
391226N
82350E
[29]
1,100 United Company of Rusal 100%, (Rusal 2007)
Jamaica Clarendon 1,400 50% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals, 50%
Jamaican Government
Jamaica Ewarton Alumina 675 Jamaican Government, United Company of
Rusal
Jamaica Nain St. Elizabeth (Alpart) 1,700 65% United Company of Rusal, 35% Hydro
Aluminium
Jamaica Kirkvine Alumina 625 Jamaican Government, United Company of
Rusal
Japan Ehime 0 100% Sumitomo Chemical,
List of alumina refineries
99
Japan SAL Yokohama Alumina 0 100% Showa Denko KK,
Japan Shimizu Alumina 0 100% Nippon Light Metals, (United Nations
2000)
Kazakhstan Pavlodar Alumina 1,540 100% Alkaz, (United Nations 2000)
Romania Oradea 400 100% Russky Alyuminy,
Romania Tulcea 600 (idled in Feb 2007) 100% Alro SA, Slatina,
Russia Achinsk Alumina Refinery 1,100 100% United Company of Rusal
Russia Bauxitogorsk 186 100% United Company of Rusal
Russia Bogoslovsk
594642N
601012E
[30]
1100 100% United Company of Rusal
Russia Komi Aluminium Project,
Sosnogorsk, Komi Republic
1,400 (Under
Construction)
United Company of Rusal
Russia Ural Aluminium Smelter,
Kamensk-Uralsky, Sverdlovsk
Region
562217N
615814E
[31]
750 United Company of Rusal, (United Nations
2000)
Russia Pikalevo Alumina Refinery,
Leningrad region
268 100% United Company of Rusal, (United
Nations 2000)
Russia Volkhov Alumina 400 100% North-West Aluminium, (United Nations
2000)
Spain San Ciprian 1,530 100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
Slovakia Slovalco 180 100% Zavod SNP, (United Nations 2000)
Slovenia Talum Alumina 0 100% Eti Holding S.A.
Suriname Paranam
53535.91N
55611.11W
[32]
2,200 100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
Turkey Seydisehir Alumina 200 100% Eti Holding S.A., (United Nations 2000)
Ukraine Zaporozhye Aluminium
Combine, Zaporozhye City
475327N
351214E
[33]
270 United Company of Rusal,
Ukraine Nikolaev Alumina Refinery 1421 100% United Company of Rusal
United
Kingdom
Burntisland 120 (closed 2002) 100% Rio Tinto Alcan, (United Nations 2000)
US Virgin
Islands
St. Croix 0,600 (closed since
2000)
100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
(Plunkert 1997),
USA Burnside
30817N
905523W
[34]
0,560 100% Ormet Corporation, (United Nations
2000),
USA Baton Rouge 0 100% LaRoche Chemical Co,
USA Gramercy, Louisiana
30219.5N
904947.6W
[35]
1,215 United Company of Rusal
USA Point Comfort, Texas
28393N
963345W
[36]
2,330 100% Alcoa World Alumina and Chemicals
USA Corpus Christi
27530N
971532W
[37]
1,610 Sherwin Alumina Company
Venezuela Bauxilum 2,000 Corporacion Venezolana de Guayana
Venezuela Venalum 0 Corporacion Venezolana de Guayana
List of alumina refineries
100
Vietnam Lam Dong Project 0 Pechiney, CAV
Vietnam Tan Rai Alumina Project 0
Yugoslavia Podgorica Alumina 0 Kombinat Aluminijuma Podgorica, CAV,
(United Nations 2000)
Specialty alumina plants
Country Location Total Annual Capacity (kt) Ownership
Canada Brockville, Ontario 20 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
Canada Saguenay, Quebec 180 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
France Gardanne 435 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
France Beyrede 28 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
France La Bathie 31 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
Germany Teutschenthal 28 100% Rio Tinto Alcan (Alcan 2006)
Russia Boksitogorsk Alumina Refinery 100% United Company of Rusal
USA Sherwin 300 Sherwin Alumina Company
Korea Mopko 180 South Korea General Chemical Corporation
References
[1] http:/ / tools.wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=12_11_17_S_136_41_11_E_region:AU-NT_type:landmark& title=Alcan+ Gove+ alumina+ refinery
[2] http:/ / www. riotinto. com/ media/ media-releases-237_9427. aspx
[3] http:/ / tools.wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
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[4] http:/ / tools.wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
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[5] http:/ / tools.wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=32_11_40_S_115_46_38_E_region:AU-WA_type:landmark& title=Alcoa+ Kwinana+ alumina+ refinery
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params=32_55_2_S_115_54_50_E_region:AU-WA_type:landmark& title=Alcoa+ Wagerup+ alumina+ refinery
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params=33_13_57_S_116_4_6_E_region:AU-WA_type:landmark& title=BHP+ Biliton+ Worsley+ alumina+ refinery
[9] http:/ / tools.wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=43_16_30_N_17_49_14_E_region:BA_type:landmark& title=Mostar+ alumina+ refinery
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[14] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
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List of alumina refineries
101
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params=34_45_14_N_112_4_20_E_region:CN_type:landmark& title=Wanji+ Al+ Plant
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[20] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=11_5_26_N_13_59_38_W_region:GN_type:landmark& title=Sangaredi+ alumina+ refinery
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params=47_5_17_N_17_29_50_E_region:HU_type:landmark& title=Ajka+ alumina+ refinery
[22] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=17_35_34_N_82_45_8_E_region:IN_type:landmark& title=AAL+ Makavarapalem
[23] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=18_46_26_N_82_53_37_E_region:IN_type:landmark& title=Nalco+ Damanjodi+ Alumina+ Refinery
[24] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=22_23_39_N_82_43_53_E_region:IN_type:landmark& title=Balco+ Korba+ Aluminium+ Complex
[25] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=19_42_24_N_83_22_00_E_region:IN_type:landmark& title=Vedanta+ Alumina+ Lanjigarh
[26] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=11_48_32_N_77_49_44_E_type:landmark
[27] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=19_11_23_N_83_1_43_E_region:IN_type:landmark& title=Utkal+ Alumina+ Refinery
[28] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=52_37_35_N_9_3_53_W_region:IE_type:landmark& title=Aughinish+ alumina+ refinery
[29] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=39_12_26_N_8_23_50_E_region:IT_type:landmark& title=Euralumina+ alumina+ refinery
[30] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
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[31] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=56_22_17_N_61_58_14_E_region:RU_type:landmark& title=Ural+ Aluminium+ Smelter
[32] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries& params=5_35_35. 91_N_55_6_11.
11_W_region:SR_type:landmark& title=Paranam+ alumina+ refinery
[33] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
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[34] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=30_8_17_N_90_55_23_W_region:US_type:landmark& title=ORMET+ Burnside+ alumina+ refinery
[35] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries& params=30_2_19. 5_N_90_49_47.
6_W_region:US_type:landmark& title=Gramercy+ alumina+ refinery
[36] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
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[37] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack.php?pagename=List_of_alumina_refineries&
params=27_53_0_N_97_15_32_W_region:US_type:landmark& title=Sherwin+ Corpus+ Christi+ alumina+ refinery
Alcan, (2006). An Evolving Alcan: Alcan Facts 2006, Canada: Alcan.
Platt's Metal Week, 27 October 1997, p.6
Plunkert, P (1997). Bauxite and Alumina), United States Geological Survey
Hydro Aluminium, (2004). Shaping Solutions for the Future, Oslo: Hydro Media.
United Nations, (2000). United Nations Conference on Trade and Development: Recent and Planned Changes in
Production Capacity for Bauxite, Alumina and Aluminium
List of aluminium smelters
102
List of aluminium smelters
This is a list of primary aluminium smelters in the world.
This list is incomplete; you can help by expanding it
[1]
.
Primary aluminium smelters
Aluminium smelters of the world (excluding China & India)
Country Location Company Plant
Capacity
(t/year)
Website Comments
Argentina Puerto Madryn Aluar (Aluminio Argentino) 470000
Australia Bell Bay,
Tasmania
Rio Tinto Alcan (Bell Bay)
Ltd.
180000 www.riotinto.com
Australia Boyne Island Boyne Smelters Ltd. (BSL) 550000
Australia Point Henry Alcoa World Alumina
Australia Ltd.
190000
Australia Portland,
Victoria
Alcoa World Alumina
Australia Ltd. - Portland
Aluminium
358000
Australia Tomago Tomago Aluminium
Company Pty. Ltd.
540000 www.tomago.com.au
Azerbaijan Ganja Ganja Aluminium 50000
Bahrain Askar Alba (Aluminium Bahrain) 900000 www.aluminiumbahrain.com
Bosnia Mostar Aluminij d.d. Mostar 130000
Brazil Belem Albras (Aluminio Brasileiro
S.A.)
460000
Brazil Poos de Caldas Alcominas (Alcoa
Aluminio SA)
106000
Brazil So Luis Alumar (Consorcio de
Aluminio do Maranhano
SA)
460000
Joint Venture, 40% BHP Billiton,
operated by Alcoa
[2]
Brazil Santa Cruz Metalisul 95000
Brazil Saramenha Novelis do Brasil S.A. 51000
Brazil Aluminio CBA (Companhia
Brasileira de Aluminio)
475000 www.vmetais.com.br
Cameroon Eda Alucam (Compagnie
Camerounaise de
l'Aluminium)
100000
Canada Alma, Quebec Rio Tinto Alcan - Usine
Alma
443000
Canada Arvida Rio Tinto Alcan - Usine
Arvida
163000
Canada Bcancour A.B.I. (Aluminerie de
Bcancour Incorpore)
420000
List of aluminium smelters
103
Canada Baie Comeau Alcoa Aluminerie de
Baie-Comeau
440000
Canada Deschambault Alcoa Aluminerie de
Deschambault
260000
Canada Grande Baie Rio Tinto Alcan - Usine
Grande-Baie
220000
Canada Kitimat Rio Tinto Alcan - Kitimat 210000
Canada Laterrire Rio Tinto Alcan - Usine
Laterrire
235000
Canada Sept-les,
Quebec
Aluminerie Alouette Inc. 600000 www.alouette.qc.ca
Canada Shawinigan
Falls
Rio Tinto Alcan -
Shawinigan Falls
100000
Egypt Nag Hammadi Egyptalum (Aluminium
Company of Egypt)
320000
France Dunkerque Aluminium Dunkerque SA 273000
France St. Jean de
Maurienne
Rio Tinto Alcan -
St.-Jean-de-Maurienne
141000
Germany Essen Trimet Aluminium AG -
Niederlassung Essen
170000
Germany Hamburg Trimet Aluminium AG -
Primary Products Hamburg
135000
Germany Neuss Hydro Aluminium
Deutschland GmbH -Neuss
(Rheinwerk)
230000
Germany Voerde Voerdal GmbH 96000
Ghana Tema Valco (Volta Aluminium
Company)
200000
Greece St. Nicolas Aluminium de Grce SA
(AdG)
166000
Iceland Reyarfjrur Alcoa Fjardal 346000
Iceland Grundartangi,
near Akranes
Nordic Aluminum Co
(Nordural)
285000
Iceland Straumsvik, near
Hafnarfjrur
Alcan Iceland Co Ltd. (Isal) 190000
India Angul National Aluminium Co.
(Nalco)
475000
India Hirakud Hindalco Industries Ltd. -
Hirakud Smelter
213000
India Haryana Century Metal Recycling
Private Limited
India Jharsuguda Vedanta Resources 500000
India Korba Bharat Aluminium Co.
(Balco)
900000
India Renukoot Hindustan Aluminium Co.
(Hindalco Industries Ltd))
345000
List of aluminium smelters
104
Indonesia Kuala Tanjung PT Indonesia Asahan
Aluminium (Inalum)
265000
Iran Arak Iranian Aluminium Co
(Iralco)
90000
Iran Arak (2) Iranian Aluminium Co
(Iralco)
110000
Iran Bandar Abbas Al-Mahdi Aluminium Corp.
(AAC)
110000
Iran Bandar Abbas
(2)
Hormozgan Aluminium
(Hormozal)
147000
Italy Portoscuso Alcoa Italia
SpA-Portovesme Works
159000
Japan Kambara Nippon Light Metals Co
Ltd.
20000
Kazakhstan Pavlodar Kazakhstan Aluminium
Works (KAZ)
250000
Malaysia Sarawak Press Metal Sarawak 120000
Montenegro Podgorica DP Kombinat Aluminijuma
Podgorica (KAP)
120000
Mozambique Maputo Mozal (Mozambique
Aluminium Smelter)
565000 www.mozal.com
Joint Venture of BHP Billiton
47.1%, Mitsubishi Corporation 25%,
Industrial Development Corporation
of South Africa Limited 24%,
Government of Mozambique
3.9%
[3]
Netherlands Delfzijl Aluminium Delfzijl BV
(Aldel)
170000
New Zealand Tiwai Point New Zealand Aluminium
Smelters (NZAS)
351000
Nigeria Ikot Abasi Alscon (Aluminium
Smelter Co of Nigeria)
200000
Norway rdal Ardal Primary Production
(Haas)
233000
Norway Hoyanger Hoyanger Primary
Production (Haas)
60000
Norway Husnes Sor-Norge Aluminium AS
(Soral)
185000
Norway Karmy Karmoy Primary
Production (Haas)
170000
Norway Lista Alcoa Norway - Lista
Works
127500
Norway Mosjen Alcoa Norway - Mosjoen
Works
221500
Norway Sunndalsra Sunndal Primary
Production (Haas)
400000
Oman Sohar Sohar Aluminium
Company
390000
List of aluminium smelters
105
China Aba Aba Aluminium Works 100000
China Baise Yinhai Baise Yinhai Aluminium
Co
175000
China Baotou East
Hope
Baotou Oriental Hope
Aluminium Co
400000
China Baotou Shi Baotou Aluminum Factory 610000
China Changjiang Changjiang Aluminium
Smelter
62000
China Chiping Xinfa Shandong Xinfa
Aluminium Co.
550000
China Chongqing
Dongsheng
Dongsheng Aluminium
Works
50000
China Chongqing
Tiantai
Chongqing Aluminium Co 55000
China Chuangyuan Changyuan Aluminum
Works
100000
China Danjiankou Shi Danjiangkou Water
Conservancy Aluminium
Factory
50000
China Datong Xian Qinhai Aluminium Smelter 260000
China Dengfeng Dengfeng Aluminium
Works
65000
China Dianneng Gejiu Dianneng Gejiu Aluminium
Works
50000
China Dongfang
Xiwang
Dongfang Xiwang
Aluminium Smelter
Innermongolia
780000
China Donghai Shandong Donghai
Aluminium Corp.
200000
China Emei Sichuan Emei Aluminium
Pant
350000
China Emeishan Emeishan Aluminium
Industry Clique Co. Ltd.
355000
China Faxiang Faxiang Aluminium Works 70000
China Fukang Xinjian Tianlong Mineral
Co. Aluminium Smelter
413000
China Fushun Shi Fushun Aluminium
Reduction Plant
350000
China Gansu Longxi Gansu Longxi Dongxing
Smelter
240000
China Gongyi Gongyi Aluminium Plant 25000
China Guangxi Baise Guangxi Baise Xinghe
Smelter
320000
China Guangyuan
Qimingxing
Qimingxing Aluminium
Co.
114000
China Guanlu (new) Shanxi Guanlu Co. Ltd. 220000
List of aluminium smelters
106
China Guanlu (old) Shanxi Guanlu Aluminium
Plant
110000
China Guanyuan
Aostar
Sichuan Aostar Guangyuan
Aluminium Smelter
420000
China Guiyang Shi Guiyang Aluminium
Smelter
240000
China Guizhou Guizhou Aluminum Plant 410000
China Haizhou HaizhouAluminium
Smelter
40000
China Hejin Xian Long Men Aluminum Plant 120000
China Henan Wanji Henan Wanji Aluminum
Co. Ltd.
530000
China Hongjun Huomei Hongjun
Aluminium Smelter
1060000
[4]
China Honglu
Aluminium
Honglu Aluminium Co 150000
China Huadong Huadong Aluminium
Works
70000
China Huanghe Huanghe Aluminum Co. 80000
China Huasheng
Jiangquan
Huasheng Jiangquan
Aluminum Co.
112000
China Huaxin Huaxin Aluminum
Industries
70000
China Huayu Huayu Aluminium Works 100000
China Jiaozuo Shi Jiaozuo Wanfang
Aluminium Smelter
420000
China Jilin Jilin Aluminium Company 65000
China Jinneng Jinning Aluminium Smelter 80000
China Jinning Jinning Aluminium Co 350000
China Jinxi Xinfa Group 160000
China Ke'ao Shandong Yankuang Ke-au
Aluminium
135000
China Laibin Yinhai Laibin Yinhai Aluminium
Company
250000
China Lanjiang Shi Lanjiang Aluminium Works 30000
China Lanzhou
Liancheng
Lanzhou Liancheng
Aluminium Plant
260000
China Lanzhou Shi Lanzhou Aluminium
Smelter
700000
China Linfeng Linfeng Aluminium 160000
China Lintao Lintao Aluminium Plant 50000
China Linzhou Lifeng Aluminium Co. Ltd. 240000
China Longlin Longlin Aluminium
Smelter
50000
List of aluminium smelters
107
China Longquan
Aluminium
Longquan Aluminium
Smelter
400000
China Longxiang Longxiang Aluminium
Works
55000
China Meishan
Qimingxing
Sichuan Meishan
Qimingxin Aluminium Co
130000
China Mianchi
Aluminium
Mianchi Aluminium Plant 80000
China Nanping Shi Nanping Aluminium Group 73000
China Nanshan Shandong Nanshan
Aluminum Co., Ltd.
406000
China Ningxia Ningxia St. Dehua 50000
China Ningxia Ningxia Jinjiang Group 370000
China Nongliushi Nongliushi Smelter
Xinjiang
590000
China Panshi Xian Panshi Aluminium Works 25000
China Pingguo Xian Pingguo Aluminum Co. 140000
China Pingyin Shandong Pingyin
Aluminium Plant
26000
China Qiaotou Qiatou Aluminium Works 350000
China Qinao Qinao Aluminium Smelter 90000
China Qinghai Qinghai Aluminium Plant 436000
China Qinghai
Huanghe
Qinghai Huanghe
Aluminium Company
500000
China Qinghai
Xinheng
Qinghai Xinheng
Aluminium Plant
500000
China Qinghai Xinye Qinghai Xinye Aluminium
Smelter
575000
China Qingtongxia Shi Qingtongxia Aluminum Co. 685000
China Qinyang Henan Qinyang Aluminium
Power
500000
China Qiya Qiya Group 400000
China Sanmenxia Shi Sanmenxia Tianyuan
Aluminum Co.
120000
China Shandong
Aluminium
Shandong Aluminium
Smelter
78000
China Shangdian Shangdian Aluminium Co.
Ltd.
125000
China Shanxi-Huaze Shanxi-Huaze Aluminium
& Power Co.
350000
China Shanxian
Hengkang
Shanxian Hengkang
Smelter
220000
China Shenhuo (new) Henan Shenhuo Orient
Aluminium Company
420000
List of aluminium smelters
108
China Shenhuo (old) Henan Shenhuo Aluminium
Company
160000
China Sichuan Qiya Qiya Group 350000
China Taian Taian Aluminium Works 50000
China Taiyuan Shi Taiyuan Aluminium Works 100000
China Tianshan Tianshan Group 400000
China Tianyuan Tianyuan Aluminium
Group
130000
China Tongshuan Tongshuan Aluminium
Smelter
150000
China Tongshuan
Xinguang
Tongchuan Xinguang
Aluminium Co. Ltd.
110000
China Tongshun Tongshun Aluminium Plant 50000
China Wujiaqu Xinfa Group 740000
China Xichuan Xichuan Ferro-Alloy Works 90000
China Xiezhou Xiezhou Aluminium Works 330000
China Xinfa Xinfa Xiwang Al & Power 175000
China Xinjang Yihe Xinjiang Yihe Aluminium
Smelter
400000
China Xinjiang Xinfa Group 370000
China Xinjinag Xinjiang Easthope Coal
Power & Aluminium
860000
China Xinwang Henan Xinwang
Aluminium Co. Ltd.
76000
China Yangquan Shanxi Yangquan
Aluminium Co. Ltd.
68000
China Yangquan Shi Yangquan Aluminium
Works
60000
China Yichuan Henan Hong KongYugang
Longquan Aluminium Co.,
Ltd.
400000
China Yinhai Yinhai Aluminium Co. 100000
China Yongan Yongan Aluminum Co. 60000
China Yongchen City Yongchen Aluminium 500000
China Yugang
Longquan
Henan Yugang Longquan
Aluminium Co. Ltd.
600000
China Yulian Power Henan Yulian Power
Group.
120000
China Yuncheng Shi Shanxi Huasheng
Aluminium Works
220000
China Yungcheng
Shanhe
Yungcheng Shanhe
Aluminium Co.
65000
China Yunnan Yunnan Aluminium Co.
Ltd.
500000
List of aluminium smelters
109
China Yunnan
Dongyuan
Yunnan Dongyuan Smelter 240000
China Yunnan Runxin Yunnan Runxin Aluminium
Works
50000
China Yunnan
Yongxin
Yunnan Yongxin Metals
Processing Co.
35000
China Zhaofeng Zhaofeng Aluminium
Smelting Co
61000
China Zheijiang
Huadong
Zhejiang Huadong
Aluminium Co. Ltd.
70000
China Zhengxing Zhenxing Aluminium
Smelter
120000
China Zhengzhuo Shi Zhengzhuo Aluminium
Smelter
58000
China Zhongfu Zhongfu Industry Group 308000
China Zhonghe Zhonghe Group 495000
China Zhongning Zhongning Aluminium
Smelter
370000
China Zouping Zouping Aluminium
Smelter
141000
China Zunyi Xian Zunyi Aluminium Works 242000
Qatar Mesaieed Qatalum (Qatar Aluminium
Co)
625000 www.qatalum.com
Romania Slatina SC Alro SA Slatina 288000
Russia Bratsk Bratsk Aluminium
Works-BrAZ
1010000
Russia Kamensk Ural Aluminium Works
-UAZ
75000
Russia Kandalaksha Kandalaksha Aluminium
Works -KAZ
75000
Russia Krasnoturinsk Bogoslovsk Aluminium
Works-BAZ
190000
Russia Krasnoyarsk Krasnoyarsk Aluminium
Works - KrAZ
1080000
Russia Nadvoitsy Nadvoitsy Aluminium
Works - NkAZ
80000
Russia Novokuznetsk Novokuznetsk Aluminim
Works - NAZ
330000
Russia Sayanogorsk Sayan Aluminium Works -
SaAZ
542000
Russia Sayanogorsk II Khakas Aluminium Works
- KhAZ
300000
Russia Shelekhovo Irkutsk Aluminium Works
-IrkAZ
415000
Russia Taishet Thaishet Aluminium Works
- ThAZ
10000
List of aluminium smelters
110
Russia Volgograd Volgograd Aluminium
Works - VgAZ
170000
Russia Volkhov Volkhov Aluminium Works
- VAZ
24000
Saudi Arabia Ras Al Khair Maaden Aluminium 740000 www.maaden.com.sa/en
Slovakia Ziar nad
Hronom
Slovak Aluminium Co -
SLOVALCO
160000
Slovenia Kidricevo Talum dd Kidricevo 75000
South Africa Richards Bay,
Bayside
Bayside Aluminium 100000 http:/ / www. bhpbilliton.
com/
South Africa Richards Bay,
Hillside
Hillside Aluminium 720000 http:/ / www. bhpbilliton.
com/
Spain Aviles Alcoa Inespal- Aviles
Works
93000
Spain La Corua Alcoa Inespal- La Coruna
Works
87000
Spain San Ciprian Alcoa Inespal -San Ciprian
Works
250000
Sweden Sundsvall Kubikenborg Aluminium
AB (Kubal)
130000
Tajikistan Regar Tajikistan Aluminium
Company (Talco)
450000
Turkey Seydisehir Eti Alminyum Inc 65000
UAE Jebel Ali Dubal (Dubai Aluminium
Co)
1040000 www.dubal.ae
UAE Taweelah, Abu
Dhabi
Emal (Emirates
Aluminium)
800000 www.emal.ae EMAL Phase II expansion project
will increase the production to
1,3Mt/year
Ukraine Zaporozhye Zaporizhsky Alyuminievy
Kominat (Zalk)
120000
United
Kingdom
Fort William Rio Tinto Alcan - Lochaber
Smelter
42000
USA Evansville Alcoa - Warrick Operations 270000
USA Hawesville Century Aluminum of
Kentucky LLC
250000
USA Sebree Rio Tinto Alcan Sebree
Works
200000
USA New Madrid Noranda Aluminum Inc. 280000
USA Columbia Falls CFAC (Columbia Falls
Aluminum Co.)
180000
USA Massena Alcoa - Massena
Operations
135000
USA St. Lawrence Alcoa - St. Lawrence
Reduction
125000
USA Hannibal Ormet Primary Aluminum
Corporation
270000
List of aluminium smelters
111
USA Mount Holly Alcoa - Mt Holly Works 229000
USA Rockdale Alcoa - Rockdale Works 176000
USA Ferndale Alcoa - Intalco Aluminum
Corp.
280000
USA Goldendale Goldendale Aluminum Co 172000
USA Wenatchee Alcoa - Wenatchee Works 184000
USA Ravenswood Century Aluminum of West
Virginia Inc. (RAC)
180000
Venezuela Mantanzas CVG Venalum 448000
Venezuela Puerto Ordaz Alcasa - (Aluminios del
Caroni C.A.)
170000
References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=List_of_aluminium_smelters& action=edit
[2] http:/ / www. bhpbilliton.com/ home/ businesses/ aluminium_manganese_nickel/ Pages/ default. aspx
[3] http:/ / www. bhpbilliton.com/ home/ businesses/ aluminium_manganese_nickel/ Pages/ default. aspx
[4] http:/ / gulfbusiness. com/ 2013/ 04/ top-10-largest-aluminium-smelters-in-the-world
Primary Aluminum Smelters of the World (http:/ / www. lightmetalage. com/ producers_primary. php)
List of countries by aluminium production
This is a list of countries by aluminium production in 2009 (and 2011) based on USGS figures.
[1][2]
Rank Country/Region Aluminium
production
(thousands of tonnes)
World
44,100
[3]
1
People's Republic of China
18,000
2
Russia
4,000
3 Canada 2,970
4 United States 1,990
5 Australia 1,930
6 United Arab Emirates 1,800
7
India
1,700
8
Brazil
1,410
9 Bahrain 870
10
Norway
800
11
South Africa
800
12
Iceland
790
13
Mozambique
560
14 Iran
460
[4]
16 Germany 450
List of countries by aluminium production
112
15
Argentina
400
14
Venezuela
380
17 Tajikistan 359
18 Oman 351
19
France
345
20
Netherlands
300
21 New Zealand 350
22
Egypt
265
23 United Kingdom 253
24
Indonesia
250
26
Romania
229
27
Italy
180
28
Greece
160
29
Slovakia
150
30 Kazakhstan 127
31 Bosnia and Herzegovina 96
32 Slovenia 85
33
Cameroon
73
34=
Spain
70
34=
Sweden
70
36
Turkey
65
37 Montenegro 64
38
Ukraine
50
39
Poland
47
40 Azerbaijan 30
41 Nigeria 13
42 Qatar 10
43
Japan
7
References
[1] USGS: Aluminium - Mineral Commodity Summary 2012 (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ aluminum/
mcs-2012-alumi.pdf)
[2] USGS: Aluminium - Mineral Yearbook 2009 (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ aluminum/ myb1-2009-alumi. pdf)
[3] [3] 2011 production
[4] http:/ / www. khabaronline. ir/ detail/ 238735/ economy/ industry
Article Sources and Contributors
113
Article Sources and Contributors
Aluminium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=600632233 Contributors: (jarbarf), 050555, 111112, 23haveblue, 3.14159265358pi, 56, 842U, A Brave New World, A More
Perfect Onion, A.C. Norman, A.Ou, A2Kafir, ABF, AOEU, Aazn, Aboctok, Abrech, Accentman, Accurrent, Achowat, Adambro, Adamd1008, Adashiel, Addshore, Adimovk5, AdjustShift,
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Alexwcovington, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Allstarecho, Almazi, Alproffesor, Altenmann, Alumimum, American Eagle, Amgreen, AnOddName, Andesk, Andonic, Andrevan,
AndrewKeenanRichardson, Andyboza, Angela, Ann Stouter, Anonymous Dissident, AnotherBrian, Anrnusna, Ansell, Antandrus, Antonio Lopez, Anwar saadat, Arakunem, Archfalhwyl,
Archimerged, ArielGold, Aristotle28, Ark2120, Army1987, Arnoutf, Artaxiad, Aruseusu, Arx Fortis, Asder smit, Askewchan, Aslonline, Astral, At the speed of light, Atlant, Audrius u, Avala,
Average Earthman, Avicennasis, Avriette, AxSkov, AxelBoldt, BRUTE, Babanwalia, Banes, Banpei, Bart Versieck, Basicdesign, Bast ailuros, Bazonka, Beeep21, Beetstra, Beland,
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Zigbigadoorlue, Zoe, ZoeB, Zomgadonggs, Zzuuzz, Zzyzx11, Zzzzziz, sgeir IV., , 2599 anonymous edits
Isotopes of aluminium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=579168981 Contributors: 777sms, Awickert, Bryan Derksen, Coin945, Donarreiskoffer, Double sharp,
DragonflySixtyseven, Femto, Grafen, Headbomb, John, Karlhahn, Remux, Rjwilmsi, Rursus, Sfan00 IMG, Some jerk on the Internet, Szaszicska, Topquark22, William Graham, Wsiegmund,
XinaNicole, 28 anonymous edits
Article Sources and Contributors
114
Aluminium-26 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=576955446 Contributors: Avidallred, Carlossuarez46, Chris the speller, Ciphergoth, Closedmouth, Double sharp, F
Notebook, Graeme Bartlett, Headbomb, Hellbus, John of Reading, Jondn, Ketiltrout, LilHelpa, Mandarax, Rjwilmsi, Rursus, SkyLined, Stone, 23 anonymous edits
Aluminium smelting Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=599693421 Contributors: 8ty3hree, Abdossamad Talebpour, Anarchemitis, Caltas, Chipili, ChrisGualtieri,
Craig.tischler, CultureDrone, Delusion23, Edgar181, Eleassar, Element16, Epbr123, Erik9, Eugene-elgato, EugeneKay, Excirial, Fintan264, Fivemack, Fudoreaper, Gail, Glacialfox, HODAAL,
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Aluminium recycling Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=600284770 Contributors: 7&6=thirteen, AP Shinobi, Alan Liefting, Alex2dent, Amatulic, Anonymous Dissident, Ash,
AvakianNJITWILL, Beetstra, Ben Moore, Bernard S. Jansen, Bikeable, Blythe025, Bobo192, Bookandcoffee, Bryan Derksen, Caltas, Canderra, Capricorn42, Chris the speller, Christian75,
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HallHroult process Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=600257995 Contributors: A b, A876, Achim1999, Altales Teriadem, Arvindn, Ataru, Athanor, Big hairy head,
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Whler process Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=482746792 Contributors: Bduke, Bryan Derksen, Darci, Headbomb, Mikiemike, Steinsky, Zaxbysauce, 5 anonymous edits
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The Aluminum Association Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=587084711 Contributors: Andy Dingley, Boone's Farm, DoctorKubla, Giraffedata, GrahamHardy, Guoguo12,
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permit, Wrightchr, Wsjnewsupdater, Xeno, Xnatedawgx, Xyzzyva, Yako987, Yellowdesk, Youssefsan, Zapa666, 257 anonymous edits
Rio Tinto Alcan Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=563977182 Contributors: Alistair1978, Anonymous editor, Archon Shiva, Bantman, Bearcat, Billoftheroad, Brazuca100,
Burgundavia, Burvelle, Catapult, Chameleon, Charles Matthews, Chris the speller, ChristianDarling80, CliffC, Colonel Cow, Cowpriest2, Dave Bass, Davenry007, David Levy, Decumanus,
Dhonyin, Diasimon2003, Dmehus, Funandtrvl, GrahameS, Gsarwa, Gump Stump, GuyBehindtheGuy, Headbomb, Husond, Indefatigable, J2rome, JForget, Jamcib, Japanese Searobin, Jeffpw,
Jguk, Jim62sch, Jmg38, JoJan, JzG, Keith D, Kevlar67, Koman90, Kosmotheoria, Kurieeto, La nonne athe, Lapaz, Leaky caldron, LonelyMountain, MarkRose, Maxim, McTrixie, Mddkpp,
Meelar, Mendaliv, Mikaey, Mlaffs, Modulatum, Mtl4040, Mvc, NaraYo, Neelix, Newspaperman, Omicronpersei8, Ottawahitech, Paxse, Plazak, Predator.z6, ProhibitOnions, Qutezuce,
Qwerty310, Qwertytam, R'n'B, RadRafe, Raffaelcavaliere, RedWolf, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Roche-Kerr, Royalguard11, RucasHost, Rusty, Shawn in Montreal, Sherool, Shuipzv3, SimonP,
Skookum1, Spacepotato, Steam5, Supergloom, Surge79uwf, Svgalbertian, Themepark, Thorwald, Tightyfist, Tolivero, TorontoStorm, TreveX, Unimportant323, User A1, Ventur, Walter Moar,
WereSpielChequers, Who, Xezbeth, YUL89YYZ, Yellowdesk, Ytrottier, Zarex, 111 anonymous edits
United Company RUSAL Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=482968951 Contributors: 1exec1, Alexandersam, Ark25, Arseniy P, Aspects, BD2412, Beagel, BrokenSphere,
Brutaldeluxe, Bryan Derksen, Colchicum, Dabystru, DavidSmat, Denis tarasov, DenisRS, Diasimon2003, Dricherby, Egorscha, Fivemack, Gacole, Ghirlandajo, Greyhood, Gump Stump,
Headbomb, Horatio, Hucz, Jamcib, Jarkeld, Jeremy Hopkins, Jimbhapy, Jon.a.nilsen, Jonathansuh, Kani Oanko, Kkm010, Klasnicinhk, Lamro, LonelyMountain, Masrudin, Matthew hk,
McTrixie, Mervyn, Morpheios Melas, NoGo, Noelmantra, Otebig, Ottawahitech, Paju, Palmerparteram, Qwertytam, R'n'B, Records, Rich Farmbrough, Ricky@36, Russavia, Serouj, Shans eW,
Superzohar, Svgalbertian, User A1, Vegaswikian, Woohookitty, Yako987, Yuribear, 56 anonymous edits
List of alumina refineries Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=592013075 Contributors: Alan Liefting, Bine Mai, CAHGF, Caragan1970, Dawn Bard, Deor, DerCut, Docu,
Drteja, Epicgenius, FACardoso, Frze, GroveGuy, Headbomb, ItsZippy, Janorri, Jeepday, MKar, Pairadox, Patos, PigFlu Oink, Qwerty310, Qwertytam, Rcravero, Revent, Rjwilmsi, Samuel
Pepys, Scientific29, ScottDavis, Stepheng3, 70 anonymous edits
List of aluminium smelters Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=592648871 Contributors: Acroterion, Adnan, BIL, Bearcat, Billingd, Bine Mai, Blythe025, Bouchecl,
BrainMarble, Brybry26, Bukster1965, ClassicKiriyama, Crusoe8181, DerCut, Dispenser, Docu, Drpickem, Eleassar, Hariseldon13, Headbomb, Hmains, Indefatigable, Jasmin Proulx, Kallumama,
Lisiate, LonelyMountain, MKar, Mairi, Malcolma, Mapoz, Merrybrit, Mrfebruary, Niceguyedc, Nippymippy, Pejman sarraf, Pigsonthewing, Qwerty310, Qwertytam, Rd232, SEWilco, Squids
and Chips, TRBP, Unregistered.coward, UrsoBR, User A1, Widr, Wikipelli, Wilful, Wizard191, Wwoods, Zollo9999, 108 anonymous edits
List of countries by aluminium production Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=598193076 Contributors: AlexNebraska, Bine Mai, Colonies Chris, Cybercobra, Eastlaw,
GeneralConstruction, Greyhood, Hmains, Hyposterpy, Jasmin Proulx, Jklamo, Jodi.a.schneider, John, Mrfebruary, Neechalkaran, Osirak, Sarah, Shokioto22, Skpperd, ..24, 16
anonymous edits
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
116
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
File:Transparent.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Transparent.gif License: Public Domain Contributors: Edokter
file:Aluminium-4.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aluminium-4.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: FSII, Gilgameshkun, JWBE,
Materialscientist, 1 anonymous edits
file:Aluminum Spectra.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aluminum_Spectra.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: (teravolt (talk)). Original uploader was
Teravolt at en.wikipedia
file:speakerlink-new.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Speakerlink-new.svg License: Creative Commons Zero Contributors: User:Kelvinsong
File:Cubic-face-centered.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Cubic-face-centered.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original PNGs by
Daniel Mayer and DrBob, traced in Inkscape by User:Stannered
File:Aluminium bar surface etched.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aluminium_bar_surface_etched.jpg License: Free Art License Contributors: Alchemist-hp
(talk) ( www.pse-mendelejew.de)
File:Bauxite hrault.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauxite_hrault.JPG License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 1.0 Generic Contributors: saphon
File:Aluminium - world production trend.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aluminium_-_world_production_trend.svg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Leyo, Con-struct
File:Al-spotprice1987-2012.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Al-spotprice1987-2012.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Mrfebruary
File:41 ALU Recycling Code.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:41_ALU_Recycling_Code.svg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Karl A
Randall / User:k4rlR
File:Trimethylaluminium-3D-balls.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Trimethylaluminium-3D-balls.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Benjah-bmm27,
Jynto
File:aluminumfoil.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aluminumfoil.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Kerkyra
File:Austin A40 Roadster ca 1951.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Austin_A40_Roadster_ca_1951.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Charles01
File:AluminumSlab.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:AluminumSlab.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: ALIquotob
File:Aluminium foam.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aluminium_foam.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Stehfun
File:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Bhoeble, Doruk
Salanc, G.dallorto, Gerardus, Ham, Hanzo86, Jastrow, Joanjoc, Justinc, Korrigan, Montrealais, Motacilla, Pseudomoi, Saperaud, Simonxag, TeleComNasSprVen, Wst, Xenophon, 4 anonymous
edits
File:COMPTEL 26Al galaxy.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:COMPTEL_26Al_galaxy.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Rursus
Image:Point-henry-smelter-australia.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Point-henry-smelter-australia.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike
3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Wongm
Image:Recycling-Code-41.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Recycling-Code-41.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: User:Moebius1
File:CEN recycling aluminium.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CEN_recycling_aluminium.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Exonie
File:Salvage demo.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Salvage_demo.jpg License: unknown Contributors: Koavf, Tillman
Image:pressed-cans.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Pressed-cans.jpg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: User:Friman
Image:shredded aluminium cans.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Shredded_aluminium_cans.png License: Public Domain Contributors: Nbritton
File:BauxiteUSGOV.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:BauxiteUSGOV.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Kam Solusar, Liftarn, Ra'ike, Saperaud, 1
anonymous edits
File:Qemscan pisoliths.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Qemscan_pisoliths.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: 03:14, 04
January 2011 (UTC)
File:Bauxite with unweathered rock core. C 021.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bauxite_with_unweathered_rock_core._C_021.jpg License: Creative Commons
Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Werner Schellmann
File:2005bauxite.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:2005bauxite.png License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: en:User:Anwar saadat
File:Weipa-bauxite-mine.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Weipa-bauxite-mine.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Cape-york-australia
File:Flag of Guinea.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Guinea.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of Australia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Australia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Mifter
File:Flag of Vietnam.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Lu Ly v li theo ngun trn
File:Flag of Jamaica.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Jamaica.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anime Addict AA, Arctic Kangaroo,
Boricuaeddie, Bruce1ee, Davepape, Duduziq, Fred J, Fry1989, Herbythyme, KBarnett, Kilom691, Klemen Kocjancic, Kounoupidi, Krnerbrtchen, Ludger1961, Mattes, Nishkid64, Odder,
Reisio, SKopp, SamBlob, Sarang, SiBr4, The Evil IP address, Wknight94, Zscout370, 40 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Brazil.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Brazil.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie
File:Flag of Guyana.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Guyana.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:SKopp
File:Flag of India.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_India.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Mifter
File:Flag of the People's Republic of China.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_People's_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public Domain Contributors:
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File:Flag of Greece.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Greece.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: (of code) cs:User:-xfi- (talk)
File:Flag of Iran.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iran.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Various
File:Flag of Suriname.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Suriname.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: ALE!, Alkari, Anime Addict AA, Antemister,
Bouwe Brouwer, Fry1989, Homo lupus, Iketsi, Klemen Kocjancic, Kookaburra, Krun, Mattes, Mikewazhere, Mmxx, Nightstallion, Pfctdayelise, Pitke, Reisio, SiBr4, ThomasPusch, Vzb83,
Zscout370, 18 anonymous edits
File:Flag of Sierra Leone.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Sierra_Leone.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Zscout370
File:Flag of Kazakhstan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg License: unknown Contributors: -xfi-
File:Flag of Venezuela.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Venezuela.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Alkari, Bastique, Cesar david rodriguez, Cycn,
Denelson83, DerFussi, Fry1989, George McFinnigan, Hedwig in Washington, Herbythyme, Homo lupus, Huhsunqu, Infrogmation, K21edgo, Klemen Kocjancic, Ludger1961, Neq00,
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File:Flag of Russia.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Russia.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie, Zscout370
File:Flag of the United States.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_States.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie
Image:CaboRojoDRBauxite.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CaboRojoDRBauxite.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Tim Ross
Image:wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg License: logo Contributors: Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo, MichaelMaggs, NielsF,
Rei-artur, Rocket000
File:Bayer-process-en.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bayer-process-en.svg License: Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported Contributors:
Bayer-Verfahren.svg: Andreas Schmidt. Original uploader was AndreasPSchmidt at de.wikipedia. Later version(s) were uploaded by Matloi at de.wikipedia. derivative work: Hans Erren (talk)
File:hall-heroult-kk-2008-12-31.png Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hall-heroult-kk-2008-12-31.png License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: Original uploader was Kashkhan at en.wikipedia
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
117
Image:Thermite mix.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thermite_mix.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Schuyler S.
(Unununium272)
Image:ThermiteReaction.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ThermiteReaction.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Kenrick95
Image:Thermite skillet.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thermite_skillet.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors:
User:Unununium272
Image:ThermiteFe2O3.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:ThermiteFe2O3.JPG License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Original uploader was
CaesiumFluoride at en.wikipedia
Image:Velp-thermitewelding-1.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Velp-thermitewelding-1.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Aspectomat, Avron, Jahoe,
Singwir, Tano4595, WikipediaMaster
Image:Thermite residues (railway welding).JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Thermite_residues_(railway_welding).JPG License: Public Domain Contributors:
Bjornwireen
Image:Utah-thermite.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Utah-thermite.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.5 Contributors: Original uploader was
Talbotron22 at en.wikipedia
File:Bootie bicycle frunt wheel balloon tyre bootiebike com.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Bootie_bicycle_frunt_wheel_balloon_tyre_bootiebike_com.jpg
License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:Conollyb
File:Mig-29 on landing.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mig-29_on_landing.jpg License: GNU Free Documentation License Contributors: Dmitry A. Mottl
File:Lingot aluminium.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Lingot_aluminium.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 2.5 Contributors: Romary
File:Palanquillas.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Palanquillas.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Idus trabajo propio
File:CC-OXY.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:CC-OXY.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Vincent Maurin
File:Slabs stack.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Slabs_stack.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0 Contributors: Borvan53
File:Aluminium cooking foil.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aluminium_cooking_foil.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:50N916
File:Aluminium foil micrometer.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Aluminium_foil_micrometer.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was
Splarka at en.wikipedia
File:Rubber with sodium silicate beads 6 alu backside.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rubber_with_sodium_silicate_beads_6_alu_backside.jpg License: Creative
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File:Reese's peanut butter cups.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reese's_peanut_butter_cups.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Contributors: Gila
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File:Glckskfer (Schokolade).JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Glckskfer_(Schokolade).JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Mattes
File:Electrical wire.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Electrical_wire.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors: User:CMBJ
File:Transistive terminals for AL-CU junction.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Transistive_terminals_for_AL-CU_junction.JPG License: Creative Commons
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File:Burnt terminals.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Burnt_terminals.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Dmitry G
File:Distribution board in USSR apartment building.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Distribution_board_in_USSR_apartment_building.JPG License: Public
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File:Hsensor.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Hsensor.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jasmin Proulx
File:Spinel and MgO inclusions.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Spinel_and_MgO_inclusions.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Jasmin Proulx
File:Prefil.JPG Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Prefil.JPG License: Public Domain Contributors: Jasmin Proulx
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File:alcoa-obama.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alcoa-obama.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 2.0 Contributors: IowaPolitics.com
File:Alcoa forged aluminum wheels.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Alcoa_forged_aluminum_wheels.jpg License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0
Contributors: User:Dana60Cummins
File:Flag of Canada.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Canada.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie
File:Flag of Iceland.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Iceland.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: User:Zscout370, User:var Arnfjr Bjarmason
File:Flag of Italy.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Italy.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie
File:Flag of Norway.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Norway.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Dbenbenn
File:Flag of Spain.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_Spain.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie
File:Rio Tinto Alcan.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rio_Tinto_Alcan.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Original uploader was Gump Stump at
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File:Flag of the United Arab Emirates.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anime
Addict AA, Avala, Dbenbenn, Duduziq, F l a n k e r, Fry1989, Fukaumi, Gryffindor, Guanaco, Homo lupus, Kacir, Klemen Kocjancic, Krun, Ludger1961, Madden, Neq00, Nightstallion,
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anonymous edits
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Happenstance, Homo lupus, Ittihadawi, Jetijones, Klemen Kocjancic, Liftarn, Mattes, Neq00, Nightstallion, NikNaks, OAlexander, Orange Tuesday, Pumbaa80, Rfc1394, Ricordisamoa,
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File:Flag of France.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_France.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Anomie
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File:Flag of New Zealand.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Flag_of_New_Zealand.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Achim1999, Adabow, Adambro, Arria
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Olfactory, Mifter
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