480

G L O S S A R Y
absolute temperature scale temperature scale in which the zero is
absolute zero, and which has divisions equal to those of the Celsius scale
absolute zero lowest possible temperature (0 K or 273.16 C); molecules
have minimum kinetic energy at this temperature
acid substance that can donate a proton to a base
addition polymer polymer that is formed by an addition polymerisation
reaction between monomers that contain at least one carboncarbon double bond
addition polymerisation process in which monomers containing at least
one carboncarbon double bond are joined together by addition reactions to
form a polymer
addition reaction chemical reaction in which two or more molecules join
together to form a product that contains all of the original atoms; unsaturated
hydrocarbons typically undergo this type of reaction
adhesive force electrostatic force of attraction between unlike particles,
such as the force of attraction between the water molecules in contact with the
surface of a glass container and the particles present in the surface of the glass
aerobic process that occurs in living organisms which requires oxygen, such
as the process of cellular respiration in humans
alchemy forerunner of the science of chemistry, in which practitioners
sought to assist nature reach a more perfect state by transforming metals
such as lead into gold and by seeking immortality
aliquot volume of liquid delivered by a pipette
alkane family set of saturated hydrocarbons of general molecular formula
C
n
H
2n

+ 2
alkene family set of hydrocarbons in which two of the carbon atoms are
joined by a double covalent bond and all other carbon atoms are joined by single
covalent bonds; these are unsaturated hydrocarbons of general formula C
n
H
2n
alkyl group group of atoms derived from an alkane that is attached to
the main chain of a molecule of an organic compound. It contains one less
hydrogen atom than its parent alkane and has the general formula C
n
H
2n

+ 1
allotropes different crystalline or molecular forms of an element
alpha-particle (-particle) positively charged particle that is emitted by
many radioactive substances; consists of a helium nucleus
amorphous region region within a solid in which the particles are in a
disordered arrangement; non-crystalline
amphiprotic (amphoteric) substance that can donate or accept protons; it acts
as a base when a strong acid is added and as an acid when a strong base is added
anaerobic process that occurs in living organisms which does not require
oxygen, such as the process of fermentation carried out by yeast organisms
anhydrous ionic compound from which any water of hydration has been
removed
anion negatively charged atom or group of atoms
anode positive electrode in a gas discharge tube; in a galvanic cell, it is the
electrode at which oxidation occurs, which is the negative electrode since it is
the source of electrons for the circuit
aqueous solution mixture in which substances are dissolved in water
aromatic compound compound containing at least one benzene ring
association process in which oppositely charged ions dissolved in a solvent
draw together to form a solid lattice
atmospheric pressure pressure caused by the weight of the atmosphere.
At sea level it has a mean value of one atmosphere (which is equivalent to
770 mmHg or 101.325 kPa), but it decreases with increasing altitude
atom fundamental particle of all matter; atoms are principally composed of
three types of subatomic particleselectrons, which have a negative charge;
protons, which have a positive charge; and neutrons, which have no charge
atom economy measure of the percentage of atoms in the starting
materials of a chemical process that end up in the nal desired product
atomic mass constant (unified atomic mass unit), u or amu units
assigned to the relative atomic mass scale
atomic number, Z the number of protons in an atomic nucleus; this is
unique for each element and is used to identify the element
atomic orbitals regions of space surrounding the nucleus of an atom,
each of which can be occupied by up to two electrons; their existence was
proposed in the quantum mechanical model of the atom and they can have a
range of shapes
atomic weight (relative atomic mass) weighted mean of the weights
(masses) of the naturally occurring isotopes of an element on a scale in which
the carbon-12 isotope is assigned an exact value of 12
Aufbau Principle principle of building up the electron conguration of the
atoms of an element by progressively adding the electrons into subshells in
order of increasing energy
auxiliary substance substance used to help carry out a reaction but which
is not a starting substance or a reagent, e.g. a solvent
Avogadro constant, N
A
total number of particles present in 1 mole of a
substance; N
A
= 6.02 10
23
mol
1
correct to 3 signicant gures
base substance that can accept a proton from an acid
binary compound compound composed of only two elements
bioaccumulation accumulation of a toxic chemical in, for example, fatty
tissues of a living organism, which then can be passed along the food chain
biocatalyst biological agent (enzyme or microorganism) that can facilitate
and speed up a particular reaction
biodegradable able to break down naturally due to the action of microorganisms
biodiesel fuel made from natural renewable sources, such as new and used
vegetable oils, for use in diesel engines
biomagnification progressive increase of the concentration of a toxic
substance in the tissues of species as it passes up through the food chain
biopolymer polymer produced from natural renewable resources instead
of petrochemicals; can be produced by living organisms or synthesised
chemically from biological starting materials such as starch
block (of the Periodic Table) one of the three main sections of the
Periodic Table; atoms of the elements in the same block have the same type
of subshell partially lled or just lled
Bohr model of the atom model of the atom proposed by Niels Bohr in
which the electrons move in circular orbits around the positively charged
nucleus. The orbiting electrons can only have certain discrete values of
energy; those that have the same energy are located in the same electron
shell, but each electron shell can only contain a maximum number of
electrons. The greater the energy of the electron, the greater is its distance
from the nucleus.
boiling point (boiling temperature) temperature at which a liquid changes
into its vapour, or gas, forming bubbles of the vapour within the body of the liquid
bonding electrostatic force of attraction that holds (binds) particles together
bond length distance between a pair of nuclei that share a set of electrons
within a molecule
481
G L O S S A R Y
bonding pair pair of electrons shared between two atoms that is involved in
forming a covalent bond
Boyles Law relationship between the volume of a xed mass of a conned
ideal gas and its pressure at constant temperature; states that the volume of
the gas varies inversely with its pressure (P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2
)
branched-chain isomer structural isomer of an organic compound that has
one or more side groups (such as a methyl group) attached to the main chain
branches linear chains that are attached to the main chain of a linear polymer
brittle shatters when a force is exerted by a hammer or other object; not malleable
burette uniform-bore glass tube with ne gradations and a stopcock at the bottom;
used for accurate dispensing and measurement of a liquid, such as in a titration
by-product substance produced in a chemical process in addition to the
desired product
canal rays positively charged rays produced in a gas discharge tube that
move in the opposite direction to cathode rays; the observation of these rays
led to the discovery of the proton
capillary action ability of a liquid to rise up capillary tubes (tubes with a
small internal diameter) and to enter porous materials
capillary rise height limit to which a particular liquid will climb in a given
capillary tube
carbon cycle cycling of carbon through the biosphere via the carbon dioxide in
the atmosphere, which makes carbon available to living things. It involves processes
that absorb carbon dioxide from the air, such as photosynthesis, and processes that
release carbon dioxide into the air, such as cellular respiration and combustion.
carbon nanotubes nano-sized cylindrical carbon molecules with a graphite-
like structure that exhibit novel properties, such as extraordinary strength,
which make them potentially useful in a wide variety of applications
carbon neutral substance that when consumed, releases back into the
atmosphere the same amount of carbon that was required to produce it
catalyst substance that speeds up a chemical process without being consumed
cathode negative electrode in a gas discharge tube. In a galvanic cell, it is
the electrode at which reduction occurs, which is the positive electrode since
electrons move in the external circuit towards it.
cathode ray tube one of the names given to a gas discharge tube, a tube
in which a gas is present at very low pressures; when the gas is subjected to a
very high voltage a stream of cathode rays is produced
cathode rays stream of electrons emitted by the cathode in gas discharge tubes,
which is seen as light rays; their discovery led to the discovery of the electron
cation positively charged atom or group of atoms
cellular respiration chemical process occurring in living cells by which
organisms obtain their energy; for example, in human cells the process involves
glucose and oxygen reacting to produce carbon dioxide, water and energy
charge cloud term sometimes used to describe an occupied atomic orbital
Charless Law relationship between the pressure of a xed amount of
an ideal gas and its absolute temperature when held at constant volume,
which states that the pressure is directly proportional to its absolute
temperature V
1
=
V
2
T
1
T
2
chemical bonds electrostatic force of attraction between particles that
binds them together
chemical reactivity ability of a substance to undergo a chemical reaction
with other substances; the more reactive a substance, the greater the energy
released when it reacts
colloid (colloidal suspension) mixture in which tiny clusters of particles
of one substance are dispersed through another substance in which they are
insoluble; the clusters do not settle under the inuence of gravitational forces
and cannot be removed by ltration through lter paper
combined gas equation relationship between the initial and nal volume,
pressure and absolute temperature of a xed amount of an ideal gas when
the gas is subjected to a change of conditions
compound substance containing two or more elements combined together
in denite proportions; can only be broken up into its component elements
by heating it to a sufciently high temperature or passing an electrical current
through it; its properties are different from those of its component elements
concentration amount of solute that is dissolved in a particular volume of solution
concordant results titres obtained during a volumetric analysis that are
within a given volume of one another, such as within 0.10 mL or within 0.05 mL
conjugate acid (of a base) product a base forms when it has accepted a
proton from an acid; its formula will contain one more H
+
than that of the base
conjugate acidbase pair the acid and the product it forms (its conjugate
base) in an acidbase reaction, or the base and the product it forms (its
conjugate acid) in an acidbase reaction
conjugate base (of an acid) product an acid forms when it has donated a
proton (one H
+
) to a base; its formula will contain one less H
+
than that of the base
copolymer a polymer built up from two or more different monomers
corroded description given to a metal or alloy that has undergone a process
of corrosion; it will look tarnished or pitted or eaten away
corrosion spontaneous chemical change in which a metal is converted into one
of its compounds as the result of the action of a chemical agent in its environment
corrosion resistance ability of a metal or metal alloy to resist being corroded
corrosive having the capacity to cause a metal to corrode; for example,
acids and salt water are described as corrosive substances
covalent bonding electrostatic attraction between negatively charged
electrons that are shared between two adjacent atoms in a molecule (or giant
covalent lattice, polymer or polyatomic ion) and their positively charged
nuclei; classied as strong bonding
crystalline regions (or crystallites) regions within a substance in which
the particles are in an ordered array
Dalton model of the atom model of the atom proposed by John Dalton
in which the atom is described as the indivisible and indestructible smallest
particle from which every substance is made. All the atoms of a given element
are identical and unique.
degradation (of polymer) deterioration, or breaking down, of a polymer
due to exposure to factors such as ultraviolet light
degree of branching (of polymer) measure of the frequency and lengths
of the branches in a branched polymer
degree of hydration number of molecules of water of hydration present
for each formula unit of an ionic compound
delocalised electrons electrons that are detached from their atoms and
move through the whole structure
density mass of a given unit volume of a substance, usually measured in
grams per cubic centimetre (g cm
3
)
desalination removal of salt from a solution (especially from sea water)
diatomic molecules molecules consisting of only two atoms which are
covalently bonded together
diffusion spreading out or migration of one substance through another
dilution watering down of concentrated solutes
dioxins family of highly toxic chlorinated organic compounds that have
non-polar molecules; accumulate in human tissue and can affect metabolism
and cause cancer
dipole molecule having a permanent build-up of positive charge at one end
and negative charge at the other end
dipoledipole attraction electrostatic force of attraction between polar
molecules that are adjacent to one another; classied as weak and non-directional
( )
482
diprotic acid acid that is able to donate two protons to a base
directional bonding bonding that operates in the direct line between
oppositely charged ions, or between a hydrogen attached to a highly
electronegative atom in a molecule and a non-bonding electron pair on a
highly electronegative atom on an adjacent molecule or on the same molecule
discrete separate, distinct, not continuous
discrete molecules separate molecules that have a specic, denite
number of atoms of each element present
dispersant substance that causes particles present in a solution to move
apart (disperse) by imparting a charge to them, causing the particles to
remain suspended instead of clumping together and forming a precipitate;
dispersants are generally added to laundry detergents, for example, to
prevent scum depositing on clothes
dispersion force electrostatic force of attraction which acts between
instantaneous dipoles present on adjacent molecules; a weak, non-directional
intermolecular bonding also known as Van der Waals forces
dissociation process in which the oppositely charged ions present in a solid
lattice move out of the lattice through the action of a solvent and then move
separately through the solvent
disulfide cross-links CSSC bond that links the carbon atoms on two
adjacent polymer chains by strong covalent bonding; occur at intervals along the
chains of polymers such as vulcanised rubber, and collagen molecules in hair
double covalent bond covalent bond that arises when two pairs of
electrons are shared by two adjacent atoms in a molecule
dry corrosion corrosion of a metal caused by a component of the
atmosphere such as oxygen, in which water is not a reactant
ductile able to be drawn into a wire
elastic able to be stretched and then return to the original shape when the
stretching force is removed
elastic collision collision between particles that involves no overall loss
of energy, but energy may be transferred between the colliding particles,
resulting in one speeding up and the other slowing down
elastomer polymer that can be stretched and then can return to its original
shape when the stretching force is removed
electron configuration arrangement of electrons in an atom in their energy levels
electron dot formula representation of the structure of an ion or a molecule
in which the nucleus and inner electrons of the ions or atoms are represented by
the symbol of the element and the valence electrons are represented by dots
electron shell region within the atom in which electrons that have the same
energy or related energies may be found
electronegativity measure of the electron attracting power of an atom; it is
deduced from the strength of bonding present in its compounds
electron elementary particle found in the atom that has a negative charge
and a very small mass; electrons orbit around the nucleus and are responsible
for the volume of the atom and are primarily responsible for the chemical
properties of the element
electrovalence shell diagram representation of the structure of an ion or
a molecule based on the Bohr model of the atom
electrovalency charge on an ion, which allows us to determine the ratios in
which the ions combine
element substance composed of atoms with the same atomic number.
Elements are the ingredients from which all substances are made. By the end
of 2005 there were 111 ofcially recognised elements, although a number of
these do not occur naturally on Earth.
emission spectrum set of separate coloured lines on a black background
obtained when the light that is emitted by excited atoms returning to their
ground state is broken up in a spectroscope. This spectrum is unique for each
element and can be used to identify an element.
empirical evidence evidence based on observations and experiments
empirical formula formula that shows the simplest numerical ratio in
which atoms or ions are combined in a compound
end point in a volumetric analysis, the experimentally determined
equivalence point at which the indicator just changes colour, or the pH curve
becomes almost vertical
endothermic reactions chemical reaction in which energy is absorbed;
reactions in which the container becomes cold or which only take place if we
heat the reactants are examples of endothermic reactions
enhanced greenhouse effect (global warming, climate change)
increase in the concentration of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, due to their
excessive production as result of human activity; considered to be responsible for
a rise in the mean temperature of the Earths surface in the past century
equivalence point point in a volumetric analysis at which the two reactants
have just reacted in their correct mole proportions
excited description given to an electron or an atom that has absorbed
energy (from a ame or other energy source), resulting in the electron, or one
or more of the electrons present in the atom, moving to a higher energy level
exothermic reaction chemical reaction in which there is a net release of
energy, generally in the form of heat
extracting process in which a metal is obtained from its compound; for example,
when copper is obtained from its ore we say it has been extracted from its ore
feedstock chemical industry term for the starting materials required for a
chemical process
fermentation anaerobic chemical reaction used by yeast organisms to
obtain their energy; sugars are broken down into carbon dioxide and ethanol
(commonly known as alcohol)
first ionisation energy energy required to remove one electron from an
uncharged atom
first transition series rst row of transition metals in the Periodic Table; in the
atoms of the ten metals in this series the 3d subshell is lling or has just lled
fixed (nitrogen) term used to describe atmospheric nitrogen that has been
changed into a compound plants can use
flocculating agent substance used to help remove colloidal particles from
a mixture; it causes them to cluster together into heavier clumps which then
will settle under the action of gravitational forces
flocculation process in which colloidal particles are treated by a occulating
agent so they cluster together into heavier clumps which then will settle
under the action of gravitational forces
formula unit simplest unit or set of ions present in an ionic compound;
shows the simplest ratio in which the ions are present in the solid lattice (as
represented by its empirical formula)
functional group special group of atoms present in the molecules of a
number of families of organic compounds, which is attached to or inserted
between the carbon atoms and which causes the molecules to exhibit
particular properties; one example is the OH (hydroxyl) group present in the
family of alcohols
galvanic cell an arrangement in which an oxidant and a reductant, which
would react spontaneously if in direct contact, are separated into two half-
cells so that the electrons that transfer between them are forced to travel
through an external circuit, thereby allowing the energy released in the
reaction and the ow of electrons to be utilised
gas discharge tube (discharge tube) closed tube containing a gas at very
low pressure through which an electric current ows when sufcient voltage
is applied to its electrodes
gas pressure measure of the total force exerted by gas particles per unit
area of the surface with which they are colliding
gelatinous precipitate precipitate that is in the form of a gel (that is, jelly-like)
483
G L O S S A R Y
general gas equation (universal gas equation, ideal gas equation)
relationship between the volume of an ideal gas, its pressure, absolute
temperature and the amount of gas; considered to be approximately true for
real gases at normal temperatures and pressures
giant covalent lattice innite lattice of atoms that are held together by
covalent bonding, such as the diamond lattice
giant ionic lattice highly regular, alternating arrangement of anions and
cations in a solid crystal of an ionic compound in which each cation is surrounded
by anions, and vice versa; this structure continues to the edge of the crystal
good conductor of electricity enables an electrical current to easily pass
through it
good conductor of heat will rapidly transfer heat energy from one end to
the other when in contact with a material that has a different temperature
grams per mole, g mol
1
unit of molar mass
green chemistry approach to designing chemical processes that aims to
prevent pollution wherever possible rather than cleaning it up afterwards;
green chemists aim to nd ways to make industrial processes and consumer
products less harmful to our health and the environment and more sustainable
greenhouse effect moderation of the temperature range and mean
temperature at the Earths surface through the trapping of much of the Earths
radiant energy by greenhouse gases; this has enabled life to exist on Earth
greenhouse gas any of the atmospheric gases, such as carbon dioxide,
methane and water vapour, that contributes to the greenhouse effect; these
gases act rather like the glass of a greenhouse
ground state state of lowest possible energy in an atom, which is its most
stable state
group (of the Periodic Table) vertical column in the Periodic Table;
elements in the same group have the same number of outer shell electrons
and hence similar chemical properties
half-cell that part of a galvanic cell that contains the oxidant together with
its conjugate, or the reductant with its conjugate; consists of an electrode
immersed in an electrolyte and is connected to the other half-cell by both
external wiring and a salt bridge
half-equation ionic equation that shows the acceptance of electrons by an
oxidant, or the donation of electrons by a reductant, and therefore includes
electrons as a reactant or a product
half-life time taken for half of the mass of a particular radioactive material
to decay into another substance; this can vary from a fraction of a second to
thousands of years, depending on the material
halogen one of the set of Group 17 elements, e.g. uorine
halon family of organic compounds containing a halogen that were rst
developed for use in putting out res
hardness measure of resistance to being scratched
hole in the ozone layer depletion of the concentration of ozone molecules
in a region of the protective ozone layer surrounding the Earth
homologous series series of organic compounds that have the same
structural features and in which the formula of each molecule in the family
differs from the previous member by the addition of CH
2

homopolymer polymer built up from identical monomers
hydrated ion ion that is surrounded by water ligands, which are bonded to it
by iondipole attraction
hydrated salt ionic compound that contains a certain proportion of water
molecules in its solid crystals
hydrocarbon organic compound containing only carbon and hydrogen
hydrogen bonding electrostatic force of attraction between a hydrogen atom
that is covalently bonded to an atom of F, O or N, and an atom of F, O or N on another
molecule or another part of the same molecule (if the molecule is sufciently large).
It is classied as weak bonding, although it is a little stronger than dipoledipole
attraction but, unlike dipoledipole attraction, is highly directional.
hydrogen ion (proton) positively charged ion of hydrogen, H
+
, which is
transferred from an acid to a base in acidbase reactions
hydrogenation addition of hydrogen atoms to a double bond, for example,
of an alkene
hydrolysis reaction chemical reaction in which water is a reactant
hydrophilic attracted to water (water-loving)
hydrophobic more attracted to like particles than to water molecules and
so tends to be immiscible with water (water-hating)
hydroxonium ion H
3
O
+
ion formed when a water molecule accepts a
proton from an acid; the strongest acid that can exist in aqueous solution;
formula is often simplied to H
+
ideal gas gas that obeys the simple gas laws and all of the proposals of the
kinetic molecular theory for gases
infinite lattice regular 3D arrangement of atoms or ions that continues to
the edge of the solid crystal, such as the arrangement of sodium ions and
chloride ions in a sodium chloride crystal
infinite network lattice innite lattice that consists of atoms that are
covalently bonded together in interconnected rings, such as diamond
inorganic compound compound that is not organic
instantaneous dipole molecule in which there are regions where there is
a momentary build-up of minute positive or negative charges caused by the
rapid movement of electrons
intermediate by-products by-products that are formed in one of the
in-between stages of an industrial process
intermolecular bonding electrostatic forces of attraction between
adjacent molecules that they are sufciently close to one another; the
strength of this bonding inuences properties such as melting point, boiling
point and hardness of the substance
intramolecular bonding electrostatic force of attraction that holds the
atoms together within a molecule; the strength of this bonding inuences
the chemical reactivity of the molecule and the amount of energy required to
decompose the molecule
ion charged atom or group of atoms; the net charge results from the fact
that the total number of protons present is not equal to the total number of
electrons present
iondipole attraction electrostatic force of attraction between an ion and
a polar molecule, such as the attraction between an ion and a water ligand
ionic bonding electrostatic attraction between cations and anions in an
ionic compound; bonding is strong and directional
ionic compounds compounds for which the constituent particles are
cations and anions
ionic product of water, K
w
product of the concentration of the
hydroxonium ions and the concentration of the hydroxide ions present in an
aqueous solution or pure water, when the concentrations are expressed as
molarities (K
w
= [H
3
+
O][OH

]; at 25 C this has a value of 1 10

14
M
2
ionisation reaction chemical reaction between uncharged molecules
which results in the production of charged ions
isotactic arrangement of side groups in a polymer in which all of the side
groups are regularly arranged on one side of the chain
isotopes different forms of the same element in which the atoms have
different numbers of neutrons in the nucleus
joule, J the SI unit of energy, equal to the work required to move a 1 kg mass
against an opposing force of 1 newton
key element element that undergoes a change of oxidation number in a
redox reaction
484
kilogram, kg SI base unit of mass
kinetic energy energy possessed by object because of its motion
kinetic molecular theory (of gases) theory proposed to explain the
behaviour of gases in terms of the motion of their particles; it states that the
mean kinetic energy of the particles is directly proportional to their absolute
temperature and that there are no forces of attraction between gas particles
kinetics the study of movement (from the Greek kinetikos, meaning moving)
Law of Conservation of Mass one of the fundamental laws of modern
chemistry that states that in a chemical reaction mass is conserved. This is because
in a chemical reaction atoms are not created or destroyed but simply rearranged.
Law of Constant Proportions one of the fundamental laws of modern
chemistry that states that, in a pure compound, the elements combine in
denite proportions to each other by mass; this was considered to be strong
empirical evidence for the existence of atoms
Law of Octaves proposal of John Newlands that when elements are
arranged in order of increasing atomic weight, about every eigth element has
similar chemical properties; an early version of the periodic law
layer lattice innite lattice in which the particles are bonded within at layers
that are then held together in a stacked arrangement, such as in graphite
lignin polymer made up of aromatic molecules that holds the cellulose
molecules together in wood
LowryBrnsted theory theory of acids and bases in which an acid is
dened as a substance that donates a proton and a base is dened as a
substance that accepts the proton
main chain longest chain of carbon atoms present in an organic molecule
main group metal metal that is located in the s-block or p-block of the
Periodic Table
malleable can be beaten into another shape by a hammer or other object
without breaking
mass, m measure of how much matter is in an object relative to the amount
of matter in the standard kilogram
mass number, A total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus of
the atoms of a particular isotope of an element; is approximately equal to the
relative isotopic mass of the isotope
mass spectrometer analytical instrument that provides data on the
relative isotopic masses of the different isotopes of an element, as well as
their abundances; also used in chemical analysis
mass spectrum the output of a mass spectrometer, which shows a peak for
each isotope present; the height of the peak for a particular isotope relative to
that of the other peaks gives its relative abundance
mean titre mean volume of liquid delivered by a burette when the end point
has just been reached during a volumetric analysis
melting point (melting temperature) temperature at which a solid
liquees, or melts
metal displacement reaction chemical reaction in which a metal
displaces (takes the place of) a less reactive metal from a solution of its salt
metal fatigue progressive, localised and permanent structural damage such
as tiny fractures, which occurs when a metal is repeatedly subjected to stress
metallic bonding electrostatic force of attraction that holds a metal
together; acts between positively charged metal cations and the negatively
charged delocalised valence electrons that move among them
metallic lattice innite lattice of a metal, which consists of an ordered
arrangement of metal cations among which delocalised electrons move
metallic lustre mirror-like shininess exhibited by a metal that has not
corroded, particularly if its surface has been smoothed by polishing
metalloids (semi-metals) non-metallic element (e.g. arsenic) that has
some of the chemical properties of a metal
metals chemical elements characterised by their metallic lustre, capacity to
lose electrons and form positive ions, and ability to conduct heat and electricity
micelle small spherical clusters of surfactant in the body of the liquid; act as
reservoirs to replace surfactant as it is consumed
millimetres of mercury (mmHg) unit of pressure that is measured by the
length of a column of mercury; the mean pressure of the atmosphere at sea
level is 760 mmHg
mineral naturally occurring, homogeneous inorganic solid substance having
a denite chemical composition and characteristic crystalline structure,
colour and hardness
mineral oils any of various light hydrocarbon oils, especially a distillate of petroleum
mineral salt inorganic ionic compound occurring naturally in the Earths
crust consisting of metal ions and ions of non-metals
mixture composition of two or more substances that are not chemically
combined with each other and are capable of being separated by means such
as ltration or distillation
Mohs scale of hardness scale that characterises the hardness of various
minerals; on this scale, the hardest mineral, diamond, is given a value of 10,
and the softest mineral, talc, is given a value of 1. Each substance can only be
scratched by those higher on the scale.
mol unit for the amount of substance; one mole of a particular substance is the
amount of the substance that contains Avogadros number of those particles
molar enthalpy of vaporisation amount of energy required to evaporate
1 mole of a liquid
molar mass, M mass of one mole of a substance, measured in grams per
mole (g mol
1
)
molar volume volume occupied by one mole of any gas at a particular
temperature and pressure
molarity concentration of a solute measured in moles per litre (mol L
1
)
mole amount of substance containing 6.02 10
23
particles
molecular formula formula that gives the actual total number and kinds of
atoms of each element in each molecule of the substance
molecular substance substance composed of discrete molecules
molecule discrete group of atoms bound together by covalent bonding
monatomic ion ion consisting of a single atom
monomer small molecules that link together to form a long chain of
repeating units (a polymer); must have at least one double bond or at least
two reactive functional groups
monoprotic acid acid that can only donate one proton to a base
nanometre (nm) billionth of a metre (10
9
m)
nanoscience study of materials and events at the nanoscale, which is about
the size of atoms and molecules
nanotechnology creation, use or manipulation of objects at the nanoscale,
usually in the 0.01100 nm range
neutralisation reaction chemical reaction in which just the right amount
of base is added to an acid so that it is completely reacted
neutron elementary particle without an electrical charge present in the
nucleus of an atom; has about the same mass as a proton
newton, N SI unit of force; it is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1
kilogram by 1 metre per second
nitrogen cycle set of complex processes in which nitrogen gas undergoes
cycles of being produced and consumed, which enable the cycling of nitrogen
atoms through living organisms
nitrogen fixation conversion of nitrogen from its elemental form into
compounds that can be used by plants to synthesise nitrogen-containing
compounds essential for life
485
G L O S S A R Y
noble gas element located in Group 18 of the Periodic Table; exists in nature
as individual atoms which are very unreactive
non-bonding pair (lone pair) electron pair around an atom in a molecule
that is not shared by any other atoms; although not involved in bonding, non-
bonding pairs around any central atom inuence the shape of the molecule
non-metal element in the Periodic Table that is not a metal; not all non-
metals form compounds but those that do can achieve a more stable electron
conguration by either accepting electrons or by sharing electrons
non-polar molecule molecule that has no permanent build-up of charge in any
region, due to the fact it is symmetrical or else is composed of atoms of identical or
almost the same electronegativity; these molecules are not affected by an electric eld
non-renewable resource natural resource that cannot be replenished
within a reasonable time, such as fossil fuels
nucleon particle present in the nucleus of an atom (proton or neutron)
nucleus region in an atom containing its protons and neutrons; occupies
only an extremely small fraction of the volume of the atom but is responsible
for almost all of its mass
number of mol, n measure of the amount of a particular substance present
in a sample
orbit path followed by an electron when it moves around the nucleus of an
atom; this term is used in the Bohr model of the atom
ore rock containing minerals or a naturally occurring metal such as gold
ore body ore deposit that contains enough metal for it to be protable to
mine and process the ore to extract the metal
organic compound compound containing carbon, with the exception
of compounds such as carbonates, carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide;
hydrogen also is present and sometimes one or more other elements
organochlorine insecticides organic compounds containing chlorine that
are used to kill insects
osmosis spontaneous ow of a solvent into a solution through a semipermeable
membrane; the direction of ow is from a region in which the concentration of the
solute(s) is low to a region in which the concentration of the solute(s) is high
oxidant substance that oxidises a reductant; that is, one that accepts electrons
from the reductant (sometimes known as an oxidiser or oxidising agent)
oxidation number articial device assigned by a set of rules, determined
from the charges that would develop on the individual atoms if electrons
had been completely transferred to the more electronegative element. If a
substance is oxidised then the oxidation number of the key element present
increases; if the substance is reduced its oxidation number decreases.
oxidation state refers to the atoms of an element exhibiting a particular
oxidation number
oxide binary compound of an element and oxygen
pascal (Pa) SI unit of pressure; the mean pressure of the atmosphere at sea
level is 101 325 Pa
Pauli Exclusion Principle principle that states an atomic orbital cannot
contain more than two electrons
Pauling scale of electronegativities electronegativity scale devised in 1932
by Linus Pauling to show the relative electron-attracting power of the atoms of the
elements; determined from the measured bond energies of their compounds
period horizontal row of the Periodic Table; the atoms of the elements in the
same period have the same number of occupied electron shells
Periodic Law principle stated by chemists such as Dmitri Mendeleev that
properties of the elements vary periodically (in repeating patterns) when they
are listed in order of increasing atomic weight
Periodic Table chart of the elements arranged across rows in order of
increasing atomic number so that they are listed in the same vertical column
as elements that have similar properties
periodic variation the repeating of properties of the elements, e.g.
electron conguration, as you move sequentially through the Periodic Table
permanent dipole non-symmetrical molecule in which there is a
permanent build-up of negative charge on one end of the molecule and a
permanent build-up of positive charge on the other end of the molecule, due
to the difference in electronegativity of atoms present
permeable can be permeated or penetrated, especially by liquids or gases,
due to the presence of spaces or pores in the structure
pesticides substances or mixture of substances that will prevent, destroy,
repel or weaken any pest; includes insecticides, herbicides and fungicides
pH a measure of the concentration of H
3
O
+
ions (usually referred to as H
+

ions) in aqueous solution; dened as the logarithm to the base 10 of the
hydrogen ion concentration (pH = log[H
3
O
+
])
philosophers stone the stone or material that alchemists believed capable
of changing other metals into gold
photochemical smog complex mixture of secondary pollutants produced
by the action of sunlight on unburnt hydrocarbons, nitrogen oxides and other
primary pollutants emitted by internal combustion engines such as engines of
most motor vehicles; has a brownish colour and reduces visibility in many cities
photons quantum or parcel of light energy emitted by excited atoms when
they return to the ground state
photosynthesis process occurring in plants and certain other organisms
containing chlorophyll by which glucose is synthesised from carbon dioxide
and water using light as an energy source; most forms of photosynthesis
release oxygen as a by-product
pipette narrow, usually calibrated glass tube into which small amounts of
liquid are suctioned for transfer or measurement, such as when delivering a
volume of liquid into a reaction ask ready for a titration
plasticisers small molecules added to polymers to make or keep them soft or pliable
polar molecule molecule that is a permanent dipole; will be affected by an
electric eld
polyatomic ion ion containing more than one atom; in the ion the atoms
are bound together by strong covalent bonding
polymer (giant molecule) natural or synthetic compound of high
molecular mass consisting of up to millions of repeated linked units, each
formed from a relatively light and simple molecule known as a monomer; the
structure is held together by covalent bonding
polyprotic acid acid that is able to donate more than one proton to a base
polysaccharide carbohydrate consisting of a number of monosaccharides
(simple sugar monomers) joined by condensation polymerisation reactions
precipitate solid powder or gel formed in a reaction which settles to the
bottom of a container; it is produced as a result of the association of ions
precipitation reaction reaction in which an insoluble precipitate is
produced when an aqueous solution of one ionic compound is mixed with an
aqueous solution of another ionic compound
primary pollutant pollutant that is formed in an internal combustion
engine, such as in the combustion chamber of a petrol-driven car, which may
react with substances present in the air when emitted into the air
principal quantum number, n number assigned to the electron shell in
which an electron is located in an atom. It is the rst in a set of four quantum
numbers that are assigned to electrons; each electron in an atom has a unique
set of numbers.
proton elementary particle with a positive charge found in the nucleus of an
atom; the number of protons present determines which element it is
quantum (of energy) packet or discrete amount or quantity of energy
quantum numbers set of numbers used to dene the location and spin
of each electron in an atom; no two electrons in the same atom possess the
same set of quantum numbers
486
radical highly reactive particle that has an unpaired electron
reaction flask ask in which the reaction occurs in a volumetric analysis;
usually a conical ask
redox reaction oxidationreduction reaction that involves the transfer of
electrons from a reductant to an oxidant
reduced-risk pesticide pesticide that reduces the risk to humans and
non-target insects and reduces the risk of environmental contamination
compared with products that are already in use
reductant substance that gives electrons to an oxidant in a redox reaction;
all metals act as reductants when they react
relative atomic mass, A
r
mean mass of the naturally occurring mixture
of the isotopes of an element on the relative atomic mass scale, on which the
carbon-12 isotope is given a value of exactly 12
relative formula mass mean mass of a formula unit of an innite lattice on
the relative atomic mass scale
relative isotopic mass mass of an individual isotope of an element on the
relative atomic mass scale
relative molecular mass mean mass of a molecule on the relative atomic
mass scale
relative or percentage abundance relative proportion, expressed as
fraction or percentage, of an isotope in a sample of an element
relative scale measurement scale that shows relative values, such as the
relative mass scale that shows how heavy atoms are compared with one
another
renewable resource one that can readily be replaced, such as plant material
reverse osmosis process by which a solvent such as water is puried
of solutes by being forced through a semipermeable membrane from a
solution of high solute concentration to a solution of very low or zero solute
concentration; this is achieved by applying a pressure on the impure liquid
that is greater than the natural osmotic pressure
risk likelihood of injury or damage; the risk associated with any substance
depends on how hazardous it is and on your likely exposure to it
rust reddish-brown compound, hydrated iron(III) oxide, which is produced
after the corrosion products of iron are further exposed to oxygen and water
Rutherford nuclear model (planetary model) model of the atom
proposed by Ernest Rutherford that states the atom is made up of a positively
charged nucleus surrounded by orbiting electrons that move around it like
planets around the Sun. This model did not attribute any structure to the
orbiting electrons but was very important because it proposed the concept
of the nucleus.
sacrificial corrosion strategy for protecting a metal from corrosion by
attaching another more active metal to its surface; the more active metal
corrodes in preference to the metal that is being protected
salt bridge device used to complete the circuit in a galvanic cell; also
provides a supply of mobile ions that migrate into the half-cells during the
cell reactions, preventing the build-up of a positive or negative charge which
would cause the cell to stop operating
saturated solution contains all the solute that can normally be dissolved at
the given temperature
saturated compound organic compound in which all carboncarbon
bonds are single bonds
scale insoluble deposit that forms on the walls of pumps, pipes, boilers and
condensers, reducing the efciency at which they can operate; this is due to
the presence of ions such as calcium, barium and magnesium ions in water
and can eventually block pipes completely
scale inhibitors (anti-scalants) substances that reduce the amount of
scale depositing on surfaces by preventing it forming or making it deposit in
such a way that it is removed when uid ows through the pipe
scattered moved off their path in a new direction
Schrdinger model (quantum mechanical model) model of the atom
proposed by Erwin Schrdinger in which the electrons are said to be located
in atomic orbitals, which are grouped into subshells; electron shells consist of
a number of subshells
scientific method principles and empirical processes of discovery
considered necessary for scientic investigation, generally involving the
observation of phenomena, the formulation of a hypothesis concerning the
phenomena, experimentation to demonstrate the truth or falseness of the
hypothesis, and a conclusion that validates or modies the hypothesis, then
further experimentation and so on
second transition series second row of transition metals in the Periodic Table
secondary pollutants pollutants produced when primary pollutants from
sources such as motor vehicle emissions undergo complex reactions in the air
in the presence of sunlight
self-assembly process in which atoms spontaneously join up to form
nanostructures with the assistance of other particles present, such as water molecules
self-ionisation of water chemical reaction in which one water molecule
donates a proton to another water molecule, producing a hydroxonium
(H
3
O
+
) and a hydroxide ion (OH

)
semipermeable membrane membrane through which a solution can pass
but which retains colloidal particles and certain solute particles
semi-structural formula molecular formula that indicates the sequence
of atoms along a carbon chain, and which also shows the atoms that are
attached to them
SI units international metric system of units of measurement used by scientists
side group groups of atoms, such as a CH
3
group, which are attached to the
main chain of carbon atoms in an organic molecule
significant figures digits in a number that start from the rst non-zero
digit in the number; zeros after the rst non-zero digit are counted
silicone polymer polymer which has alternating silicon and oxygen atoms
in the backbone of the structure
single covalent bond covalent bond that arises when only one pair of electrons is
shared by two adjacent atoms in a molecule, polyatomic ion or giant covalent lattice
softening temperature, T
g
temperature at which a polymer begins to
soften into the plastic state
solubility number of grams of the substance that will dissolve in 100 g of
solvent at a particular temperature
solubility curve graph of the solubility of a substance against temperature
solute substance dissolved in another substance, usually the component of
a solution present in the lesser amount
solution mixture in which individual molecules or ions are dispersed
through a solvent
solvent substance in which another substance is dissolved, forming a solution
specific heat capacity amount of energy, measured in joules, required to raise
the temperature of 1 g of a particular pure substance in a particular state through
1 C (provided that it does not change state during that temperature change)
spectator ions ions that are present but take no part in a reaction; they do,
however, help to maintain electrical neutrality
spectroscope optical instrument for breaking up the light emitted by
excited atoms into its component wavelengths
standard laboratory conditions (SLC) temperature of 25 C and pressure of 1 atm
standard solution solution that has a precisely known concentration
standard temperature and pressure (STP) temperature of 0 C and
pressure of 1 atm
standardising process of determining a precise value for the concentration
of a solute in a solution
487
G L O S S A R Y
stoichiometric reagents substances that take part in a reaction and are
consumed. Often one or more reagent must be added in excess amounts
to increase the amount of product; the remaining amount then needs to be
separated from the product and may become waste.
stoichiometry study of the amount of reactants and products in a chemical
reaction that are implied by the equation
straight-chain isomer structural isomer of an organic compound that has
no side groups
strong acid acid with a strong ability to donate protons to a base; when added
to water all the particles of the acid will donate a proton to water molecules
strong reductant reductant with a strong ability to donate electrons to an
oxidant
structural formula representation of the structure of a molecule that is the
same as its valence structure, except that all non-bonding pairs are deleted so
that the shape of the molecule is clear
structural isomers molecules that have the same molecular formula but a
different spatial arrangement of the atoms and hence different properties
subshell collection of atomic orbitals of the same energy that forms part of
an electron shell
substitution reaction reaction in which one or more atoms of a molecule
are replaced with different atoms
superabsorbent polymer polymer that can absorb an enormous amount
of liquid and yet remain dry to the touch, such as the polymer used in
disposable nappies
supercritical fluid any substance that exhibits properties between those
of a gas and a liquid at certain temperature and pressures; has the unique
ability to diffuse through solids like a gas, and to dissolve materials like a
liquid
supersaturated solution unstable solution in which more than the
maximum possible amount of solute for that temperature is dissolved in the
given amount of solvent
surface area to volume ratio ratio of the total surface area of a solid to its
total volume. This increases enormously when a solid is divided into smaller
and smaller pieces or a liquid is broken into smaller and smaller drops. The
greater the ratio, the greater the proportion of particles that are on or just
under the surface.
surface energy energy required, in joules, to increase the area of the
surface of a particular material by 1 square metre
surface tension net sideways and downwards pull on particles in a surface,
measured in newtons per metre length of surface, for a particular material
surfactant substance that will concentrate at the surface of a liquid and
which lowers its surface tension; consists of a small hydrophilic head and a
long non-polar hydrophobic tail
suspension substance present in a liquid mixture that consists of large
clumps of particles that will settle under the action of gravitational forces and
can be removed by ltration
systematic nomenclature systematic naming system for naming the
different structural isomers or members of different organic families
theoretical percentage composition by mass statement of the percentage
of a compounds mass contributed by each element, determined from their
contribution to its molar mass or relative molecular mass and not by experiment
thermoplastic (polymer) polymer that softens when heated
thermosetting (polymer) polymer that does not soften when heated but
eventually may char
Thomson plum pudding model model of the atom proposed by JJ Thomson
in which the atom consists of positively charged material in which electrons are
embedded. The electrons were thought to be positioned uniformly throughout the
atom due to the electrostatic repulsion that would occur between them.
titration process in which a pipette is used to deliver one reactant into a
reaction vessel, and a burette to deliver the other, until they have exactly
reacted; this is used in volumetric analysis to determine the concentration of
one of the reactants
titre volume of liquid delivered by the burette
total surface energy total amount of energy stored in the surface of a material
transition metals elements of the d-bock of the Periodic Table except the
lanthanoids and actinoids; they exhibit closely similar chemical properties
transuranium elements radioactive elements with atomic numbers
greater than that of uranium
triads groups of three elements identied by Johann Dbereiner, which had
similar properties; also the atomic weight of one element was approximately
the arithmetic mean of the atomic weights of the other two
triprotic acid acid that is able to donate three protons to a base
Tyndall effect light-scattering property of colloids and suspensions, which
enables the path of a light beam to be visible when shone through them
unsaturated solution one in which less than the maximum possible amount
of solute for that temperature is dissolved in the given amount of solvent
valence electron electron in the outermost occupied shell of an atom; can
participate in forming chemical bonds with other atoms
valence shell outermost occupied shell of an atom
valence structure representation of a molecule in which each bonding pair
is represented by a stroke, and all the electron pairs around any central atoms
are shown at their correct orientation; non-bonding pairs are shown using
pairs of dots
viscosity ability of a uid to resist owing
viscous describes a liquid that ows very slowly
volatile organic compound (VOC) organic chemical compound that
evaporates easily and enters the atmosphere, such as low molecular mass
alcohols; have wide variety of uses because of this ability, for example, in
cleaning and paints
volumetric analysis quantitative analysis using accurately measured
volumes of chemical solutions in order to determine the unknown
concentration of a solution
volumetric flask piece of laboratory glassware used in volumetric analysis
to prepare a standard solution for a titration or to dilute a solution by a
precise factor prior to determining its concentration
vulcanisation industrial process that strengthens natural rubber by the
addition of a small amount of sulfur, which forms occasional disulde cross-
links between rubber molecules, improving the elasticity of the rubber and
helping to protect it from deteriorating
vulcanised rubber rubber that has been heated with a small percentage
of sulfur, which forms disulde cross-links between the chains at various
intervals, improving its elasticity and durability
wastes substances left over from a process for which no use has been found
water ligands water molecules that form a sheath around an ion, held by
iondipole attraction, and which move with the ion through the solution
weak acid acid with a weak tendency to donate protons to a base; when
reacted with water only a proportion of the acid particles will donate a proton
to the water molecules
weight, W measure of the gravitational force acting on a mass, which
therefore depends on the location
weighted mean arithmetic mean that takes into account the proportion of
objects with each size or mass
wet corrosion corrosion caused by a component of an aqueous solution in
which water is a reactant