The Neurones

Types of neurones
Introduction
NS is made up of millions of nerve cells
called neurones

Neurones : transmit nerve impulses to
other nerve cells, glands or muscles


Types of neurones
Afferent neurones

Efferent neurones

Interneurones

Types of neurones
Afferent
neurones
Carry sensory
information from
receptor cells to
the brain and
spinal cord


Efferent
neurones
Carry
information from
the brain or
spinal cord to the
effectors, that is
muscles or gland
cells
Interneurones
Transmit nerve impulses between the
various parts of the brain and spinal cord

Transmit nerve impulses between the
afferent neurones and efferent neurones


Interneurones
The Parts of a typical neurones
Has four distinct parts;
a) the dendrites
b) the cell body
c) the axon
d) the synaptic terminals (synaptic knobs)
Dendrites
Fibres that receive information or signals from
other neurones or external environment and
conduct them towards the cell body


Dendrites of afferent neurones produce signals in
response to specific stimuli from the
environment, such as pressure, light or heat
Cell body
Has nucleus and other organelles which are
found in cells

Cell body integrates the signals and coordinates
the metabolic activities


Axon
A long, thin fibre extends outward from the cell
body

The axon conducts the nerve impulses away from
the cell body

The axons are usually bundled together into
nerves
Axon
Some axons are insulated by a thick coat of
material called a myelin sheath

Myelin sheath : protects and insulates the axons,
and helps to speed up the transmission of the
nerve impulses

As a nerve impulse travels along an axon, it
jumps from one node of Ranvier to the next. This
speeds up the transmission of nerve impulses
Synaptic terminals
Located at the far end of each axon

The synaptic terminals are swellings at the
branched ends of the axons

The synaptic terminals then transmit these
signals to the muscle cells, glands cells or the
dendrites of another neurone
Transmission of information along
the neurone
Transmission of information along the neurone is
through electrical signals known as nerve
impulses

An impulse is a wave of positive charges that
travel along the axon to the synaptic terminal


A neurone will not transmit an impulse unless
the stimulation is strong enough

Once the magnitude or size of the stimulation
reaches a sufficient level, a full-sized impulse is
generated to travel the entire length of the axon
The transmission pathway of
information

Consists of several steps

The transmission pathway of information from
the receptors to the effectors is summarised in
the next slide

The Transmission of information
across synapses
Synapse : site where two neurones, or a neurone
and an effector cell communicate

Beyond the synaptic terminal is a narrow space
known as the synaptic cleft that separates the
synaptic terminal from the dendrite of a
receiving neurone, a muscle cell or a gland cell


The electrical signals carrying a message must
be transmitted across the synaptic cleft to an
adjacent cell

Space between presynaptic membrane and
postsynaptic membrane = synaptic cleft

The transmission of nerve impulses across the
synaptic cleft occurs via a chemical process

Chemical process = requires actions of the
chemical substances known as neurotransmitters

The transmission of information
across a synapse
Involves the conversion of electrical signals into
chemical signals in the form of
neurotransmittters

The reconversion of the chemical signals into
electrical signals at the postsynaptic membrane

The transmission of nerve impulses across
synapses is an active process which requires
energy
Functions of synapses
Controlling and integrating the nerve impulses
transmitted by the stimulated receptors

Facilitating the transmission of nerve impulses in
one direction
Neurotransmitters
Examples :
a) acetycholine
b) noradrenaline
c) serotonin
d) dopamine

It is rapidly broken down by enzymes OR
Taken up again by synaptic terminal and recycled


Exercise
a) Identify the type of neurone shown.
b) Name the parts labelled A, B, C, D, E, F and G.
c) State the function of A.
d) The presence of E can speed up the transmission of
nerve impulse. Explain how it is able to do so.
Voluntary action and Involuntary
action
Introduction
- PNS has two main functions:
a) It transmits signals to the CNS for processing
b) It transmits responses from the CNS to the
rest of the body

These responses are either voluntary or
involuntary actions
Voluntary action and Involuntary
action

The cerebrum is responsible for all voluntary
actions while the medulla oblongata controls
involuntary actions


Voluntary actions
Actions that are under conscious control

Examples: walking, talking

Voluntary control of the skeletal muscles is
governed by the cerebral cortex of the cerebrum

Information that reaches the cerebral cortex or
the conscious level results in a perception of the
external environment





Involuntary actions
Actions that involve skeletal muscles allow an
immediate action that does not required
conscious effort

Example: If a finger is pricked with a sharp pin,
the reaction is to pull the finger away
immediately without having to think about it

Involuntary actions
In such circumstances when the responses to
stimuli are involuntary, there are called reflexes

Reflexes are rapid, automatic or involuntary
responses to stimuli

The nerve pathway involved in a reflex action is
called reflex arc

The Importance of Reflexes

Reflexes : provide means for an immediate
withdrawal from dangerous stimuli

Coordinate rapid automatic responses without
the need for instructions from the brain.
Reflexes
Automatic response : reflex involves the brain;
example : opening and closing of the pupil of the
eye

Other example : knee-jerk reflex/ patellar reflex

This type of reflex involves the simplest neural
circuit. Why?
Involuntary actions which involve
smooth muscles, cardiac muscles or
glands

The autonomic nervous system
a) controls involuntary actions involving the
glands, the cardiac muscles of the heart and the
smooth muscles of the internal organs such as
the intestines


b) connects the medulla oblongata and
hypothalamus with the internal organs and
regulates the internal body processes that
require no conscious effort

Does involuntary action involve the cerebral
cortex?




Autonomic nervous system permits vital
functions such as heartbeats and blood
circulation to continue even during states of
unconsciousness such as sleeping or fainting
when voluntary actions have stopped
The Autonomic Nervous System
a) The sympathetic division
b) The parasympathetic division

These divisions work together, usually with one
activating and the other inhibiting the actions of
the internal organs

Both systems are connected to the same organs
in the body and act in opposition to maintain
homeostasis
Sympathetic Division

Prepares the body for stressful situations (Fight
or flight)

Increases the pulse rate, heartbeat rate, blood
pressure and breathing rate

Slows down the digestive system so that more
blood is available to carry oxygen to the vital
organs such as the brain, heart and muscles
Parasympathetic Division

Prepares body during ordinary situations or
brings on the response associated with a relaxed
state

_________ pulse rate, blood pressure, and
breathing rate.

Stimulates the digestive system to continue
breaking down food