Академический Документы
Профессиональный Документы
Культура Документы
Definition of a LAN
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) defines a LAN as follows:
PC 1
PC 2
Transmission Medium
FIGURE 1.1:
A TWO - STATION LAN
The stations on the network are peersany station can initiate data exchange with
any other station.
Purpose of a LAN
A LAN permits users to share resourceshardware, software or user-created files. Sharing
of resources makes it possible to maximize the investments made in each resource.
Ideally, distant resources should appear to be local to the user.
To reduce/control costs.
An effective LAN is one that meets objectives while fulfilling certain fundamental
requirements:
Simplicity.
Reliability.
Transparency.
Manageability.
Simplicity
The technology should be easy to use.
Reliability
If the LAN does not work reliably, people may not use it. Reliability is often seen as the
single factor having the greatest impact on whether or not a LAN is accepted.
A system is seen as being reliable if:
Access to distant shared devices and files is as fast as when these devices/files
are on the users local PC.
Transparency
An understanding of the technology used to implement the LAN should not be a
prerequisite to using it. The technical aspect of making a LAN work should not be seen
by the users. The art of good technology is that it isnt seen.
Few people understand how a telephone works, but they have little
difficulty using it.
Users should be able to work on a LAN in the same manner as they would with a
non-LAN-attached PC.
Manageability
The LAN must be easy to manage and administer. This includes all aspects of the LAN
environment:
The hardware.
The software.
The people.
The planning and installation of the LAN determines how manageable it will be in the
future.
Factors to be considered at the earliest stages of LAN implementation include examining:
Possible points-of-failure.
Characteristics of a LAN
There are four characteristics used to describe the architecture of a given LAN. These
characteristics allow for comparisons among the many varied LAN environments.
Transmission medium.
The type of cable/wireless system used to connect the network devices.
Topology.
The physical appearance and/or manner of operation over the transmission
medium when used to connect network devices.
Transmission technique.
The manner in which the transmission medium is used for communications.
Evolution of LANs
The concept of networking
A typical definition of a data network today would read as follows:
10
1950s
1964
1968
1970s
1980
Xerox, Digital Equipment Corp. and Intel announce the Ethernet standard
for office networking.
11
Development of computer
networks, continued
FIGURE 1.3:
THE TYPICAL
Accounting department
MAINFRAME
ENVIRONMENT
12
Controller
Development of computer
networks, continued
Minicomputer
FIGURE 1.4:
THE TYPICAL
MINICOMPUTER
ENVIRONMENT
13
Development of computer
networks, continued
14
Terminal emulation
Companies which owned mainframes and minicomputers saw PC users demand access to
these machines in order to retrieve and work with corporate data. This created the need to
connect the PCs to the mini or mainframe. Hardware and software products had to be
purchased for each PC to make it appear as an ordinary terminal to the mini or mainframe.
This process is called Terminal Emulation. The PC emulates or pretends to be an ordinary
terminal.
15
Each PC holds its own data, created by its owner, with no guarantee of accuracy;
two people could create the same report and show different figures, making both
reports unreliable for decision making.
Users do not appreciate the need to make backup copies of their files until disaster
strikescausing losses in terms of time and money.
Users work with different software packages, or different versions of the same
software package, making their files difficult or impossible to share.
Development of computer
networks, continued
As a solution to these problems, LANs began to appear in the mid-1980s. They offer
balance between the need for management control and the desire for personal freedom in
choosing business tools.
In many respects, LANs strongly resemble the mini and mainframe environment:
LANs allow for the centralization of dataall reports draw their data from a single
location, guaranteeing consistency.
LANs make it possible for a company to quickly transfer all users to a new version
of a software package by installing the upgrade on the PC which stores the shared
program.
In comparison to the mini and mainframe environments, LANs were and continue to be
less expensive. The level of competition in the PC industry helps to keep prices low.
16
Enterprise-wide computing
The goal of the computer industry is to provide an environment where all members of an
organization have access to the data and resources they need to perform a given task.
Business-wide LAN systems, including corporate minicomputers and mainframes accessed
through the LAN, provide transparent data access to the user in a secure environment.
Todays computing technologies can be used with a three-stage process to achieve this goal.
17
Enterprise-wide computing,
continued
Future trends
The trend towards many small computers instead of a single large one is expected to
continue. The incremental growth and flexibility offered by this approach fits well with the
rapidly changing nature of todays organizations.
As buyers move to a computing environment dominated by LANs, they are demanding that
vendors provide products which conform to accepted standards. Standards relevant to the
LAN environment are discussed in a later chapter.
18
Benefits of a LAN
Shared resources
Hardware
The demand to be able to share expensive hardware led to the introduction of LANs in the
mid-1980s. Specifically, the introduction of the first PCs equipped with a hard disk
prompted the need for the sharing of resources. These PCs, costing thousands of dollars,
came equipped with a 5 Megabyte hard diskwhich was deemed to be too much storage
space for only one userso a method for sharing this hard disk had to be found. The
intention of these first LANs was to be able to share these large hard disks.
The sharing of expensive peripheral devicessuch as color laser printers or high-speed
optical mass storage unitscontinues to be one of the benefits of a LAN.
19
Software
In addition to the ability to share hardware, a LAN provides the user of one station the
ability to access files and programs stored on another station. This program sharing can
save substantial sums of money.
With stand-alone PCs, software must be purchased for every PC in the office. The cost of
buying multiple copies of software is high. Software vendors, eager to avoid widespread
piracy (unauthorized copying) of their products, have introduced versions of their software
designed specifically for LANs. In such arrangements, the company pays for a license
which allows a given number of users to simultaneously access the program files.
As the number of users who need access to the package grows, the company purchases
additional licensesindividually or in bundles (e.g., 5-user or 10-user licenses).
Sharing of software resources can also lead to the added benefit of standardizing on a
limited number of software packagestwo word processing packages instead of tenand
the number of versions of a package.
With the increased appearance of LANs in the typical office environment, a new category
of software has been developedgroupware. Groupware is software specifically designed
for use on a LAN. It permits, for example, multiple users to work on a given document at
the same time, encouraging collaboration.
20
Files
Files can be shared by users on the LAN just as they share software programs. By placing
files in a common areaa hard disk directory where more than one user has access
privilegesfile sharing can take place. This common area is usually found on a file server.
Since only one version of a file exists with file sharing, the likelihood of users updating
different versions of the same filecreating inconsistencies and data redundancyis
eliminated.
File and program sharing have the added benefit of saving disk space. Files that are
shareable need only be kept on one hard disk. In many cases, the saved disk space is
substantial.
Incremental growth
LANs grow as users needs grow. If it is discovered that users sharing a printer are waiting
too long for their jobs to print out, an additional printer can be added to the LAN. Money is
spent only when needed.
Contrast this with a minicomputer or mainframe environment where the bulk of the expense
is in purchasing the central computerthe terminals used for access to such machines are
typically less expensive than PCs. When the limits of the minicomputer or mainframe are
reached, the company has little choice but to upgradeeither by purchasing options or by
replacing the unit with a more powerful one. Each option is costly and typically leaves the
company with unused capacity for which if has already paidan inefficient use of resources.
21
Security
Access control
Security features of LANs permit the network administrator to allocate privileges among
users in such a way as to permit data sharing to occur while respecting security
requirements. Not all users will require access to all files and different users will require
different levels of access to certain files.
Security, continued
22
Backups
Centralized backups prevent a failed system from causing permanent damage to the
organization.
Audit trails
Audit trails provide details such as user name and time of access for some or all network
files. Being able to track who accessed individual files and when they did so discourages
abuse and greatly enhances management control.
Cost accounting
Cost accounting is provided through the use of chargeback software. Such software
permits individual users or entire departments to be allocated the cost for their share of
LAN use. Use of a chargeback system makes budgeting for the network a much simpler
task.
23
Improved communications
By connecting PCs together, a new communications channel is created within the company.
It functions alongside other, more traditional channels, such as the telephone, formal
meetings, lunchroom chats and company-sponsored events.
Productivity
By using products such as electronic mail, scheduling and/or electronic bulletin boards,
employees can use the LAN to better coordinate their activities.
A LAN can also permit users located outside the office to access network resources.
Remote access software allows users to remain in touch with colleagues and tasks.
Customer relations
Improving communications between employees reduces the organizations response time
to market changes. This provides a competitive advantage by allowing a quicker response
to the needs of the customer.
The company can also use a LAN to forge closer links with its customers and/or its
suppliers by allowing access to some of its files or its LAN electronic mail system.
24
Summary
There are many benefits a LAN can providesome easily measurable, others not so easy to
measure. It remains the responsibility of managers to hire and develop those individuals who
will actively seek these benefits. By itself, a LAN is simply an information-delivery systemit
represents the piping of a communications channel. Competitive advantage comes about
through unique and innovative uses of the channel.
25
Components of a LAN
Introduction
A LAN is made up of three basic elements:
The users, who create, work with and manage the various files.
Each of these elements can be divided into a number of components. Each component
represents only a part of the whole system and a LAN will only function properly if each part
operates according to specifications.
A poorly designed network, one with mismatched components, often results in below-average
performance. This becomes ever more critical as LANs become more sophisticated in their
abilities.
26
LAN hardware
A LAN can be thought of as a system composed of a series of building blocks. These
blocks can be added and configured as needed. Though LANs come in a variety of
configurations and can connect from two to thousands of devices, it is possible to group
these building blocks according to the role each plays in the LAN environment.
The hardware components found on a typical LAN include the following items:
Transmission channel.
Servers.
File servers.
Print servers.
Communications servers.
Stations.
Local.
Remote.
27
Printers.
CD-ROM drives.
Modems.
Following are a series of illustrations. Please note that any single LAN illustration can be
made too complex by trying to show all possible configurations. The following diagrams are
an attempt to balance the need for detail with the need for comprehension. In each diagram,
specific hardware components are identified.
28
FIGURE 1.6:
LAN HARDWARE
Hub
COMPONENTS
Local Station
File Server
Shared Printer
Print Server
Remote Station
Shared Modem
Communications Server
29
FIGURE 1.7:
DEPARTMENTAL LAN
Telecommunications Closet
Accounting
Software
Hub
File Server
Station
Station
Station
Station
Non-dedicated Server
(Combined Server
and Station)
Station
5th Floor
Accounting
Department
Shared Printer
Station
30
Building 1
File Server
Hub
Shared
Printer
Intrabuilding
Backbone
Cable
File Server
Station
File Server
File Server
Station
Building 2
Interbuilding
Backbone Cable
31
File Server
Communications
Server
Local Station
Shared Modem
Remote Station
Remote Station
32
Transmission channel
The primary purpose of any LAN is the ability to transmit messages from one networked
device to another. Typically, such transmission channels are in the form of cables
physically connecting devices, although certain wireless transmission channels are
available.
This physical infrastructure provides the foundation for all other devices and if it is not
functional and stable, it can be guaranteed that none of the other components will be able
to function as desired.
The most common transmission channels are made up of some type of cabletwistedpair, coaxial or optical fiber cableand corresponding connection hardware. Each of these
is discussed in some detail in the following section.
A distinction must be made between the transmission channel used locally and that used
for remote access to the LAN:
The transmission channel used for remote access to a LAN is often part of the
public network.
33
Servers
Servers manage the shared resources on the LAN. The server combines hardware and
software to offer (or serve) network resources.
The server hardware may be an ordinary PC or a high-performance unit designed
specifically to be a server. The software running on the server will vary with the type of
server. (It is possible for a LAN to have many different types of servers, each providing for
different types of services.)
LAN servers often resemble host machines (mainframes or minicomputers) conceptually
and diagramatically. There is one fundamental difference between the two:
In a host-based system, all processing takes places in the central host machine.
The attached terminals lack a microprocessor and are therefore unable to process
any information themselves. Processing is centralizedterminals are totally
dependent on the host device for all processing functions.
34
A LAN server resembles a host machine in that it also provides shared functions. It
differs from a host machine in that it is not the only source of processing power.
LAN stations are considered to be intelligent devices and are capable of processing
information themselves. In the LAN environment, processing is distributed among
all of the intelligent devicesservers, stations and peripherals.
35
File Servers
All LANs typically have at least one type of servera File Server. The role of the file
server is to provide and manage a shared storage area on the network.
Although each computer on the LAN could create and control its own files and then make
those files available to others, it is preferable to provide a centralized storage and
management facility. It cannot be guaranteed that the individual PCs will always be
available. Using a file server ensures shared files will be available to users when needed.
File management allows multiple users access to files. The file server controls
simultaneous access to files, enforces access rights and restrictions, and provides a
directory structure that recognizes file names and supports the grouping of files.
While the primary function of a file server is to manage the shared storage device(s), it
also performs other valuable services. Some of these services include the following:
File server software tracks authorized users and maintains listings of privileges and
authorizations for these individual LAN users. These lists reflect the access
privileges each user has to files and programs.
36
Print Servers
A print server acts as a centralized printing location. Typically, it is a PC or other device
connected to at least onebut often multipleprinters. It is able to handle the printing
requirements for a large number of stations.
Print servers commonly use a technique known as spooling. A spool (Simultaneous
Peripheral Operation On Line) is a combination of hardware and software that redirects
requests destined for a printer (a relatively slow output device) to a hard disk (a much
faster storage device).
When a print request comes in to the server, it is spooled onto the hard disk (i.e., it
is written to the hard disk instead of being sent directly to the printer). Files are
organized on the hard disk in a first-in, first-out queue (although most print server
software allows files to be reordered). Files are retrievedin orderfrom the hard
disk and printed.
A print file stored on a hard disk can be read one block at a time and printed. This
is useful when the file to be printed is larger than the space available in main
memory.
Print requests are queued (lined up) so users can continue with their work without
waiting for the printer to become available. This is important when multiple users
work with a single printer and many print requests may come in while a file is
printing.
37
Communications Servers
Access to distant (non-local) systems often requires the use of modems. Modems or
equivalents are used whenever connections to the public network are necessary.
Only a small percent of the total number of users on the LAN will require access to a
modem at any given time. For this reason, a server with one or more attached modems
and corresponding telephone lines can support multiple LAN users.
Use of a communications server is more economical than individual modems and
telephone lines with monthly charges for each user. Calling controls and security can be
implemented far more easily using communications servers.
Stations
The typical station on a LAN is a PC. In certain environments where security is a critical
issue, it is desirable to have a type of station known as a Diskless Station. These are PCs
which contain no hard disks or diskette drives. These devices function as any other station
but the user is unable to store any files or programs locally.
A common feature of all stations is their ability to function independentlythey do not
need to be part of the LAN in order to function. LANs do not depend on terminals that
require a host processor for operation.
A station is considered to be local when it is connected to a server directly through the
local transmission channel. A station is considered to be remote when it connects to a
server through a telecommunications link using a modem or equivalent.
38
Hubs
Also referred to as a concentrator or switching node, a hub provides connections to and
from multiple network devices.
Hubs are useful for their centralized management facilities and for their ability to isolate
stations from disruptions.
Hubs are available in a variety of forms and functions:
They may be passive devices simply redirecting signals from one network device to
another.
They may be active devices where incoming signals are regenerated before being
sent to another device.
They may contain bridging, routing, network management and other sophisticated
modules to actively control the LAN.
Switches
Switching hubs, or simply switches, are devices that provide dedicated circuits or
connections to individual LAN stations or LAN segments. They use a technique referred to
as microsegmentation. This allows individual stations to have a direct transmission
channel to the switch. The switch then handles all connections between different stations
needing to communicate with each other.
Switches provide a newer technology that can greatly reduce the traffic on the LAN. By
providing a station with a dedicated transmission channel, there is no sharing of the
bandwidth of the transmission channeleach station gets the full bandwidth.
39
40
LAN software
Once the physical building blocks of the LAN are put into place, the next step is to make
them functional. Software is needed for devices to function cooperatively and effectively on
the LAN.
There are three categories of software found on a LAN:
41
Network performance.
Network management.
File integrity.
Access security.
Each of the file servers on a LAN is controlled by an operating system, which manages all
activities taking place inside that file server. Unlike a station, which has only one user
accessing its files at any time, a file server must handle simultaneous requests from
multiple users.
From its position in the file server, the server operating system must satisfy station
demands for programs, files, printing resources and communications services while
maintaining network security. In this capacity, a network operating system found on a LAN
server is very similar to the operating systems which run minicomputers and mainframes.
42
43
Applications software
Applications software is the term given to software used to perform a specific task. The
most common business applications are word processing, spreadsheet analysis and
database management.
In a LAN environment, the program files necessary to run these applications are usually
placed on the file server to permit shared access. Note that applications software which
resides on the hard disk of a station is not considered LAN software because it cannot be
accessed by other users, even though the stations themselves may be connected. By
contrast, an applications software that resides on a file server but can only be accessed by
one individual for security reasons is considered to be LAN software because it can be
accessed by other users if the administrator grants them access privileges.
Client/server computing
A more recent method of sharing software is called client/server computing. In client/
server computing, the applications software is created and sold for use expressly on a
LAN. Client/server software has two distinct partsthe client part which runs on the
users station and the server part which is installed on the file server.
With traditional applications software, all of the files are installed on the file server. When
a user runs the software, all of the needed program files are transferred across the
transmission channel to the station. When the user requests data files to use with the
program, those files must also be transferred.
44
In the client/server environment, when the user first makes a request for a program, only
the client portion of the program is sent to the stationnot the entire program. This client
portion permits the user to make inquiries of data files. When the server receives an
inquiry from a station, rather than send the entire data file to the station, it performs the
inquiry locally and sends only the results to the station. This dramatically reduces the
traffic on the transmission channel.
An additional benefit of client/server computing is data integrity. Since the data files never
leave the server, there is less likelihood of file corruption.
Groupware
A second type of application software has been introduced for the LAN environment
groupware.
As the name implies, groupware is software designed specifically for use in a LAN
environment by a group of individuals with common goals and responsibilities. This group
may be one department, a project team or all employees in an organization.
At its core, groupware manages the interactions between the members of the team by
tracking their schedules, by providing electronic mail boxes for communication and by
permitting people to work on documents simultaneously. The software acts as a central
administrator, allowing individuals to work on different parts of a project while tracking
progress as a whole.
Groupware is particularly useful to teams whose members are geographically dispersed
over many time zones. Instead of coordinating activities through ongoing long-distance
phone calls and/or periodic meetings, the members use the groupware as their office.
45
The people
Among the most important elements of a LAN are the people. The purpose of a LAN is to
allow the sharing of resources. This sharing is done by peoplemaking them an integral part
of the structure.
With any LAN there are two groups of people involvedthose who use the resources and
those who manage the resources.
The users
A user is defined as a person who makes use of the network resources. This person uses
a station to access the server(s) and work with the resources stored there.
Although the term user combines all of the individuals using a network, it is a varied
collection. Within the group will be individuals who are very knowledgeable about PCs,
those who know how to use only a single application package, and everyone else in
between. Due to the varying levels of competence, the LAN must be effortless to work
with. The easier a LAN is to use, the better the chance that people will actually make use
of it.
Making a LAN easy to use is a two-step procedure:
1.
Design and configure the LAN properlythis avoids having to make changes at a
later time, which is inconvenient and frustrating to users.
2.
Train users on LAN operationsthis helps users gain confidence in their ability to
work with the LAN.
46
47
LAN architectures
Introduction
If asked to define the word architecture, most people would answer that it includes the design
and all of the information needed to construct a building. Just as the architecture of a building
determines its appearance and function, a LAN architecture defines the LANs appearance
and function.
The function of the LAN is determined by the manner in which the devices on the
LAN communicate with each other.
Introduction, continued
48
The heading architecture groups together the fundamental technical ingredients that
together make a LAN. There are five components that are used to define the architecture
of a LAN:
49
LAN topology defines how the transmission medium is used to connect the
devices on the LAN.
Access control defines the way in which a station on the LAN gains access to the
transmission medium.
Transmission speed is how fast the signals or messages are able to travel over
the transmission medium.
Transmission media
Commonly the term transmission medium (or simply medium) is referred to as cabling.
However, this is no longer an accurate description. In places where a physical cable
connection is not feasible, devices can communicate using wireless systemsspecialized
radio or infrared equipment.
In all cases, the physical infrastructure of the LAN is critical to the successful operation of the
LAN. Without it, devices would be unable to communicatewhich was the reason for
installing a LAN in the first place.
Cabling media can be classified into three categoriestwisted pair, coaxial and optical fiber.
Each has its own characteristics, advantages and disadvantages.
Twisted-pair cables
A twisted-pair consists of two individual insulated copper wires physically twisted together.
The two wires are twisted together to minimize unwanted electromagnetic signals from
interfering with or radiating from the pair.
A wire pair acts as a single telecommunications path. Typically, a number of twisted-pairs
are bundled into a cable by wrapping them in a protective sheath.
FIGURE 1.10:
TWISTED - PAIR WIRE
50
Cable jacket
UTP Advantages
It is relatively inexpensive.
UTP Disadvantages
51
STP Advantage
Cable jacket
Provides better
Overall shield
performance than
UTP in environments with
high noise levelshigh levels of unwanted electrical signals.
STP Disadvantages
52
Coaxial cables
Coaxial cable is commonly referred to as coax. All coax consists of a central copper core
surrounded by a layer of insulating material. This insulation is enveloped by a metallic wire
mesh or, in some cases, a solid metallic sleeve. All of this is then protected by an outer
layer of nonconducting material. Both the central
core and the mesh or sleeve are capable of
Metallic mesh or sleeve
conducting electrical signals.
Central copper core
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
FIGURE 1.13:
COAXIAL CABLE
Coax Advantages
It is less
susceptible to
interference than
twisted-pair cable.
Insulation
Non-conducting outer layer
It is theoretically capable of supporting higher data transmission rates than twistedpair cable.
Coax Disadvantages
53
There are many types of coax cables, each suited for one, or at most, a small
number of LAN systems.
Due to its high metallic and insulation content, coax cable is usually more
expensive than other cable types.
Transmission media, continued
Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview
1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1
Cladding
FIGURE 1.14: O PTICAL FIBER CABLE
Core
54
Optical signals through glass encounter less loss than electrical signals through
copper. This translates into lower attenuation and higher bandwidth than copper,
allowing transmission to occur over longer distances.
Total immunity to electromagnetic interference since signals are sent as light and
not as electricity. Extremely high-speed LANs are possible, especially at short
distances.
For lower-speed LANs, more expensive electronics are required than with copper
systems.
55
Wireless systems
Although the majority of LANs connect devices using a physical cable, there are instances
where it is difficult or impossible to install cablesuch as historical properties or when
there is no right-of-way access between two adjacent buildings. In such cases, wireless
transmission media is used to connect network devices. Wireless systems do not
physically connect network devices since the links between the devices are invisible. They
are either infrared light or radio links.
Infrared links
Connecting devices using infrared light signals work essentially the same way that remote
controls work with television sets. These systems consist of a base unit connected to the
server and device connections for the stations. The base unit has two optical nodesone
to receive signals from the station and one to send signals to the station.
Since the system depends on infrared light to transmit, a requirement is that the base unit
and the station connections are in a direct line of sight to each other. Alternatively, some of
these systems use a reflective surface positioned between the base unit and the station to
redirect the signal.
56
Radio links
This second type of wireless media uses radio waves to transmit information between the
server and the stations. Most of these systems use spread-spectrum technology where
data is transmitted at low density over a frequency range of 902 MHz to 928 MHzthe
range specified by the U.S. government for data communications.
These systems also work with two componentsa Control Module connected to the
server and User Modules which connect to the network devices. The control module and
the user module do not have to be in direct line-of-sight with each other. The radio signals
are capable of passing through most office building doors and walls.
Wireless Advantage
Wireless Disadvantages
57
Typically, such systems are not able to meet the performance demands of large or
busy networks.
Topologies
The definition of the word topology states than an items topology defines its physical
appearance. For example, a topological map represents the physical appearance of the area
shown. In many ways a LANs topology is the sameit is representative of the LANs
physical appearance.
LAN topology is determined by how transmission channels are used to connect network
devices. Typically, it refers to how the LAN is physically set up and the cabling strategy being
used. It is acknowledged that topology is the foundation of a LAN.
It should be pointed out that within the context of LANs, the word topology takes on a dual
meaning. Both aspects are important to how the LAN will function.
1. First, topology refers to the physical appearance of the LAN. This is known as the
physical topology.
2. The second aspect refers to how the LAN functions. This logical topology is
determined by how the messages are transmitted from device to device.
There are many instances where a LAN has a certain physical appearance but logically
transmits its messages in a different manner. For this reason, it is necessary to make the
distinction between the physical topology and the logical topology of a LAN.
The purpose of this section is to illustrate the physical appearances a LAN may take. The
logical aspect will be discussed in a later section.
There are three fundamental topologiesstar, bus and ring. From these three, a number of
hybrid topologies have developed, including tree, star-wired ring, clustered star and
hierarchical star.
Topologies, continued
58
Star topology
In a star topology, the hub or switch is placed in the logical center of the network. The
remaining network devices are connected to this central hub like the points on a star.
FIGURE 1.15: STAR TOPOLOGY
Each device has its own direct, dedicated line to the hub or switch.
Any network device wanting to send a message to another
network device does so through the central hub.
The station sending the message sends it to the
hub. The hub then routes the message to the
specified destination stationthis is known as
switching. Since the hub handles all the message
switching, the stations on the network do not
require any extra technology to route signals over
the transmission channel.
Hub
59
Bus topology
A bus topology is a linear configuration. It places all of the network devices on one length
of cable, similar to stops on a city bus route. The hubs, server, stations and peripheral
devices all use the same continuous length of transmission channel.
FIGURE 1.16: B US TOPOLOGY
The ends of the transmission channel, in this
arrangement, are not connected to network
devices. Ordinarily, problems would occur
when the transmitted signal is sent along the
cable and it reaches either of the ends. For
this reason, each end of the cable is
connected to a terminator which safely stops
the transmission signal.
When a message is sent on this topology,
the following takes place. The transmission
signal leaves the sending device and travels
along the cable in both directions. The
device for which the message is intended will
recognize the transmission and read the
message as it passes by.
Topologies, continued
60
If the cable is damaged or if either end of the cable loses its termination, the entire
network will fail.
Topologies, continued
61
Ring topology
A ring topology places all of the network devices in a circle. It uses one transmission
channel to connect all devices. Each device is connected to the next one. The last device
is connected to the firstclosing the circle.
FIGURE 1.17: RING TOPOLOGY
When a message is sent, it travels from
device to device around the circle. The
sending device sends its message towards
the destination device. Each device
between the sender and the receiver
listens to the message as it passes by. If
the message is not intended for a
particular device, it resends the message
and the next one in the ring repeats the
procedure. This continues until the intended
destination receives the message.
Topologies, continued
62
Additional network devices can only be connected while the network is inoperative,
since breaking the ring would cause network failure.
Although the ring topology is considered as one of the three fundamental network
topologies, it has never been popular in its basic form. The more popular dual-ring
topology provides two paths between stationsa primary path and a backup path. In the
event of a failure in the primary path, the signal can be diverted to the backup path by
stations on either side of the point of failurepreventing total network failure.
Topologies, continued
63
Hybrid topologies
Hybrid topologies resulted from a need to meet specific requirements or industry
technological advancements. While there are many variations of the three topologies
discussed above, certain hybrids achieved greater popularity than others.
Tree topology
The tree topology is an
extension of the bus
topology. By adding cable
extensions to the basic bus
topology, a larger network
can be achieved using less
cable. Each additional cable
extends from the underlying
bus structure and supports
multiple network devices
along its length.
FIGURE 1.18:
TREE TOPOLOGY
64
Topologies, continued
Topologies, continued
65
Hub
66
Hub
Topologies, continued
Hub
FIGURE 1.21:
HIERARCHICAL STAR TOPOLOGY
Hub
Central Hub
67
Access controls
Access control is the way in which a device on the LAN gains access to the transmission
media. Since there are many devices on a network, a method needs to be established for an
individual device to gain access to the cable. Only then can it transmit its message. Access
control represents how the devices get permission to communicate on the network.
There are five basic ways in which a network device obtains use of the transmission
channelpolling, token-passing, slotted ring, CSMA/CD (Carrier-Sense Multiple Access/
Collision Detection) and switching.
Some access schemes are naturally suited for certain kinds of topologies. However, the use
of any given access method is not necessarily governed by the LAN topology.
Polling
As the name implies, polling requires that each device on the network be asked if it has a
message to transmit. To ensure that each device is given an equal opportunity to speak,
polling must be under central control. It is therefore, most commonly found on networks
with a central controlling device such as that found in a star topology.
When polling is used, the device gains access to the transmission channels as follows:
68
The central controlling device checks with, or polls, each station regularly to see if
it has a message to send.
If the station has a message to send, and the transmission channel is clear, the
station receives exclusive use of the channel and sends its message.
As soon as the station has sent its message, the channel is free for another device
to use.
Access controls, continued
Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview
1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1
Token-passing
Token-passing is a method that uses an electronic signal called a token. Possession of the
token gives a device exclusive use of the transmission channel. The token travels along
the channel and stops at each device. A device with a message to send will pick up the
token and use it in order to send its message.
When token-passing is used, the device gains access to the transmission channel as
follows:
A network device with a message to send captures the available token as it passes
by on the channel.
As the token stops at a device, it is checked to see if the message is for the
devicethis destination device will recognize its address and will read the
message.
When the sending device eventually receives the acknowledgment, it clears the
token so it may be used by another device.
69
Slotted-ring
The slotted-ring access scheme is used only with a ring topology. It was developed so that
more than one device would be able to use the network at a time. Instead of a single token
circulating, a number of fixed-length slots circulate around the telecommunications
channel.
The procedure followed is much like that used in token-passing. The difference is that
messages are now divided into packets. Each packet is the size of one of the slots.
When slotted-ring is used, the device gains access to the transmission channel as follows:
The sending device deposits a packet into each empty slot that passes until the
entire message has been sent.
Each message packet has a header attached to it identifying the destination device
and whether or not the packet completes the message.
The destination device recognizes from the header that the packet is meant for it
and copies the message.
If indicated from the header, it will wait to receive the rest of the message from
additional packets.
When the slot returns to the sending device, it is emptied and released to begin the
cycle again.
70
When the sending device detects a clear channel, it transmits its message
marking it with the destination address.
71
Collision detection
A collision occurs when two or more devices attempt to send a message at the same time
and the messages interfere with each other on the transmission channel.
The role of collision detection is as follows:
The sending device will wait a specified amount of time for the acknowledgment.
If the acknowledgment is not received in this period of time, the sender assumes
that the message was not received because a collision occurred in the transmission
channel.
The sending device waits for a random amount of time and retransmits the
messagetypically, such an attempt can be repeated many times.
If collisions are still detected after many attempts, the user is informed that the
network is too busy to transmit.
Throughout this time, all idle network devicesthose not transmitting messagesare
continuously monitoring the transmission channel to see if any messages are directed at
them or if the channel is available for transmission.
72
Switching
While not strictly an access control scheme, switching provides a mechanism where a
station does not have to share a transmission channel. Switching provides a dedicated
transmission channel to each port of a switching hub. Each transmission channel can have
multiple stations attached to it, but in high traffic environments, each station can be
assigned its own dedicated channel to the switching hub. The switching hub is responsible
for providing communications between the channels.
Traditionally, if a network is experiencing excessive trafficslow performancethe
network is split into smaller segments, each with its own hub and with fewer attached
stations. A switching hub performs this type of segmentation inside a single chassis. It has
a number of ports, each of which is a dedicated LAN segment.
When switching is used, stations access the transmission channel and communicate as
follows:
73
The sending station puts its data onto the transmission channel.
The switching hub handles intersegment traffic via an internal matrix switch.
When a packet arrives at the switch, its destination address is noted and a
connection is made to the destination station.
Transmission techniques
A transmission technique defines how the signal is actually transmitted over the channel. It
determines how the message travels on the medium.
The various transmission mediatwisted-pair, coax, optical fiberare capable of
transmitting data at various frequencies. The range of frequencies they can use is called the
bandwidth. A transmission technique describes how a device uses the available bandwidth to
transmit signals to another device.
The two transmission techniques used in the LAN environment are known as baseband
transmission and broadband transmission.
74
Transmission techniques,
continued
Baseband transmission
Baseband transmission is the more commonly used method in the LAN environment. This
technique allocates the entire bandwidth to a single channel. Baseband transmission is
best suited for networks covering a small geographic area, such as a LAN.
Baseband transmission handles only digital data and is capable of high-speed
transmission.
75
There is only one pathway, which means only a single stream of data can exist on
the channel at any instant in time.
Transmission techniques,
continued
Broadband transmission
Broadband transmission divides the bandwidth into multiple channels. Since there are
many channels available for transmission, more then one device can transmit at a time.
Simultaneous transmissions can, therefore, occur without collisions.
Broadband transmission can handle large amounts of data at one time. As well, it is not
limited to handling only digital data transmission. This method of transmission can support
analog traffic, making it capable of handling traditional voice and video signals.
Broadband transmission was designed for transmission over long distance with a channel
length measured in kilometers or miles. A network using this technology can, therefore,
cover a much larger geographic area than one using baseband technology.
76
It is costly to implement.
Speed
The speed is a measure of how fast the signals travel over the transmission media.
Speed is, in reality, not a totally separate component. It is actually dependent on the four
areastransmission media, topologies, access controls and transmission techniques
already discussed.
Typically, transmission speed ranges from a low of 235 Kbps (kilobits per second) for an
AppleTalk LAN to 155 Mbps (megabits per second) for an ATM (Asynchronous Transfer
Mode) LAN. Speeds in the Gbps (gigabits per second) are possible, but these are not
currently used in LAN environments.
77
78
Peer-to-peer LANs
A peer-to-peer LAN is one in which any PC can contribute to or share network resources. In
such a LAN environment, there is a great deal of freedom regarding the location of shared
files, programs and peripherals.
As the name implies, all stations on this type of a LAN are peersmeaning they can work as
equalscontributing and using files, programs, printers and other peripheral devices. There
are cases where some stations in a peer-to-peer network will have more responsibilities than
others.
There are three configurations that a station on a peer-to-peer LAN can assumea no-server
configuration, a non-dedicated server configuration and a dedicated server configuration.
No-server configuration
In this configuration, a station on a peer-to-peer LAN is set up solely to access files,
programs and peripheral devices found on other stations. The station itself does not
contribute any resources of its own to the network.
79
On a peer-to-peer LAN, one will see the non-dedicated server type of configuration most
often, with each station both accessing and contributing to network resources.
Design issues
Peer-to-peer LANs are easy to set up but difficult to administer due to the changing role of
each station. On any given day, the user of a station may allow others access to a specific
directory on their machine and the next day remove this privilege.
If a station on a peer-to-peer network is being repaired, or if someone in the office decides
to shut it off, other users are affected.
As well, backups become a major issue. In essence, everyone on a peer-to-peer network
must make their own daily backups to avoid a group disaster if a hard disk fails.
80
How can the organization prevent certain data on a station from accidentally
becoming available to other users?
What prevents someone from walking up to a station, copying its files onto
diskettes, and walking away?
These issues illustrate the overall problem with peer-to-peer LANsthey are difficult to
administer. For this reason they are not nearly as common as centralized server LANs.
Peer-to-peer LANs are found in environments where the PC users are very experienced.
They must be able to handle the administrative and technical details imposed on each of
them. Offices where software developers or writers for computer-related publications work
are two such environments.
81
The stations can have their own hard disks and attached peripheral devices but
these will not be available to other stations on the networkonly those on the
server are sharable.
There are similarities between a centralized server LAN and a peer-to-peer LAN.
This forces the question to be askedWhat is the difference between a peer-to-peer LAN
and a centralized server LAN?
82
There is one major differenceon a peer-to-peer LAN, any user can change the
configuration of their own station from one day to the next, simply by issuing the
appropriate commands at the station.
For example, a user can change the status of their peer-to-peer station from a nondedicated server station to a non-server station. This would deny other users
access to that stations files and peripheral devices.
Centralized server LANs,
Chapter 1 - Local Area Network (LAN) Overview
continued
1996, BICSI LAN Design Manual - CD-ROM, Issue 1
Design issues
On a centralized server LAN, once it has been established that a given PC will be a server
(dedicated or non-dedicated), it may take several hours or days and some expertise to
configure and put the server into service on the LAN. Changes will require similar effort.
There is a clear line which separates server and station. This makes administration a
much easier task. Servers are identified and stable. It is clear which PCs contain the
shared files and therefore, need to be backed up.
Similarly, security is simplified. The servers on a centralized server LAN can be physically
isolatedplaced in a locked room with keys given only to the network administrator(s).
Once physical access to the server is restricted, access to its files through the network can
be controlled by assigning passwords and directory/file access rights to individuals. This
should not be taken to mean that centralized server networks are automatically more
secure and easier to administer than peer-to-peer LANs. They can be, but this is entirely
dependent on management. Poor or nonexistent use of the security and administrative
resources provided on a LAN will only invite abuse and disastersaccidental or
deliberate.
83
Security features
Two common security features on a LAN are login security and password security.
Login security
Login security controls the users access to the network by installing the following
features:
84
85
Password security
Password security controls access to the LAN by forcing users to provide passwords
before they can use network resources. These passwords can have the following
restrictions placed on them.
Limit the number of grace logins (logins allowed after the password has
expired).
A grace login allows a user access to the network after their password has expired.
A message then warns the user to change the password. By limiting such grace
logins, the users are reminded to observe strict password maintenance.
86
Communications signaling
Communications addressing
The way in which a signal finds its way to the correct destination.
Communications processing
87
Communications signaling
The lowest-level function of LANs is the generation of digital dataall information processed
by a PC is in a binary format consisting of a series of 0s and 1s. There are two general
techniques for doing thisgenerate the data as a digital signal or as an analog signal.
Digital signaling.
The digital data is transmitted as digital signals. Signals consist of a series of
constant-voltage or light pulses.
Analog signaling.
The digital data is transmitted as an analog signal. The signal consists of a
continuously varying electromagnetic or light wave.
In both cases a form of encoding is required. Digital data must be represented by elements
suitable for transmission over a given medium. The signal must be recognizable by the
receiving device and decoded to reproduce the original data.
The form of encoding chosen optimizes the transmission in terms of cost, performance,
reliability or a combination of these factors.
88
Communications signaling,
continued
Digital signaling
Since a digital signal can take on only one of two values, the simplest way to transmit a
digital signal is to use two different voltage or light levelsone for each binary digit
(0 or 1).
The following sections describe the various encoding schemes in terms of voltage;
however, the same principles exist with optical fiber using light instead of voltage.
Nonreturn-to-zero-level (NRZ-L) encoding
In this encoding scheme the signal never returns to zero voltage. The code uses a
negative voltage to represent the binary digit one and a positive voltage level to represent
the binary digit zero. So long as the bit stream remains constanta series of 1s or a
series of 0sthe signal voltage level does not change. Only when the bit stream changes
from a 0 to 1 or from a 1 to 0 does the voltage level change.
Bit stream
89
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
+
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0 - - - - - - - -|- - - -|- - - - |- - - - |- - - - -| - - - -| - - - -| - - - -| - - |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Communications signaling,
continued
Manchester encoding
Manchester encoding is an example of a biphase encoding technique.
All biphase techniques have at least one transition in voltage level per bit transmitted. This
produces a maximum modulation rate twice that of NRZ-L encoding. The corresponding
bandwidth requirement for signal transmission also increases. However, biphase encoding
has several advantages:
Since there is a predictable transition for each bit transmitted, the receiver can
synchronize on that transition. Biphase codes are also known as self-clocking
codes.
The absence of an expected transition indicates that an error may have occurred.
An error would go undetected only if noise inverts both the signal before the
expected transition and the signal after the expected transition.
In Manchester encoding there is a transition in the middle of each bit sent. A zero bit is
represented by a high-to-low transition (it has a high level voltage during the first half of
the bit time and a low level during the second half of the bit time). A one bit is represented
by a low-to-high transition (it has a low level voltage during the first half of the bit time and
a high level during the second half of the bit time).
90
Communications signaling,
continued
FIGURE 1.23:
M ANCHESTER ENCODING
Bit stream
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
+
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0 - - - - - - - -|- - - -|- - - - |- - - - |- - - - -| - - - -| - - - -| - - - -| - - |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
The transition in the middle of the bit serves as a clocking mechanism as well as data.
91
Communications signaling,
continued
Bit stream
ENCODING
92
V
o
l
t
a
g
e
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
+
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
0 - - - - - - - -| - - - -| - - - - |- - - - |- - - - -| - - - -| - - - -| - - - -| - - |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Communications signaling,
continued
Analog signaling
Analog encoding is based on a continuous constant-frequency signal. Digital information
must be encoded using a modem to modulate one, or a combination, of the characteristics
of the signalamplitude, frequency or phase.
Amplitude-shift keying (ASK)
With amplitude-shift keying the digital signals two binary values are represented by two
different amplitudes in the analog signals frequency. Often one of these amplitudes is
zerothe absence of a frequency. One of the binary values is represented by the
presence of a frequency signal while the other binary value is represented by the absence
of the frequency signal.
FIGURE 1.25:
AMPLITUDE -SHIFT KEYING
Bit stream
Digital signal
93
Communications signaling,
continued
Bit stream
Digital signal
Analog signal
94
Communications signaling,
continued
Bit stream
Digital signal
Analog signal
95
Communications addressing
An address is a unique identification code assigned to a network device so it may
independently send and receive messages.
Each device on the network knows its own address and accepts any message sent to that
address. The sending device is responsible for specifying the correct address to use in the
message.
There are situations where a network name service is available. In these cases, operations
use the names rather than network addresses. Facilities are required to translate the network
names into network addresses. Two approaches are available to meet this requirement:
96
Each device tracks its own network names and provides the address associated
with the name when required.
Communications addressing,
continued
Setting addresses
For devices to communicate on a network they must be able to contact each other. For
this reason, each network device must have its own unique address. Each address
identifies a device. The manner in which devices are assigned addresses is a function of
the type of network structure being used.
Addressing in the LAN environment can take two formsuniversal addressing or networkspecific addressing.
Universal addressing
When universal addressing is used, each network device has a unique network address,
most often embedded in the unit by the vendor. To avoid duplication, blocks of addresses
are assigned to each vendor by an administrative organizationusually a standards
committee.
97
Communications addressing,
continued
Network-specific addressing
When network-specific addressingalso known as locally administered addressingis
used, each device within a given network has a unique address, usually assigned by the
owner of the network. With this method, therefore, it is possible to find the same address
on another linked network. In these cases, a unique network identifier must be used with
the station address to provide a unique address for network-to-network communications.
This is essentially a first name/last name scheme for network devices.
The way in which addresses are set will depend on the LAN environment. In some cases,
unique addresses come preset on the Network Interface Card (NIC)universal
addressing. In other cases, the address can be set by the individual installing the LAN
network specific addressing.
Using addresses
In a LAN environment, each device is provided a unique identifying addressthese are
known as station addresses. For communication among devices within that LAN, this
address is sufficient.
In the case where LAN to LAN, LAN to WAN, or any other communication outside of one
distinct LAN is necessary, the address of the destination network is also required.
98
Communications processing
Data on a LAN goes through a sequence of processes and transfer points to get from the
sending device to the receiving device. Once a request is made, a series of steps is followed:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
At the receiving device, the packets are reassembled by the NIC and processed.
Packets
Technically, a packet is a collection of binary digits representing data with attached control
codes. The control information is needed to provide both source and destination device
addresses.
A packet provides the format needed to transmit messages from one network device to
another.
The components and appearance of a packet is a function of the LAN architecture being
examined.
99
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
TABLE
100
Summary ......................................................................................... 25
CONTENTS
OF
TABLE
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
101
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
TABLE
Introduction ..................................................................................... 26
LAN hardware ................................................................................. 27
Transmission channel...................................................................... 33
Network Interface Cards (NICs) ..................................................... 34
Servers ............................................................................................ 34
File Servers ................................................................................... 36
Print Servers ................................................................................. 37
Communications Servers .............................................................. 38
Stations ........................................................................................... 38
Hubs ................................................................................................ 39
Switches ........................................................................................ 39
Shared peripheral devices............................................................... 40
LAN software .................................................................................. 41
Server operating systems ............................................................... 42
Station operating systems ............................................................... 43
Applications software ...................................................................... 44
Client/server computing ................................................................ 44
Groupware ..................................................................................... 45
The people ....................................................................................... 46
The users......................................................................................... 46
The network administrators ............................................................. 47
102
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
TABLE
OF
Introduction ..................................................................................... 48
Transmission media ...................................................................... 50
Twisted-pair cables ......................................................................... 50
Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) ..................................................... 51
103
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
TABLE
104
Topologies ....................................................................................... 58
Star topology ................................................................................... 59
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
TABLE
OF
Speed ............................................................................................... 77
105
Broadband transmission.................................................................. 76
Broadband Transmission Advantages .............................................................. 76
Broadband Transmission Disadvantages ......................................................... 76
Introduction ..................................................................................... 78
Peer-to-peer LANs ......................................................................... 79
No-server configuration ................................................................... 79
Non-dedicated server configuration ................................................ 79
Dedicated server configuration ....................................................... 80
Design issues .................................................................................. 80
Centralized server LANs .............................................................. 82
Design issues .................................................................................. 83
Security features ............................................................................. 84
Login security ................................................................................ 84
Password security ......................................................................... 86
CONTENTS
OF
CONTENTS TABLE
OF
TABLE
Introduction ..................................................................................... 87
Communications signaling ................................................................................ 87
Communications addressing............................................................................. 87
Communications processing............................................................................. 87
106
Figure 1.2:
Figure 1.3:
Figure 1.4:
Figure 1.5:
Figure 1.6:
Figure 1.7:
Figure 1.8:
Figure 1.9:
Figure 1.10:
Figure 1.11:
Figure 1.12:
Figure 1.13:
107
Figure 1.1:
Figure 1.15:
Figure 1.16:
Figure 1.17:
Figure 1.18:
Figure 1.19:
Figure 1.20:
Figure 1.21:
Figure 1.22:
Figure 1.23:
Figure 1.24:
Figure 1.25:
Figure 1.26:
Figure 1.27:
108
Figure 1.14: