University of Pitesti

Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Technology

Master IAMD II
COMBUSTION ENGINE
VEHICLE EXHAUST
EMISSIONS
1
Supervisor: prof.
PhD. IA! Florian
Student: "I#A
#ornel
SUMMARY:
$. #%MP%SITI%!. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .&
$.$. E'haust gas co(ponents. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . &
$.$.$. Su((ary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .&
$.$.). Inta*e and e'haust co(ponents of
co(+ustion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,
$.$.&. Description of e'haust gas
co(ponents . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .,
). EMISSI%!
#%!T-%. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . ../
).$. E(ission control
strategies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . /
).). -eduction in
consu(ption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. .0
).).$. Aerodyna(ics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
).).). 2eight
savings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . 1
).).&. Engine (anage(ent
syste(. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
).).,. Engine and gear+o'
opti(isation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
).)./. Fuel tan*
purging. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . 3
).).0. E'haust gas
recirculation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4
).).1. Positive #ran*shaft entilation 5P#6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $7
).&. E'haust gas treat(ent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $)
).&.$. #atalytic converter 5petrol
engine6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $)
).&.). #atalytic converter 5diesel
engine6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $,
).&.&. Air In8ection
Syste(. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
$/
2
&. MEASU-EME!T
MET9%DS. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . ..$0
&.$. Perfor(ance control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$0
&.). Measuring (ethods. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .$1
&.).$. I(ple(entation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1
&.).).
Function. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . .. . . . .$1
&.).&. Driving
cycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .$3
,. STA!DA-DS F%- E:9AUST EMISSI%!S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )$
/. A!A.;<E-S. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . ..))
/.$. Fla(e ioni=ation detector >
FID. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .))
/.$.$. %perating principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .))
/.$.). Advantages and
disadvantages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .))
/.$.&.
%peration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .. . . . . )&
/.$.,. Description of a generic
detector. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..)&
/.). !ondispersive infrared sensor >
!DI-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .),
/.).$.
Principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .. . . . ?),
/.).). Measure(ent of #% using
!DI-. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ),
/.&. #he(ilu(inescent Analy=er. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)/
/.,. Para(agnetic %'ygen
analy=ers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )0
/.,.$. Measure(ent
Principle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )0
/.,.). Interference @as
#o(pensation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . )1
/./.
%paci(eters. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . .. . . . ..)3
/./.$. Principle of
Measure(ent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
)3
/./.). Sa(pling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)3
3
/./.&. Evaluation of (easure(ent sensitivity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .)4
/./.,. Deter(ination of PM E(ission Mass fro( S(o*e
#oncentration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .&7
/././. $7A$/ Mode -unning
Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . .. . . .. . . .. . . . . . . . . .&$
/./.0. Testing Bhile Driving through an Ur+an
Area. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . .&$
1. COMPOSITION
1.1. Exhaust gas c!"#$#ts
1.1.1. Su!!a%&
In the discussions on the constitution of (otor vehicle e'haust e(issionsC the
sa(e ter(s are used repeatedly: car+on dio'ideC nitrogen o'ideC particulate (atter
or hydrocar+ons. In this
connectionC (ention is
rarely (ade of the fact
that these su+stances
constitute only a
fraction of total
e'haust gas e(issions.
ThereforeCthe
appro'i(ate
co(position of the
e'haust e(issions of
diesel and petrol
engines +efore
descri+ing the
individual e'haust gas
co(ponents.
Fig1.Composition of exhaust emissions of petrol engines
Petrol engines (ay also e(it s(all Duantities of sulphur dio'ide S%) .
4

Fig2.Composition of exhaust emissions of diesel engines
1.1.'. I#ta($ a#) $xhaust c!"#$#ts * c!+ust,#
The folloBing diagra( shoBs a su((ary of the inta*e and e'haust
co(ponents of the co(+ustion cycle Bhich ta*es place in the engine.
Fig 3.Intake and exhaust gas components
1.1.-. .$sc%,"t,# * $xhaust gas c!"#$#ts
N' / N,t%g$# is a nonAEa((a+leC colourless and odourless gas. !itrogen is
an ele(entary constituent of the air Be +reathe 513F nitrogenC )$F o'ygenC $F
other gases6C and is transported into the co(+ustion cha(+er in the inta*e air.
The largest proportion of the nitrogen induced is again discharged in pure for( in
the e'haust gases. %nly a s(all proportion of the nitrogen co(+ines Bith o'ygen
%) to for( o'ides of nitrogen !%' .
5
O' / Ox&g$# is a colourlessC odourless and tasteless gas. It is the pri(ary
constituent of the air Be +reathe 5)$F6. %'ygenC li*e nitrogenC is draBn in
through the air Glter.
H'O / 0at$% is partly induced +y the engine 5at(ospheric hu(idity6 or
occurs during loBAte(perature co(+ustion 5Bar(Aup period6. 2ater is a
har(less e'haust gas co(ponent.
CO' 1 Ca%+# ),x,)$ is a colourlessC nonAEa((a+le gas. It is produced +y
the co(+ustion of fuel containing car+on 5e.g. petrolC diesel6. #ar+on co(+ines
Bith o'ygen induced into the engine.The de+ate on cli(atic change 5glo+al
Bar(ing6 has increased pu+lic aBareness to the su+8ect of #%) e(issions.
#ar+on dio'ide #%) depletes the o=one layer Bhich protects the earth against
the sunHs U rays 5greenhouse eIect6.
CO 1 Ca%+# !#x,)$ results fro( the inco(plete co(+ustion of
co(+usti+les containing car+on. It is colourlessC odourlessC e'plosive and highly
to'ic. #ar+on (ono'ide prevents red +lood corpuscles 5erythrocytes6 fro(
transporting o'ygen. Even a relatively loB concentration of car+on (ono'ide in
the air Be +reathe is fatal. In nor(al concentrations in the openC car+on
(ono'ide Bill o'idise to car+on dio'ide #%) Bithin a short period of ti(e.
NOx 1 N,t%g$# x,)$s are co(pounds of nitrogen !) and o'ygen %) 5=. ".
!%C !%)C !)%C etc.6. !itrogen o'ides are produced +y high pressureC high
te(perature and a surplus of o'ygen in the engine during the co(+ustion cycle.
Several o'ides of nitrogen are har(ful to health. Action ta*en to reduce fuel
consu(ption hasC unfortunatelyC often led to a rise in nitrogen o'ide
concentrations in e'haust e(issions +ecause a (ore eIective co(+ustion
process generates higher te(peratures. These high te(peratures in turn (ean
higher nitrogen o'ide e(ission.
SO' 1 Su2"hu% dio'ide is a colourlessC pungent and nonAEa((a+le gas.
Sulphur dio'ide causes respiratory illnessC +ut only occurs in very loB
concentrations in e'haust gases. Sulphur dio'ide e(ission can +e cur+ed +y
reducing the sulphur content in the fuel.
P+ / L$a) has +een co(pletely eli(inated fro( (otor vehicle e'haust
e(issions. &777 t Bere still released into the at(osphere in $43/ +y the
co(+ustion of leaded fuel. .ead in fuel prevents engine *noc*C Bhich is caused
+y spontaneous ignitionC and had a da(ping eIect on the valve seats. "y using
environ(entallyAfriendly additives in unleaded fuelC it is noB possi+le to largely
preserve *noc* resistance.
HC / H&)%ca%+#s are un+urnt fuel co(ponents Bhich occur in the e'haust
e(issions after inco(plete co(+ustion. 9ydrocar+ons 59#6 occur in a variety of
for(s 5e.g. #090C #39$36 and each has diIerent eIects on the hu(an organis(.
So(e hydrocar+ons irritate the sensory organs Bhile others are carcinogenic
5e.g. +en=ene6.
Pa%t,cu2at$ !att$% PM is (ainly produced +y diesel engines. -esearch into
the eIects of particulate (atter on the hu(an organis( is still inconclusive.
6
'. EMISSION CONTROL
'.1. E!,ss,# c#t%2 st%at$g,$s
Fig 4. Typical emission control system
Pre-combustion:
J"ETTE- MI:TU-E P-EPA-ATI%! C DIST-I"UTI%! K FUE. METE-I!@
JIntroduction of tuned inta*e (anifold
JInta*e (anifold heating
J-eplace(ent of car+uretor Bith MPFI 5(ulti point electronic fuel in8ection6
J@AS%.I!E -EF%-MU.ATI%!
JI!T-%DU#TI%! %F A.TE-!ATIE FUE.S
J!atural gas 5cng K lng6
J.iDueGed petroleu( gas 5lpg6
JEthanol
JMethanol
J9ydrogen
In-cylinder (combustion chamber design mods):
J-EDU#TI%! I! #%MP-ESSI%! -ATI%
JM%DIFI#ATI%! I! #%M"USTI%! #9AM"E- @E%MET-;
JS(aller co(+ustion cha(+er surface volu(e
J-eduction in crevice volu(e
J-educe Duench areas in co(+ustion cha(+er
J#entrally location of spar* plug
J 9e(ispherical co(+ustion cha(+er is +est in this regard
JA-IA".E A.E TIMI!@
JEMP.%;I!@ 9I@9 E!E-@;LDUA. I@!ITI%! S;STEM
J-ETA-DATI%! %F I@!ITI%! TIMI!@
7
JI!#-EASE I! ID.I!@ SPEED
Post combustion:
JP# 5P%SITIE #-A!M #ASE E!TI.ATI%! S;STEM6
JE@- 5E:9AUST @AS -E#I-#U.ATI%! S;STEM6
J#ATA.;TI# #%!E-TE-
JAI- I!NE#TI%! S;STEM
Lean burn operation (GDI):
2ith the rising e(phasis on controlling #%) e(issions 5Bhich is a green house
gas6 and on fuel econo(yC it is essential to operate the engines on fuel lean
(i'tures. gasoline direct in8ection 5gdi6 engines have +een developed +y diIerent
(anufactures Bhich Bor* on the principle of charge stratiGcation 5lean (i'ture
operation6. In these enginesC the fuel +urns (ore eOciently Bith less pollutant
e(ission of #%C9# and #%) and Bith loBer fuel consu(ption. The fuel consu(ption
is loBered up to &7F co(pared to the stoichio(etric co(+ustion . These engines
can operate very lean overallP the airAfuel ratio near the spar* plug is nearly
stoichio(etric or slightly fuel rich Bhile the other parts of the co(+ustion cha(+er
are provided Bith very lean airAfuel ratios.
'.'. R$)uct,# ,# c#su!"t,#
!oBadaysC the develop(ent of individual auto(otive technologies alone is not
enough to reduce certain e'haust gas co(ponents and fuel consu(ption. The
ansBerC thereforeC is to loo* at vehicles as an integral Bhole and (atch all the
auto(otive co(ponents to one another. Ta*ing this holistic approach to vehicle
develop(ent as a +asisC three (ain e'haust e(ission control strategies can +e
deGned:
A -eduction of consu(ption
A E'haust gas treat(ent
A Perfor(ance (onitoring
The folloBing sections Bill e'plain these ter(s and Bhat action they entail.
'.'.1. A$%)&#a!,cs
The drag coeOcient of aerodyna(ic vehicle shapes is loB. .oBer drag (eans
loBer fuel consu(ption. In the past feB decadesC ol*sBagen has succeeded in
reducing the drag coeOcient of its
vehicles to less than 7.&7 fro( over 7.,/.
This is a (a8or step forBard especially
Bhen you consider that appro'i(ately
17F of input poBer is reDuired to
overco(e the aerodyna(ic drag Bhen
travelling at $77 *ph.
Fig 5. erodynamic tunnel
8
'.'.'. 0$,ght sa3,#gs
Safety standards and rising co(fort levels oIset Beight savings. 9oBeverC
Beight savings are necessary in order to reduce fuel consu(ption. Ta*e the Audi
A3LA) 5Space Fra(e6 and the .upo &. TDI for e'a(ple. In these vehiclesC lightBeight
(aterials 5alu(iniu(C (agnesiu(6 are used in +ody construction.
Fig !.udi light "eight #pace Frame
'.'.-. E#g,#$ !a#ag$!$#t s&st$!
TodayHs engine (anage(ent syste(s have the a+ility to inEuence all
controlla+le co(ponents 5Gnal control ele(ents6 of an engine. This (eans that all
signals fro( the sensors 5e.g. engine speedC air (assC charge pressure6 are
evaluated in the engine control unit and for( control values for the controlla+le
co(ponents 5e.g. fuel in8ection DuantityC in8ection ti(ingC ignition advance angle6.
As a resultC the engine can +e controlled as a factor of load and the co(+ustion
process can +e opti(ised.
9
Fig $.%ngine management control loop
'.'.4. E#g,#$ a#) g$a%+x "t,!,sat,#
Engine and gear+o' construction has a (a8or +earing on vehicle fuel
eOciency. In enginesC for e'a(pleC (odern in8ection syste(s are i(portant for fuelA
eOcient co(+ustion:
A Pu(p in8ectorAtechnology used in the diesel 5TDI6
A Direct in8ection in the petrol engine 5FSI6
In the gear+o'C it is necessary to adapt the gear ratios to the si=e and Beight
of the vehicle. In additionC 0Aspeed gear+o'es are noB in use. They alloB the engine
to operate in its opti(al -PM range (ost of the ti(e to o+tain the +est fuel
econo(y.
'.'.5. 6u$2 ta#( "u%g,#g
To prevent petrol vapour 5hydrocar+ons6 fro( escaping into the environ(entC
the evaporated petrol fro( the fuel tan* is accu(ulated in an activated charcoal
canister and co(+usted in a controlled (anner.
A charcoal canister is used to trap the fuel vapors. The fuel vapors adhere to
the charcoalC until the engine is startedC and engine vacuu( can +e used to draB
the vapors into the engineC so that they can +e +urned along Bith the fuelLair
(i'ture. This syste( reDuires the use of a sealed gas tan* Gller cap. This cap is so
i(portant to the operation of the syste(C that a test of the cap is noB +eing
integrated into (any state e(ission inspection progra(s.
Today Bith the use of sealed capsC redesigned gas tan*s are used. The tan*
has to have the space for the vapors to collect so that they can then +e vented to
the charcoal canister. A purge valve is used to control the vapor EoB into the
engine. The purge valve is operated +y engine vacuu(.
%ne co((on pro+le( Bith this syste( is that the purge valve goes +ad and
engine vacuu( draBs fuel directly into the inta*e syste(. This enriches the fuel
(i'ture and Bill foul the spar* plugs. Most charcoal canisters have a Glter that
should +e replaced periodically. This syste( should +e chec*ed Bhen fuel (ileage
drops.
10
Fig &.Fuel tank purging'purge canister(
E2$ct%#,c E3a"%at,3$ E!,ss,#s C#t%2:
A ent line connects to charcoal canisterC via roll overLvapour separator valve.
A #harcoal canister stores fuel vapours.
A Purge valve controls vapour re(oval into inlet (anifoldC via purge line.
A Purge valve operated +y vacuu( 5shoBn6 andLor E#U.
A
Fig ).%lectronic e*aporati*e emissions control
'.'.7. Exhaust gas %$c,%cu2at,#
In (odern enginesC the e'haust gas recirculation syste( is used Grstly to
reduce engine air inta*e andC secondlyC to utilise the positive eIect of the e'haust
gas on the co(+ustion process in deGned driving situations.
11
Fig 1+. %xhaust ,as -ecirculation
The purpose of the e'haust gas recirculation valve 5E@-6 valve is to (eter a
s(all a(ount of e'haust gas into the inta*e syste(P this dilutes the airLfuel (i'ture
so as to loBer the co(+ustion cha(+er te(perature. E'cessive co(+ustion
cha(+er te(perature creates o'ides of nitrogenC Bhich is a (a8or pollutant. 2hile
the E@- valve is the (ost eIective (ethod of controlling o'ides of nitrogenC in itHs
very design it adversely aIects engine perfor(ance. The engine Bas not designed
to run on e'haust gas. For this reason the a(ount of e'haust entering the inta*e
syste( has to +e carefully (onitored and controlled. This is acco(plished through a
series of electrical and vacuu( s8,tch$s a#) th$ 3$h,c2$ co(puter. Since E@-
action reduces perfor(ance +y diluting the air Lfuel (i'tureC the syste( does not
alloB E@- action Bhen the engine is cold or Bhen the engine needs full poBer.
Fig 11.%,- .o"
'.'.9. Ps,t,3$ C%a#(sha*t V$#t,2at,# :PCV;
#o(+ustion gases lea* past piston ringsC into cran*case A +loB+y.
Modern vehicles use a P# syste( to re(ove gases to +e +urnt in the inlet
(anifold.
%lder vehicles vented gases into at(osphere.
P# syste( operation is regulated +y a P# valve
Uses (anifold vacuu( to clean +loBA+y gases fro( cran*case.
!eeds a +reather tu+e for fresh air.
12
!eeds a pcv valve to regulate the a(ount of gases entering the inta*e
(anifold.
Fig 12./C0 operation
PCV "$%at,#:
The purpose of the positive cran*case ventilation 5P#6 syste(C is to ta*e the
vapors produced in the cran*case during the nor(al co(+ustion processC and
redirecting the( into the airLfuel inta*e syste( to +e +urned during co(+ustion.
These vapors dilute the airLfuel (i'tureC they have to +e carefully controlled and
(etered so as not to aIect the perfor(ance of the engine.
PCV Va23$:
Spring loaded valve that is shut Bhen engine is oI.
At idleC (a'i(u( vacuu( defeats spring pressure and (ini(al cran*case
vapours EoB.
At nor(al engine speedsC plunger (oves to a central position and (a'i(u(
vapours EoB.
Fig 13./C0 0al*e
-E@U.ATI!@ T9E P# AP%- F.%2
13
A(ount
#onditio
n
Manifold
acuu(
"loBA+y
@ases
Idle 9igh
acuu(
S(all
olu(e
9igh
Speed
.oB
acuu(
.arge
olu(e
'.-. Exhaust gas t%$at!$#t
'.-.1. Cata2&t,c c#3$%t$% :"$t%2 $#g,#$;
!oBadaysC the e'haust gases of petrol engines are treated +y catalytic
converters. The catalytic cleaning process is controlled +y the engine control unit.
The la(+da pro+e signals to the engine control unit the o'ygen content in the
e'haust gasesC and the engine control unit ad8usts the fuelLair (i'ture to a ratio of
la(+daQ$.
Fig 14.1am2da
control loop
The catalytic converter is a+le to clean the e'haust gases at a te(perature of
appro'i(ately &77 degrees # or higher and needs a certain a(ount of ti(e to heat
up after a cold start. To shorten the Bar( up phase and clean e'haust gases (ore
Duic*lyC pri(ary catalytic converters are used in (odern e'haust syste(s. They are
located near to the e'haust (anifold. They are nor(ally s(all in si=eC and so reach
their operating te(perature (ore Duic*ly.
The catalytic cleaning processes involves tBo che(ical reactions:
$. -eduction A %'ygen is BithdraBn fro( the e'haust gas co(ponents.
). %'idation A %'ygen is added to the e'haust gas co(ponents 5secondary
co(+ustion6.
14
Fig 15.Catalytic process
Three-Way Catalytic Converter
As the e'haust gases EoB through the catalystC the !% reacts Bith the #%C 9#
and 9) via a reduction reaction on the catalyst surface.
!%R#%ST!)R#%) C !%R9) S T!)R9)%C and others
The re(aining #% and 9# are re(oved through an o'idation reaction for(ing
#%) and 9)% products 5air added to e'haust after e'haust valve6.
A threeABay catalysts Bill function correctly only if the e'haust gas
co(position corresponds to nearly 5U$F6 stoichio(etric co(+ustion.
A If the e'haust is too lean > !% are not destroyed
A If the e'haust is too rich > #% and 9# are not destroyed
A closedAloop control syste( Bith an o'ygen sensor in the e'haust is used to
deter(ine the actual ALF ratio and used to ad8ust the fuel in8ector so that the ALF
ratio is near stoichio(etric.
Effect of Mixture Composition
Fig 1!.3ixture composition e4ect
15
Effect of Temperature
The te(perature at Bhich the converter +eco(es /7F eOcient is referred to
as the lightAoI te(perature. The converter is not very eIective during the Bar( up
period of the engine.
Fig 1$.Temperature e4ect
Efficiency
1 -eDuire near stoichio(etric co(+ustion for eIective conversion of all three
pollutants C#% and 9# conversion eOciency drop for rich (i'turesC!%' conversion
eOciency drops for lean (i'tures.
2 E'haust gas o'ygen sensor5<irconiaC<r%) +ased6essential to *eeping the
AirLfuel ratio in BindoB of opti(u( conversion eOciency for all three.
&
Fig 1&.The 56indo"7
'.-.'. Cata2&t,c c#3$%t$% :),$s$2 $#g,#$;
The diesel engine operates Bith a surplus of o'ygen in the fuelLair (i'ture.
ThereforeC o'ygen content need not +e controlled +y the la(+da pro+eC and an
o'idation catalytic converter underta*es the tas* of catalytic cleaning +y using the
high residual o'ygen level in the e'haust gas.
This (eans that catalytic e'haust gas treat(ent is not controlled in the diesel
engine and that the o'idation catalytic converter can only convert o'idisa+le
16
e'haust gas co(ponents. As a resultC the concentrations of hydrocar+ons 59#6 and
car+on dio'ide 5#%6 are su+stantially reduced. 9oBeverC the nitrogen o'ide
co(ponents in the e'haust gas can only +e reduced +y design i(prove(ents 5e.g.
co(+ustion cha(+ers and in8ection syste(s6.
Fig 1).3ain constituents of particulate matter'/3(
The particulate (atter typically e(itted +y a diesel engine co(prises a core
and several attached co(ponentsC of Bhich only the hydrocar+ons 59#6 are o'idised
in the o'idation catalytic converter. The residues of the particulate (atter can only
+e collected +y special particulate Glters.
$ FloB through o'idation catalyst5tBoABay catalytic convertor6for reduction of
#% and %#537F6Cand PM S%F5)7A&7F6Cdoes not retain PM.
Fig 2+.Flo" through T"o 6ay Catalyst
'.-.-. A,% I#<$ct,# S&st$!
AForces air into e'haust ports to +urn e'cess hydrocar+ons.
AAir pu(p provides a supply of pressuri=ed airC via air in8ection (anifold.
17
ADiverter valve stops air EoB under deceleration.
A#hec* valve stops hot e'haust gases co(ing +ac* up air hose.
Since no internal co(+ustion engine is $77F eOcientC there Bill alBays +e
so(e un+urned fuel in the e'haust. This increases hydrocar+on e(issions. To
eli(inate this source of e(issions an air in8ection syste( Bas created. #o(+ustion
reDuires fuelC o'ygen and heat. 2ithout any one of the three co(+ustion cannot
occur. Inside the e'haust (anifold there is suOcient heat to support co(+ustionC if
Be introduce so(e o'ygen than any un+urned fuel Bill ignite. This co(+ustion Bill
not produce any poBerC +ut it Bill reduce e'cessive hydrocar+on e(issions. Unli*e in
the co(+ustion cha(+erC this
co(+ustion is uncontrolledC so
if the fuel content of the
e'haust is e'cessiveC
e'plosions that sound li*e
popping Bill occur. There are
ti(es Bhen under nor(al
conditionsC such as
decelerationC Bhen the fuel
content is e'cessive. Under
these conditions Be Bould
Bant to shut oI the air
in8ection syste(. This is
acco(plished through the use
of a diverter valveC Bhich
instead of shutting the air
pu(p oI diverts the air aBay
fro( the e'haust (anifold. Since all of this is done after the co(+ustion process is
co(pleteC this is one e(ission control that has no eIect on engine perfor(ance.
The only (aintenance that is reDuired is a careful inspection of the air pu(p drive
+elt.
Fig 21. ir In8ection #ystem
-. M$asu%$!$#t !$th)s
-.1. P$%*%!a#c$ c#t%2
;ou Bill already +e fa(iliar Bith the perfor(ance control of all auto(otive
co(ponents and syste(s relevant to e'haust e(issions under the ter( V%nA"oard
DiagnosisW. This concept Bas coined in
#alifornia in $433. The European
variant of this diagnosis concept is
called VEuro %nA"oard Diagnosis
5E%"D6W and is reDuired +y the
govern(ent for ho(ologating neB
vehicles of the auto(o+ile industry
since the start of )777.
Faults Bhich i(pair the e(ission
+ehaviour of a vehicle are indicated +y
selfAdiagnosis fault Barning la(p M3&.
Faults and various other ite(s of
infor(ation can +e read out at the
18
diagnosis interface using a generic %"D visual display unit or ehicle DiagnosticC
Testing and Infor(ation Syste( AS /7/$.
Fig 22.3alfunction Indicator 1amp '3I1(
2%-MI!@ %F %"D:
A Uses infor(ation fro( sensors to 8udge the perfor(ance of the e(ission
controls
7 A These sensors do not directly (easure e(issions
E:AMP.E %F 9%2 %"D 2%-MS:
7 A Fuel syste( pressure control
$ A Fuel pressure sensor (easures hoB Bell pressure is controlled
) A Manufacturer correlates pressure control error to corresponding e(ission
increase
& A %"D syste( is cali+rated to turn on MI. Bhen pressure is outside li(its
"E!EFITS %F %"D :
, A Encourages design of dura+le e(ission control syste(s
/ A Aids diagnosis and repair of co(ple' electronic engine controls
0 A 9elps *eep e(ission sloB +y identifying e(ission controls in need of repair
1 A 2or*s for life of the vehicle
-.'. M$asu%,#g !$th)s
-.'.1. I!"2$!$#tat,#
For ho(ologation purposesC the e'haust e(issions of a vehicle are deter(ined
on a roller dyna(o(eter +y using a prescri+ed (easuring syste(. For this purposeC
a deGned driving cycle is i(ple(ented on the roller dyna(o(eter and the
(easuring syste( records the Duantity of e'haust gas co(ponents. Type approval
(ust +e perfor(ed +y the auto(o+ile industry +efore it +rings a neB vehicle onto
the (ar*et.
19
Fig 23. -oller dynamometer
-.'.'. 6u#ct,#
A The driving cycle is e'ecuted on the roller dyna(o(eter.
A 2hile this cycle is under BayC the (ain +loBer induces e'haust gas together Bith
the Gltered a(+ient air in a steady air (ass EoB. This (eans that the a(ount of airA
e'haust gas (i'ture induced stays constant. 2hen the vehicle produces higher
e'haust e(issions 5e.g. during an acceleration phase6C less a(+ient air is induced.
2hen the vehicle produces loBer e'haust e(issionsC (ore a(+ient air is draBn in.
A A constant Duantity of this airAe'haust gas (i'ture is BithdraBn continuously and
pu(ped into one or (ore collecting +ags.
A The collected e'haust co(ponents are (easuredC referred to the total distance
covered and output in gra((es per *ilo(etre.
-.'.-. .%,3,#g c&c2$s
Eu%"$: NE.C :N$8 Eu%"$a# .%,3,#g C&c2$; 8,th 4=1s$c#)
2$a) t,!$
This driving cycle Bas introduced in $44) and Bill +e replaced +y a (odiGed
cycle on Nan. $C )777. A stri*ing feature of this driving cycle is the ,7Asecond lead
ti(e +efore (easure(ent of the e'haust e(issions +egins. This lead ti(e can also
+e descri+ed as a VBar(Aup periodV.
20
Fig 24. 9%:C "ith 4+;second lead time
Cha%act$%,st,cs:
#ycle length: $$C771 *(
Average speed: &&.0 *ph
Ma'i(u( speed: $)7 *ph
Eu%"$: NE.C 8,thut 4=1s$c#) 2$a) t,!$
2hen the EU III e'haust e(ission standard ca(e into eIect on Nan.$C )777C
the ,7Asecond lead ti(e Bas eli(inated fro( the current driving cycle. The
(easuring cycle +egins as soon as the engine is started. The eli(ination of the lead
ti(e intensiGes the (easuring (ethod +ecause alloBance is (ade in the test
results for all e'haust co(ponents produced after a cold start Bhile the catalytic
converter heats up.
21
Fig 25. 9%:C "ithout 4+;second lead time
Cha%act$%,st,cs:
#ycle length: $$C771 *(
Average speed: &&.0 *ph
Ma'i(u( speed: $)7 *ph
USA: 6TP 95 )%,3,#g c&c2$
European e'haust e(ission li(its are freDuently co(pared Bith US e'haust
e(ission li(its +ecause the USA has played a precursory role in the statutory
reduction of e'haust e(issions. 9oBeverC the folloBing co(parison of driving cycles
shoBs that it is not possi+le to draB a direct co(parison.
"esidesC test results in Europe are speciGed in gra((es per *ilo(etre 5gL*(6
Bhile test results in the USA are speciGed in gra((es per (ile 5gL(ile6.
Fig 2!. FT/ $5 dri*ing cycle
Cha%act$%,st,cs:
#ycle length: $1.3 *(
Average speed: &,.$ *ph
Ma'i(u( speed: 4$.) *ph
To highlight the diIerences +etBeen the European !ED# and the US FTP 1/
driving cycleC the tBo curves are shoBn superi(posed in the folloBing diagra(. The
tBo cycles diIer in respect of test durationC top speedC average speedC speed
intervals and startAup phase.
The startAup phase in the FTP 1/ driving cycle in particular is (ore intensive
than in the !ED# cycle +ecause the vehicle can +e driven at higher speeds after a
cold start Bhile the catalytic converter is
heating up.
22
Fig 2$. 9%:C and <# FT/ $5 dri*ing cycle
4. STAN.AR.S 6OR EXHAUST EMISSIONS
23
Fig 2&. %mission limits
5. ANALY>ERS
5.1. 62a!$ ,#,?at,# )$t$ct% 1 6I.
24
A Ea(e ioni=ation detector 5FID6 is a scientiGc instru(ent that (easures the
concentration of organic species in a gas strea(. It is freDuently used as a detector
in gas chro(atography. Standalone FIDs can also +e used in applications such as
landGll gas (onitoring and fugitive e(issions (onitoring in stationary or porta+le
instru(ents.
5.1.1. O"$%at,#g "%,#c,"2$
The operation of the FID is +ased on the detection of ions for(ed during
co(+ustion of organic co(pounds in a hydrogen Ea(e. The generation of these
ions is proportional to the concentration of
organic species in the sa(ple gas strea(.
9ydrocar+ons generally have (olar response
factors that are eDual to nu(+er of car+on ato(s
in their (oleculeC Bhile o'ygenates and other
species that contain heteroato(s tend to have a
loBer response factor. #ar+on (ono'ide and
car+on dio'ide are not detecta+le +y FID.
Fig 2).#chematic of FI:
5.1.'. A)3a#tag$s a#) ),sa)3a#tag$s
Advantages
Fla(e ioni=ation detectors are used very Bidely in gas chro(atography
+ecause of a nu(+er of advantages.
J #ost: Fla(e ioni=ation detectors are relatively ine'pensive to acDuire and operate.
J .oB (aintenance reDuire(ents: Apart fro( cleaning or replacing the FID 8etC these
detectors reDuire no (aintenance.
J -ugged construction: FIDs are relatively resistant to (isuse.
J .inearity and detection ranges: FIDs can (easure organic su+stance concentration
at very loB and very high levelsC having a linear response of $7X0.
Disadvantages
Fla(e ioni=ation detectors cannot detect inorganic su+stances. In so(e
syste(sC #% and #%) can +e detected in the FID using a (ethani=erC Bhich is a +ed
of !i catalyst that reduces #% and #%) to (ethaneC Bhich can +e in turn detected
+y the FID.
Another i(portant disadvantage is that the FID Ea(e o'idi=es all co(pounds
that pass through itP all hydrocar+ons and o'ygenates are o'idi=ed to car+on dio'ide
25
and Bater and other heteroato(s are o'idi=ed according to ther(odyna(ics. For
this reasonC FIDs tend to +e the last in a detector train and also cannot +e used for
preparatory Bor*.
5.1.-. O"$%at,#
In order to detect these ionsC tBo electrodes are used to provide a potential
diIerence. The positive electrode dou+les as the no==le head Bhere the Ea(e is
produced. The otherC negative electrode is positioned a+ove the Ea(e. 2hen Grst
designedC the negative electrode Bas either tear drop shaped or angular piece of
platinu(. TodayC the design has +een (odiGed into a tu+ular electrodeC co((only
referred to as a collector plate. The ions thus are attracted to the collector plate and
upon hitting the plateC induce a current. This current is (easured Bith a highA
i(pedance picoa((eter and fed into an integrator. The (anner in Bhich the Gnal
data is displayed is +ased on the co(puter and softBare. In generalC a graph is
displayed that has ti(e on the 'Aa'is and total ion on the yAa'is.
The current (easured corresponds roughly to the proportion of reduced
car+on ato(s in the Ea(e. SpeciGcally hoB the ions are produced is not necessarily
understoodC +ut the response of the detector is deter(ined +y the nu(+er of car+on
ato(s 5ions6 hitting the detector per unit ti(e. This (a*es the detector sensitive to
the (ass rather than the concentrationC Bhich is useful +ecause the response of the
detector is not greatly aIected +y changes in the carrier gas EoB rate.
5.1.4. .$sc%,"t,# * a g$#$%,c )$t$ct%
The design of the Ea(e ioni=ation detector varies fro( (anufacturer to
(anufacturerC +ut the principles are the sa(e. Most co((onlyC the FID is attached
to a gas chro(atography syste(. The eluent e'its the @# colu(n 5A6 and enters the
FID detectorYs oven 5"6. The oven is needed to (a*e sure that as soon as the eluent
e'its the colu(nC it does not co(e out of the gaseous phase
and deposit on the interface +etBeen the colu(n and FID.
This deposition Bould result in loss of eluent and errors in
detection. As the eluent travels up the FIDC it is Grst (i'ed
Bith the hydrogen fuel 5#6 and then Bith the o'idant 5D6. The
eluentLfuelLo'idant (i'ture continues to travel up to the
no==le head Bhere a positive +ias voltage e'ists 5E6. This
positive +ias helps to repel the reduced car+on ions created
+y the Ea(e 5F6 pyroly=ing the eluent. The ions are repelled
up toBard the collector plates 5@6 Bhich are connected to a
very sensitive a((eterC Bhich detects the ions hitting the
platesC then feeds that signal 596 to an a(pliGerC integratorC
and
display syste(. The
26
products of the Ea(e are Gnally vented out of the detector through the e'haust port
5N6.
Fig 3+. 9, 2+++ FI: =urner
5.'. N#),s"$%s,3$ ,#*%a%$) s$#s% 1 N.IR
A ##),s"$%s,3$ ,#*%a%$) s$#s% :% N.IR; sensor is a si(ple spectroscopic
device often used as gas detector. It is called nondispersive +ecause Bavelength
Bhich passes through the sa(pling cha(+er is not preAGltered instead a Glter is
used +efore the detector.
5.'.1. P%,#c,"2$
The (ain co(ponents are an infrared source 5la(p6C a sa(ple cha(+er or light
tu+eC a Bavelength sa(ple cha(+erC and gas concentration is (easured electroA
optically +y its a+sorption of a
speciGc Bavelength in the
infrared 5I-6. The I- light is
directed through the sa(ple
cha(+er toBards the detector.
In parallel there is another
cha(+er Bith an enclosed
reference gasC typically
nitrogen. The detector has an
optical Glter in front of it that
eli(inates all light e'cept the
Bavelength that the selected
gas (olecules can a+sor+.
Ideally other gas (olecules do
not a+sor+ light at this
BavelengthC and do not aIect
the a(ount of light reaching
the detector to co(pensate for
interfering co(ponents. For
instanceC #%) and 9)% often initiate cross sensitivity in the infrared spectru(. As
(any (easure(ents in the I- area are cross sensitive to 9)% it is diOcult to
analyse for instance S%) and !%) in loB concentrations using the infrared light
principle. The I- signal fro( the source is usually chopped or (odulated so that
ther(al +ac*ground signals can +e oIset fro( the desired signal.
In the !DI- analy=er the e'haust gas species +eing (easured is used to
detect itself. This is done +y selective a+sorption. The infrared energy of a particular
27
Bavelength or freDuency is peculiar to a certain gas in that the gas Bill a+sor+ the
infrared energy of this Bavelength and trans(it the infrared energy of other
Bavelengths.
5.'.'. M$asu%$!$#t * CO us,#g N.IR
The a+sorption +and for car+on (ono'ide is +etBeen ,./ and / (icrons. So
the energy a+sor+ed at this Bavelength is an indication of concentration of #% in
the e'haust gas.
The !DI- analy=er consists of tBo infrared sourcesC interrupted
si(ultaneously +y an optical chopper. -adiation fro( these sources pass in parallel
paths through a reference cell and a sa(ple cell.
E'haust gas fro( the tailpipe of the engineLvehicle is passed through the
sa(ple cell during the (easure(ent of e'haust e(issions.
The reference cell is Glled Bith an inert gasC usually nitrogenC Bhich does not
a+sor+ the infrared energy for the Bavelength corresponding to the co(pound
+eing (easured.
Fig 31. #chematic diagram of 9:I-
A closed container Glled Bith only the co(pound to +e (easured Bor*s as a
detector.The detector is divided into tBo eDual volu(es +y a thin (etallic
diaphrag(. 2hen the chopper +loc*s the radiationC the pressure in +oth parts of
the detector is sa(e and the diaphrag( re(ains in the neutral position.
As the chopper +loc*s and un+loc*s the radiationsC the radiant energy fro(
one source passes through the reference cell unchanged Bhereas the sa(ple cell
a+sor+s the infrared energy at the Bavelength of the co(pound in the cell. The
a+sorption is proportional to the concentration of the co(pound to +e (easured in
the sa(ple cell. Thus uneDual a(ounts of energy are trans(itted to the tBo
volu(es of the detector and the pressure diIerential so generated causes
(ove(ent of the diaphrag( of the detector.
28
This changes the capacitance +etBeen the diaphrag( and a G'ed pro+eC
there+y generating an a.c. signal Bhich is a(pliGed andC after rectiGcation to d.c.
displayed on a (eter.
5.-. Ch$!,2u!,#$sc$#t A#a2&?$%
#he(ilu(inescent is the e(ission of light energy resulting fro( a che(ical
reaction.
If !% and %& are +rought together a che(ical reaction ta*es place Bhich
produces !%) in activated state.
Activated !%) e(its light
!% R %& S !%) R %)
!%) S !%) R light e(issions
Fig 32. #chematic diagram of Chemiluminiscent naly>er
To (easure !% concentration the gas sa(ple to +e analysed is send to a
reaction cha(+erC Bhere it co(+ines Bith o=one. The resulting che(ilu(inescent is
(onitored through an optical Glter +y a high sensitivity photo(ultiplier positioned at
one end of the reactor.The Glter photo (ultiplier co(+ination responds to light in a
narroB Bavelength +and uniDue to the a+ove reaction.
The output fro( the photo (ultiplier is linearly proportional to the !%
concentration. To (easure !%' concentration 5i.e. !% plus !%)6 the sa(ple gas
EoB is diverted through an !%)AtoA!% converter.
The che(ilu(inescent response in the EoB reactor to the converter eZuent
is linearly proportional to the !%' concentration entering the converter.
29
5.4. Pa%a!ag#$t,c Ox&g$# a#a2&?$%s
5.4.1. M$asu%$!$#t P%,#c,"2$
A sa(ple gas is introduced fro( the sa(ple gas inlet and divided into tBo
strea(s in the ringAshaped sensor cell. An au'iliary gas is introduced fro( the
au'iliary gas inlet and divided into tBo strea(sC A and ". Each strea( (eets the
sa(ple gas in the ringAshaped path and Bhere strea( " (eets the sa(ple gasC a
(agnetic Geld is created +y a (agnet. TBo ther(istors are installed in strea(s A
and "C respectivelyC to deter(ine the EoB rates.
2hen a sa(ple gas contains o'ygenC the o'ygen is draBn into the (agnetic
GeldC there+y decreasing the EoB rate of au'iliary gas in strea( ". The diIerence in
EoB rates of tBo strea(sC A and "C Bhich is caused +y the eIect of EoB restriction
in strea( "C is proportional to the o'ygen concentration of the sa(ple gas. The EoB
rates are deter(ined +y the ther(istors and converted into electrical signalsC the
diIerence of Bhich is co(puted as an o'ygen signal.
This (ethod provides fast response and resistance to vi+ration and shoc*.
Further(oreC as the ther(istors do not co(e in contact Bith sa(ple gasC sta+le
(easure(ent is achieved over a long period of ti(e Bithout the eIects of
conta(ination and corrosion.
Fig 33. Flo" schematic of /aramagnetic ?xygen #ensor Cell
5.4.'. I#t$%*$%$#c$ Gas C!"$#sat,#
The para(agnetic o'ygen analy=ers utili=e the para(agnetic property of
o'ygen 5the o'ygen is draBn into a (agnetic Geld6 to (easure the concentration of
o'ygen. 9oBeverC gases other than o'ygen have a little (agnetis(C although their
(agnetis( is very loB co(pared to o'ygen. In actual (easure(entC +ac*ground
gas having (agnetic suscepti+ilities (ay cause interferenceC aIecting a
(easure(ent result.
30
For e'a(pleC if car+on dio'ide 5#%)6 Bhich has a loBer (agnetic suscepti+ility
than nitrogen 5!)6C is passed through the cellC the analy=er Bill read a negative
value. If the cell is tilted as shoBn in the GgureC the EoB rate of the au'iliary gas
toBard strea( "Y Bill
increase due to the
higher density of #%).
This Bill change the
EoB ratioC there+y
canceling out the
negative deviation. A
change in the au'iliary
gas EoB ratio due to
the (agnetic
suscepti+ility of
+ac*ground gas is
cancelled out +y a
change in the au'iliary
gas EoB ratio due to
the density diIerence
Bhich is generated +y
changing the cell
angle. ThusC the interference can +e co(pensated for.
Fig 34.#chematic of /aramagnetic ?xygen #ensor
5.5. O"ac,!$t$%s
5.5.1. P%,#c,"2$ * M$asu%$!$#t
S(o*e (eters that use light can +e +roadly classiGed into tBo types: a light
reEecting type that (easures s(o*e concentration +ased on changes in the
reEectivity Bhen light is shoBn on PM collected on a GlterC and a light trans(itting
type 5opaci(eter6 that (easures s(o*e concentration +ased on the strength of the
a+sor+ed and scattered light Bhen light is shoBn directly on the e'haust gas. The
ME:AA$&7S uses the light trans(ission (ethodC Bhich also has a high sensitivity
Bith respect to
+lue and Bhite s(o*e.
Figure a+ove shoBs the principle of (easure(ent of the ME:AA$&7S. The
e'haust gas is draBn into the sa(ple cellC and Bhen the gas contains +lac* s(o*e
due to highte(perature
fuel co(+ustion and +lue
and Bhite s(o*e due to
un+urned oilC un+urned
fuel and BaterC the
visi+le light fro( the
light source is
attenuated due to
a+sorption and
scattering. The
concentration of s(o*e is
calculated fro( the
31
a(ount of attenuation using the .a(+ertA"eer eDuation 5EDuation 5$66. The result is
e'pressed as an opacity ! 5F6 given +y EDuation 5)6C or a light a+sorption
coeOcient * 5(A$6 given +y EDuation 5&6.
Fig 35. /rinciple of measurement
I QIo [ eA*.QIo [ 5 $A!L$776 5$6
!Q5$AILIo6 [ $77 5)6
* Q A$ L. [ ln5$A!L$776 5&6
I7 : .ight intensity Bhen there is no s(o*e
I : .ight intensity Bhen s(o*e e'ists
. : #ell length 5(6
5.5.'. Sa!"2,#g
The ME:AA$&7S uses a sa(pling (ethod that utili=es the e'haust gas
pressure. 2ith this (ethodC a special sa(pling pu(p is not needed and sta+le
collection of e'haust gasC Bhich is very changea+leC is possi+le. Figure shoBs the
cycle of the free acceleration (ethodC Bhich is a typical (easure(ent (ethod. A
sa(pling pro+e is inserted into the tailpipeC and the engine is Duic*ly accelerated
Bith no load to produce s(o*e. The e'haust pressure causes the s(o*e to pass
through the pro+e and into the sa(ple cell. the engine is revved a set nu(+er of
ti(esC the s(o*e concentration is (easured as the pea* value of the output signal
during acceleration. An opaci(eter and the free acceleration (ethod are
used in co(+ination in auto(o+ile service shops in Europe$6C and it is anticipated
that this Bill +eco(e an eIective and convenient s(o*e (easure(ent (ethod for
loBAconcentration s(o*e.
Fig 3!.3easurement Cycle of Free cceleration 3ethod
32
5.5.-. E3a2uat,# * !$asu%$!$#t s$#s,t,3,t&
The ne't Ggure shoBs the ti(e chart of the ME:AA$&7S output signal Bhen
an actual vehicle is run using the free acceleration (ethod. A sta+le signal Bith
suOciently high SL! Bas o+tained.
Fig 3$. Time chart of smoke 3easurement using Free cceleration 3ethod
5.5.4. .$t$%!,#at,# * PM E!,ss,# Mass *%! S!($
C#c$#t%at,#
The sensitivity of an opaci(eter is nor(ally cali+rated at a light
trans(ittance of 7F and $77F and the linearity veriGed Bith the optical Glter Bhose
trans(ittance is *noBn. This (eans that the readings of an opaci(eter are not
directly cali+rated using PM itself. In order to study the validity of deter(ining the
PM e(ission (ass fro( the readings of an opaci(eterC the authors conducted a
co(parison Bith the conventional Glter (ethod using an engine running test on a
chassis dyna(o(eter. The test vehicle Bas an - vehicle eDuipped Bith a divided
co(+ustion cha(+er diesel engine. The (ain speciGcations are shoBn in the ne't
Ta+le.
33
First Be ran the test vehicle on a chassis dyna(o(eter at G'ed speeds of ,7C
07C 17C and 37 *(LhC and (easured the PM (ass using the Glter Beighing (ethod.
2e si(ultaneously (easured the s(o*e concentration using the ME:AA$&7S. 2e
(ay infer that the relation given in EDuation 5,6 holds +etBeen the PM (ass 5MPM6
o+tained using the Glter Beighing (ethod and the light a+sorption coeOcient *
o+tained using the ME:AA$&7S.
MPM Q PM [ * [ \e' 5,6
MPM : PM (ass]gLs^
PM : PM density]gLs^
* : .ight a+sorption
coeOcient](A$^
# : #onversion coeOcient](^
\e' : FloB rate of e'haust
gas].Ls^
!e't Ggure shoBs the test
results. A good correlation is
evident +etBeen the s(o*e
concentration and the PM (ass.
Fig 3&. -elation of smoke concentration to emitted /3 mass
5.5.5. 1=115 M)$ Ru##,#g T$st
The a(ount of s(o*e e(itted varies Bidely depending on the running state.
2e (easured the change in s(o*e concentration along Bith other co(ponents in
e'haust gas in $7A$/ (odeC a Napanese standard (ode for e'haust gas testing.
The ne't Ggure shoBs a ti(e chart of vehicle speed and the Duantities of
9#C #%C and PM e(itted. The PM (ass Bas o+tained +y conversion fro( the s(o*e
concentration using the appro'i(ation line of the previous Ggure. The e(ission of
PM increases and decreases according to changes in vehicle speedC and the pattern
rese(+les those of other co(ponents. The fact that Be can o+serve an e(ission
pattern that is very close to the e'pected pattern supports the possi+ility that the
ME:AA$&7S is eIective as a real ti(e testing instru(ent for PM.
34
Fig 3).%mission pattern "hile running in 1+;15 modes
5.5.7. T$st,#g 8h,2$ .%,3,#g th%ugh a# U%+a# A%$a
Interest is groBing in onA+oard (easure(entC Bhere+y a test vehicle is
eDuipped Bith a s(all analy=er and the e'haust gas is (easured Bhile actually
driving through an ur+an area. FolloBing 9#C #%C and !%' testing)6C the authors
studied the possi+ility of onA+oard (easure(ent of PM using the ME:AA$&7S. 2e
eDuipped the test vehicle Bith a ME:AA$&7S %paci(eterC a Porta+leAtype Total
9ydrocar+on Analy=er 5ME:AA$$179FID6C and a !itrogen %'ide Analy=er 5ME:AA
$)7!%'6. 2e drove the vehicle through the su+ur+s of Myoto and (easured the
e'haust gas. 2e also si(ultaneously recorded the output of an e'cess air ratio
sensor and the outputs of various ther(o(eters and hu(idity sensors.
The results are shoBn in the ne't Ggure.The e(itted (ass of PM o+tained
using the ME:AA$&7S shoBs the sa(e pattern of change corresponding to sudden
acceleration and deceleration as T9#C !%'C the e'cess air ratioC and fuel
consu(ption. This indicates that the ME:AA$&7S can +e used for PM (easure(ent
not only on a chassis dyna(o +ut also in onA+oard (easure(ent.
35
Fig 4+. %mission pattern during <r2an;rea ?n;=oard measurement
RE6ERENCES:
36
1. 888.h8stu@8%(s.c!
'. 888.),$s$2#$t.,#
-. 888.aut1=1.c!
4. 888.8,(,"$),a.c!
5. 888.V01AG.c!
7. 888.ts,.c!
9. 888.AVL.c!
A. 888.t$2$)&#$1!2.c!
37