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The commonest austenitic steel is so-called 18 / 8 containing around 18% Cr and 8% Ni. It has the lowest nickel content concomitant with a fully austenite structure. Austenitics are prone to stress corrosion cracking, particularly in the presence of chloride ions where a few ppm can sometimes proe disastrous.
The commonest austenitic steel is so-called 18 / 8 containing around 18% Cr and 8% Ni. It has the lowest nickel content concomitant with a fully austenite structure. Austenitics are prone to stress corrosion cracking, particularly in the presence of chloride ions where a few ppm can sometimes proe disastrous.
The commonest austenitic steel is so-called 18 / 8 containing around 18% Cr and 8% Ni. It has the lowest nickel content concomitant with a fully austenite structure. Austenitics are prone to stress corrosion cracking, particularly in the presence of chloride ions where a few ppm can sometimes proe disastrous.
Abstract: The commonest austenitic steel is so-called 18/8 containing around 18% Cr and 8% Ni. It has the lowest nickel content concomitant with a fully austenitic structure. Austenitic steels are prone to stress corrosion cracking, particularly in the presence of chloride ions where a few ppm can sometimes proe disastrous. This is a type of failure which occurs in some corrosie enironments under small stresses, either deli!erately applied or as a result of residual stresses in fa!ricated material. In austenitic steels it occurs as transgranular cracks which are most easily deeloped in hot chloride solutions. "tress corrosion cracking is ery su!stantially reduced in high nickel austenitic alloys. The commonest austenitic steel is so-called 18/8 containing around 18% Cr and 8% Ni. It has the lowest nickel content concomitant with a fully austenitic structure. #oweer in some circumstances, e.g. after deformation, or if the car!on content is ery low, it may partially transform to martensite at room temperature. $reater sta!ility towards the formation of martensite is achieed !y increasing the nickel content, as illustrated in the %&1 to %1& types of steel. 18/8 stainless steel owes its wide application to its e'cellent general resistance to corrosie enironments. #oweer, this is su!stantially improed !y increasing the nickel content, and increasing the chromium gies greater resistance to intergranular corrosion. Austenitic steels are prone to stress corrosion cracking, particularly in the presence of chloride ions where a few ppm can sometimes proe disastrous. This is a type of failure which occurs in some corrosie enironments under small stresses, either deli!erately applied or as a result of residual stresses in fa!ricated material. In austenitic steels it occurs as transgranular cracks which are most easily deeloped in hot chloride solutions. "tress corrosion cracking is ery su!stantially reduced in high nickel austenitic alloys. Type %1( steel contains )-*% moly!denum, which gies a su!stantial improement in general corrosion resistance, particularly in resistance to pitting corrosion, which can !e defined as local penetrations of the corrosion resistant films and which occurs typically in chloride solutions. +ecently, some resistant grades with as much as (.,% Mo hae !een deeloped, !ut the chromium must !e increased to )&% and the nickel to )*% to maintain an austenitic structure. -orrosion along the grain !oundaries can !e a serious pro!lem, particularly when a high temperature treatment such as welding allows precipitation of -r)%-( in these regions. This type of intergranular corrosion is sometimes referred to as weld-decay. To com!at this effect some grades of austenitic steel, e.g. %&* and %1(, are made with car!on contents of less than &.&%% and designated %&*. and %1(.. Alternatiely, nio!ium or titanium is added in e'cess of the stoichiometric amount to com!ine with car!on, as in types %)1 and %*/. The austenitic steels so far referred to are not ery strong materials. Typically their &.)% proof stress is a!out ),& 01a and the tensile strength !etween ,&& and (&& 01a, showing that these steels hae su!stantial capacity for work hardening, which makes working more difficult than in the case of mild steel. #oweer, austenitic steels possess ery good ductility with elongations of a!out ,&% in tensile tests. The -r/2i austenitic steels are also ery resistant to high temperature o'idation !ecause of the protectie surface film, !ut the usual grades hae low strengths at eleated temperatures. Those steels sta!ili3ed with Ti and Nb, types %)1 and %*/, can !e heat treated to produce a fine dispersion of Ti- or 2!- which interacts with dislocations generated during creep. 4ne of the most commonly used alloys is ),-r)&2i with additions of titanium or nio!ium which possesses good creep strength at temperatures as high as /&&5-. To achiee the !est high temperature creep properties, it is necessary first to raise the room temperature strength to higher leels. This can !e done !y precipitation hardening heat treatments on steels of suita!le composition to allow the precipitation of intermetallic phases, in particular 2i%6Al Ti7. The importance of controlling the 8-loop in achieing sta!le austenitic steels was emphasi3ed. 9etween the austenite and :-ferrite phase fields there is a restricted 6;<87 region which can !e used to o!tain two-phase or duple' structures in stainless steels. The structures are produced !y haing the correct !alance !etween ;-forming elements 60o, Ti, 2!, "i, Al7 and the 8-forming elements 62i, 0n, - and 27. To achiee a duple' structure, it is normally necessary to increase the chromium content to a!oe )&%. #oweer the e'act proportions of ;<8 are determined !y the heat treatment. It is clear from consideration of the 8-loop section of the e=uili!rium diagram, that holding in the range 1&&&-1%&&5- will cause the ferrite content to ary oer wide limits. The usual treatment is carried out !etween 1&,& and 11,&5-, when the ferrite content is not ery sensitie to the su!se=uent cooling rate The duple' steels are stronger than the simple austenitic steels, partly as a result of the two-phase structure and also !ecause this also leads normally to a refinement of the grain si3e. Indeed, !y suita!le thermomechanical treatment !etween >&&5- and 1&&&5-, it is possi!le to o!tain ery fine microduple' structures which can e'hi!it superplasticity, i.e. ery high ductilities at high temperatures, for strain rates less than a critical alue. A further adantage is that duple' stainless steels are resistant to solidification cracking, particularly that associated with welding. ?hile the presence of :-ferrite may hae an aderse effect on corrosion resistance in some circumstances, it does improe the resistance of the steel to transgranular stress corrosion cracking as the ferrite phase is immune to this type of failure. There is another important group of stainless steels which are essentially ferritic in structure. They contain !etween 1/ and %&% chromium and, !y dispensing with the austenite sta!ili3ing element nickel, possess considera!le economic adantage. These steels, particularly at the higher chromium leels, hae e'cellent corrosion resistance in many enironments and are completely free from stress corrosion. These steels do hae some limitations, particularly those with higher chromium contents, where there can !e a marked tendency to em!rittlement. This arises partly from the interstitial elements car!on and nitrogen, e.g. a ),% Cr steel will normally !e !rittle at room temperature if the car!on content e'ceeds &.&%%. An additional factor is that the a!sence of a phase change makes it more difficult to refine the ferrite grain si3e, which can !ecome ery coarse after high temperature treatment such as welding. This raise still furthers the ductile/!rittle transition temperature, already high as a result of the presence of interstitial elements. @ortunately, modern steel making methods such as argon-o'ygen refining can !ring the interstitial contents !elow &.&%%, while electron !eam acuum melting can do !etter still. Austenitic and Ferritic Stainless Steels in Practical Applications: Part Two Abstract: The ferritic stainless steels are somewhat stronger than austenitic stainless steels, the yield stresses !eing in the range %&&-*&& 01a, !ut they work harden less so the tensile strengths are similar, !eing !etween ,&& and (&& 01a. @erritic stainless steels, in general, are not as readily deep drawn as austenitic alloys !ecause of the oerall lower ductility. #oweer, they are suita!le for other deformation processes such as spinning and cold forging. The ferritic stainless steels are somewhat stronger than austenitic stainless steels, the yield stresses !eing in the range %&&-*&& 01a, !ut they work harden less so the tensile strengths are similar, !eing !etween ,&& and (&& 01a. #oweer, ferritic stainless steels, in general, are not as readily deep drawn as austenitic alloys !ecause of the oerall lower ductility. #oweer, they are suita!le for other deformation processes such as spinning and cold forging. ?elding causes pro!lems due to e'cessie grain growth in the heat affected 3one !ut, recently, new low-interstitial alloys containing titanium or nio!ium hae !een shown to !e readily welda!le. The higher chromium ferritic alloys hae e'cellent corrosion resistance, particularly if 1-)% moly!denum is present. @inally, there are two phenomena which may adersely affect the !ehaior of ferritic stainless steels. @irstly, chromium-rich ferrites when heated !etween *&& and ,&&5- deelop a type of em!rittlement, the origins of which are still in dou!t. The most likely cause is the precipitation of a ery fine coherent chromium-rich phase arising from the misci!ility gap in the @e--r system, pro!a!ly !y a spinodal type of decomposition. This phenomenon !ecomes more pronounced with increasing chromium content, as does a second phenomenon, the formation of sigma phase. The latter phase occurs more readily in chromium-rich ferrite than in austenite, and can !e detected !elow (&&5-. As in austenite, the presence of sigma phase can lead to marked em!rittlement. "ome austenitic steels are often close to transformation, in that the 0s temperature may !e Aust !elow room temperature. This is certainly true for low-car!on 18-r82i austenitic steel, which can undergo a martensitic transformation !y cooling in li=uid nitrogen or !y less seere refrigeration. The application of plastic deformation at room temperature can also lead to formation of martensite in metasta!le austenitic steels, a transformation of particular significance when working operations are contemplated. In general, the higher the alloying element content the lower the 0s and 0d temperatures, and it is possi!le to o!tain an appro'imate 0s temperature using empirical e=uations. Bseful data concerning the 0d temperature are also aaila!le in which an ar!itrary amount of deformation has to !e specified. The martensite formed in -r-2i austenitic steels either !y refrigeration or !y plastic deformation is similar to that o!tained in related steels possessing an 0s a!oe room temperature. 0anganese can !e su!stituted for nickel in austenitic steels, !ut the -r-0n solid solution then has much lower stacking fault energy. This means that the fee solid solution is energetically closer to an alternatie close-packed he'agonal structure, and that the dislocations will tend to dissociate to form !roader stacking faults than is the case with -r-2i austenites. 0anganese on its own can sta!ili3e austenite at room temperature proided sufficient car!on is in solid solution. The !est e'ample of this type of alloy is the #adfields manganese steel with 1) % Mn, 1.) % car!on which e'ists in the austenitic condition at room temperature and een after e'tensie deformation does not form martensite. #oweer, if the car!on content is lowered to &.8%, then 0d is a!oe room temperature and transformation is possi!le in the a!sence of deformation at //5C. 9oth D and ;E martensites hae !een detected in manganese steels. Alloys of the #adfields type hae long !een used in wear resistance applications, e.g. grinding !alls, railway points, e'caating shoels, and it has often !een assumed that partial transformation to martensite was responsi!le for the e'cellent wear resistance and toughness re=uired. #oweer, it is likely that the ery su!stantial work hardening characteristics of the austenitic matri' are more significant in this case. In general, fee metals e'hi!it higher work hardening rates than !ee metals !ecause of the more sta!le dislocation interactions possi!le in the fee structure. This results in the !road distinction !etween the higher work hardening of austenitic steels and the lower rate of ferritic steels, particularly well e'emplified !y a comparison of ferritic stainless steels with austenitic stainless steels. The adantages o!taina!le from the easily fa!ricated austenitic steels led naturally to the deelopment of controlled transformation stainless steels, where the re=uired high strength leel was o!tained after fa!rication, either !y use of refrigeration to take the steel !elow its 0s temperature, or !y low temperature heat treatment to desta!ili3e the austenite. -learly the 0s - 0f range has to !e adAusted !y alloying so that the 0s is Aust !elow room temperature. The 0r is normally a!out 1)&5- lower, so that refrigeration in the range -/, to -1)&5- should result in almost complete transformation to martensite. Alternatiely, heat treatment of the austenite can !e carried out at /&&5- to allow precipitation of 0)%-( mainly at the grain !oundaries. This reduces the car!on content of the matri' and raises the 0s so that, on su!se=uent cooling to room temperature, the austenite will transform to martensite. @urther heat treatment is then necessary to gie improed ductility and a high proof stressF this is achieed !y tempering in the range *&&-*,&5-. Another group of steels has !een deeloped to e'ploit the properties o!tained when the martensite reaction occurs during low temperature plastic deformation. These steels, which are called transformation induced plasticity 6T+I17 steels, e'hi!it the e'pected increases in work hardening rate and a marked increase in uniform ductility prior to necking. Gssentially the principle is the same as that employed in controlled transformation steels, !ut plastic deformation is used to form martensite and the approach is !roader as far as the thermomechanical treatment is concerned. In one process, the composition of the steel is !alanced to produce an 0d temperature a!oe room temperature. The steel is then heaily deformed 68&%7 a!oe the 0d temperature, usually in the range ),&-,,&5-, which results in austenite which remains sta!le at room temperature. "u!se=uent tensile testing at room temperature gies high strength leels com!ined with e'tensie ductility as a direct result of the martensitic transformation which takes place during the test. @or e'ample, a steel containing &.%% C, )% Mn, )% Si, >% Cr, 8.,% Ni, *% Mo after 8&% reduction at */,5- gies the following properties at room temperatureH I &.)% 1roof stress 1*%& 01a I Tensile strength 1,&& 01a I Glongation ,& % #igher strength leels 6proof stress J)&&& 02m ) 7 with ductilities !etween )&-),% can !e o!tained !y adding strong car!ide forming elements such as anadium and titanium, and !y causing the 0d temperature to !e !elow room temperature. As in the earlier treatment, seere thermomechanical treatments in the range ),&-,,&5- are then used to deform the austenite and dispersion strengthen it with fine alloy car!ides. The 0d temperature is, as a result, raised to a!oe room temperature so that, on mechanical testing, transformation to martensite takes place, giing e'cellent com!inations of strength and ductility as well as su!stantial improements in fracture toughness.