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Chapter 25
Chapter 25 1
Outline
Robots, Effectors, and Sensors
Localization and Mapping
Motion Planning
Motor Control
Chapter 25 2
Mobile Robots
Chapter 25 3
Manipulators
P
R R
R R
Chapter 25 4
Non-holonomic robots
θ
(x, y)
Chapter 25 5
Sensors
Range finders: sonar (land, underwater), laser range finder, radar (aircraft),
tactile sensors, GPS
Chapter 25 6
Localization—Where Am I?
Compute current location and orientation (pose) given observations:
At−2 At−1 At
Xt−1 Xt Xt+1
Zt−1 Zt Zt+1
Chapter 25 7
Localization contd.
ω t ∆t
xi, yi
θt+1
h(xt)
vt ∆t Z1 Z2 Z3 Z4
xt+1
θt
xt
Chapter 25 8
Localization contd.
Can use particle filtering to produce approximate position estimate
Robot position
Robot position
Robot position
Chapter 25 9
Localization contd.
Can also use extended Kalman filter for simple cases:
robot
landmark
Chapter 25 10
Mapping
Localization: given map and observed landmarks, update pose distribution
Mapping: given pose and observed landmarks, update map distribution
SLAM: given observed landmarks, update pose and map distribution
Probabilistic formulation of SLAM:
add landmark locations L1, . . . , Lk to the state vector,
proceed as for localization
Chapter 25 11
Mapping contd.
Chapter 25 12
3D Mapping example
Chapter 25 13
Motion Planning
Idea: plan in configuration space defined by the robot’s DOFs
conf-2
conf-1
conf-3
conf-3
conf-1
conf-2
w elb
w shou
Chapter 25 14
Configuration space planning
Chapter 25 15
Cell decomposition example
goal
start
goal
start
Chapter 25 16
Skeletonization: Voronoi diagram
Voronoi diagram: locus of points equidistant from obstacles
Chapter 25 17
Skeletonization: Probabilistic Roadmap
A probabilistic roadmap is generated by generating random points in C-space
and keeping those in freespace; create graph by joining pairs by straight lines
Chapter 25 18
Motor control
Can view the motor control problem as a search problem
in the dynamic rather than kinematic state space:
– state space defined by x1, x2, . . . , x˙1, x˙2, . . .
– continuous, high-dimensional (Sarcos humanoid: 162 dimensions)
Deterministic control: many problems are exactly solvable
esp. if linear, low-dimensional, exactly known, observable
Simple regulatory control laws are effective for specified motions
Stochastic optimal control: very few problems exactly solvable
⇒ approximate/adaptive methods
Chapter 25 19
Biological motor control
Motor control systems are characterized by massive redundancy
Infinitely many trajectories achieve any given task
E.g., 3-link arm moving in plane throwing at a target
simple 12-parameter controller, one degree of freedom at target
11-dimensional continuous space of optimal controllers
Idea: if the arm is noisy, only “one” optimal policy minimizes error at target
I.e., noise-tolerance might explain actual motor behaviour
Harris & Wolpert (Nature, 1998): signal-dependent noise
explains eye saccade velocity profile perfectly
Chapter 25 20
Setup
Suppose a controller has “intended” control parameters θ0
which are corrupted by noise, giving θ drawn from Pθ0
Output (e.g., distance from target) y = F (θ);
y
Chapter 25 21
Simple learning algorithm: Stochastic gradient
Minimize Eθ [y 2] by gradient descent:
Z
∇θ0 Eθ [y ] = ∇θ0 Pθ0 (θ)F (θ)2dθ
2
Z ∇ P (θ)
θ0 θ0
= F (θ)2Pθ0 (θ)dθ
Pθ0 (θ)
∇θ Pθ (θ)
= Eθ [ 0 0 y 2 ]
Pθ0 (θ)
Given samples (θj , yj ), j = 1, . . . , N , we have
1 N ∇θ0 Pθ0 (θj ) 2
∇θ0 Eˆθ [y 2] =
X
yj
N j=1 Pθ0 (θj )
For Gaussian noise with covariance Σ, i.e., Pθ0 (θ) = N (θ0, Σ), we obtain
ˆ 1 N
X
∇θ0 Eθ [y ] =
2 Σ−1(θj − θ0)yj2
N j=1
Chapter 25 22
What the algorithm is doing
x x
x x
x x x x x
x x x
x x x xx x x
x x x x x
x x x x xx
x x x
x x x x
x xx x x x
Chapter 25 23
Results for 2–D controller
10
8
Velocity v
4
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Angle phi
Chapter 25 24
Results for 2–D controller
4.61
4.6
4.59
4.58
Velocity v
4.57
4.56
4.55
4.54
4.53
4.52
4.51
0.6 0.61 0.62 0.63 0.64 0.65
Angle phi
Chapter 25 25
Results for 2–D controller
0.0095
0.009
0.0085
0.008
E(y^2)
0.0075
0.007
0.0065
0.006
0.0055
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000
Step
Chapter 25 26
Summary
The rubber hits the road
Mobile robots and manipulators
Degrees of freedom to define robot configuration
Localization and mapping as probabilistic inference problems
(require good sensor and motion models)
Motion planning in configuration space
requires some method for finitization
Chapter 25 27