1.

ARTIFICIAL GROUND WATER RECHARGE PLANNING OF

RAMGANGA-KOSI INTERBASIN USING G.I.S. AND
REMOTE SENSING

Recent studies have shown that groundwater table is depleting fast in different
parts of country. Excess exploitation of groundwater and presence of harder rock of terrain
is the main cause of depletion of groundwater table. Increasing demand of drinking water
and irrigation water has led to over-exploitation of available groundwater resources. The
situation calls for a constant monitoring of groundwater behaviour, in all the areas that are
getting fast depleted, and requires adoption of judicious ways to control withdrawals so as
to keep them within the limits of recharge capacities. There has been an uncontrolled
recharge prevalent on a large scale in the past due to seepage from irrigation canals. The
scope of such recharge through irrigation and drinking water supply projects is being
somewhat reduced in present context, since the seepage from water conveyance and
distribution system is being partly reduced with the use of lining. Therefore, different
methods of artificial recharge are essential for maintaining the proper groundwater table.

Serious problem of declining water tables is being experienced in the states of

Punjab, Haryana, Gujrat, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Western Uttar Pradesh and Tamil Nadu.
There are 28 dark blocks in Andhra Pradesh, 24 in Haryana, 69 in Punjab, 81 in Rajasthan,
47 in Tamil Nadu, and 25 in Uttar Pradesh where the stage of groundwater development is
more than 85% of the net rechargeable water. Over exploitation of groundwater results in
progressive lowering of water table and consequent decline in well yield due to increase in
suction lift, intrusion of sea water along the coast, drying of springs and dug wells,
increasing cost of lifting of water due to increase in total operating head, replacement of
existing prime-movers due to overloading etc. Under prolonged conditions of pumping
and use, low cost horizontal centrifugal pumps may have to be replaced with costlier
submersible/turbine pumps. If immediate steps are not taken to arrest the decline of water
table, it will not be possible even to sustain the present level of production. One of the
ways to arrest and sustain the decline of water table is undertaking various methods of
artificial recharge of groundwater. Thus for conjunctive use planning in the irrigated areas,
assessment of groundwater recharge and its availability is of utmost importance.

In order to increase the natural supply of groundwater, artificial recharge of

groundwater basins is becoming increasingly important in groundwater management and
particularly in situations where the conjunctive use of surface water and groundwater
resources is considered. This can be best done by maximizing its replenishment by
reducing, to the maximum extent possible, the enormous runoff losses which occur during
the monsoon season. For the sustainability of groundwater a hydrological equilibrium
must exist between all waters entering and leaving the basin. The maximum amount of
water that can be extracted from an underground reservoir depends on its sustained yield.
The sustained yield is considered to be that amount of groundwater, which can be
withdrawn annually without producing an undesirable effect. For identifying such areas
where artificial recharging is possible or can be attempted, the use of remote sensing and
GIS becomes a powerful tool.

Keeping the above in view, present study was undertaken to study the land use
pattern and other Hydro-geological conditions prevailing in Ramganga-Kosi interbasin,
and to develop strategies for groundwater promising zones and comprehensive artificial
groundwater recharge plan for the study area.
1
GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE STUDY AREA

Location

The study area lies between the Ramganga and Kosi rivers. It is located between
latitude of 28 0 40’ and 29 0 30’ E and longitude of 28 0 40’ and 29 0 30’ N, falling in
Bijnor, Moradabad and Rampur districts of Uttar Pradesh; US Nagar and Nainital districts
of Uttarakhand states of India. In the study area, the elevation above M.S.L. varies from
190 to 300 m, it transect the Bhabar, Tarai, and Alluvial plain tracts, adjacent to the
foothills of the Himalayan region. It is almost triangular in shape, being approximately 90
km north to south, and 45 km east to west. The Kosi river forms the eastern boundary and
the river Ramganga the western boundary of the study area. The northern boundary is near
to the base of the Himalayan foot hills and the lower of the southern boundary is the
junction of Ramganga and Kosi river in Rampur district. Location of different parts of
particular districts lying under the study area are shown in Fig.1.1

Fig. 1.1. Index map of the study area.

Geology

Geologically, the area under Ramganga-Kosi interbasin consists of thick alluvial

cover with flat topography, underlain by sediments, brought down by Ramganga and Kosi
rivers. The Tarai belt is characterized by predominant of finer sediments like silt and clay,
the lower part of interbasin is mainly alluvium of quaternary age, where no artesian flow
condition exists. The alluvium consists of gravel, sand, silt, clay and kankar in varying
proportion. The top most alluvium consists of soil mixed with fine sand and tiny mica
flakes. The deposits of sand bed are the main source of groundwater in the area

2
Climate

The area experiences moderate type of subtropical monsoonic climatic weather i.e.
in summer it is hot and in winter it is mild but not frost free. The maximum temperature
reaches beyond 40o C and minimum temperature is about 9o C. Normally about 1040 mm
rainfall occurs during monsoon period i.e. from July to mid September. The rainfall during
July, August and September contributes the major part of monsoon rainfall. Winds blow
for large speed during the summer season but generally not in winter season. Wind speed
is generally found highest in May or June and then it declines to minimum in November or
December. Relative humidity is found low in dry months.

Natural Drainage

Surface runoff of the area flows through two main rivers i.e. Ramganga and Kosi.
The Ramganga river enters into alluvial zone from Bijnor district and Kosi river starts
from Nainital district, after flowing some distance, both the rivers meet each other in
Rampur district. The main tributaries of Ramganga River are Phika, Lapkana, Pili and
Banaili. On the other side, Kosi river forms eastern boundary of the interbasin and flows
from north to south. Dhela nadi forms ridgeline between Ramganga and Kosi i.e. middle
line of interbasin. Most of the area is drained by Ramganga river and small area is drained
by Kosi river. The surface terrain shows that the runoff flows in south-west direction on
western side of interbasin, and on the east side of interbasin the runoff flows in south- east
direction. Natural drainage system in the interbasin is shown in Fig. 1.2.

G.I.S. AND REMOTE SENSING APPLICATION

Geo-referencing of Topo sheet

The geo-referencing was done by using Geomatica v9.1 software. Topo sheets
used for the study were 53 K/11, 53 K/12, 53 K/15, 53 K/16, 53 L/9, 53 L/13, 53 L/14, 53
O/3, 53 O/4, 53 P/1. Minimum four points of each topo sheet were geo-referenced. When
an image is created, the information is stored in row and column geometry in raster
format. In a process called geo-referencing, each pixel is registered to real world co-
ordinate system by polygonic map projection. After geo-referencing, the image has co-
ordinates for each toposheet, but its geometry is not corrected for geometric distortions
and not adapted to a base map. To create a distortion free adapted image, the geometric
correction is used after geocoding the sheet.

Thematic Maps

The thematic maps available from various sources can be taken up for creation of
digital database. Computerization of thematic maps is done through the process of
digitization. Digitization is the method of converting spatial data into computer compatible
format. Advancement in the technology has resulted in evolving high-resolution scanners
of various sizes along with appropriate software which convert raster images (scanned
maps) into vector formats with great precision. Of late scanning has become popular
method for data capturing and is used for conversion of maps where intensity of lines,
polygons and points is very high i.e. maps representing land use / land cover, soil,

3
 Fig. 1.2. Natural drainage system in the study area.

geomorphology etc. The scanning method is faster and is relatively free from the errors,
which commonly occur during manual digitization. Scanned maps are then converted into
vector format using appropriate software, which form the input to GIS. Base maps were
prepared using different Survey of India (SOI) topo sheets of 1: 50000 scale. Base maps
for river boundary, drainage network, and district boundary were prepared by digitizing
topo sheet and other ancillary maps in Geomatica v9.1 software with polygonic projection.
Different ground features were differentiated from each other using multi spectral data
suitability and thematic map depicting land use was prepared. Three classes of land use i.e.
forest, agriculture and barren land were identified in the watershed.

Base maps including contours of watertable level, natural drainage network,

settlement location, observation wells’ location and watershed boundary were extracted
from the topographic sheet using Focus module of G.I.S. environment with UTM
projection.

Satellite Imagery

In this study both satellite data as well as extensive field data were used for
preparation of various thematic maps. As far as satellite data is concerned, IRS-1D LISS
III data were procured from National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad for the entire
river interbasin and used in the analysis. In addition to LISS III data IRS-1D PAN data
were also obtained for better interpretations..

4
Collection of Data

For the assessment of different thematic maps in Ramganga-Kosi interbasin,

different topo sheets were used which are available with the Department of Irrigation and
Drainage Engineering, G.B.P.U.A. & T., Pantnagar. For the assessment of groundwater in
Ramganga-Kosi interbasin, data of ground water table depth, area under major and minor
crops, land utilization and minor irrigation units, i.e. Government tube well, Private tube
well, canals etc. were taken from statistical magazine available in District Statistical office
of Bijnor, Moradabad, Rampur, Nainital and Udham Singh Nagar districts.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Various basic thematic maps of the study area were prepared using Focus module
of Geomatica v 9.1.

Land Use / Land Cover Map

Different land uses/land covers were digitized with G.I.S. software by visual
interpretation using digital satellite data of 1 : 25,000 scale for the year 2007, procured
from National Remote Sensing Agency (N.R.S.A.), Hyderabad. The satellite imagery was
masked with the study area (river boundary) using clipping tools of the software (Fig. 1.3).

Scale 1: 25000

5
 Fig. 1.3. Satellite imagery (FCC) of Ramganga-Kosi river interbasin.
Satellite data were classified into seven classes namely, agricultural land,
agricultural fallow land, sal forest, horticultural plantation, scrub land, water body and
settlement. Forest was observed mainly in northern aspects (north, north-east, north-west)
and at higher altitude whereas; major agricultural activities were taken up mainly in
southern aspects (south, south-east, south-west) at the lower part of the study area. Main
composition of dense forest, located in north side of study area, was sal and shisham. It is
evident from Table 1.1 that out of total area under study, almost 78.59 per cent was
observed under agriculture fallow land followed by agricultural land (12.8 %), scrub land
(2.8%), sal forest (2.4%), agro-horticulture (2.44%), water body (0.28%), and Settlement
(0.69 %). The area under agriculture was mostly irrigated area from different water
resources. The main crops grown by the farmers were wheat, paddy, barley, Bajra and
Jowar.

6
 Fig. 1.4. Land use map of Ramganga – Kosi interbasin on the basis of satellite
imagery, for the year 2007.

Table 1.1. Areal extent under different land uses on the basis of satellite imagery
for the year 2007.

Sl. No. Land use Area (ha) Percentage of total

area

1 Agricultural fallow land 3.836 x 105 78.59

2 Agricultural land 6.248 x 104 12.8

3 Scrub land 1.366 x 104 2.8

4 Sal Forest 1.171 x 104 2.4

5 Agro horticulture 1.191 x 104 2.44

6 Water body 1.366 x 103 0.28

7 Settlement 3.368 x 103 0.69

Total 4.882 x 105 100

Depth to Water Table

Depth to water table is dependent on groundwater balance equation between gross

draft and recharge of the aquifer. It is closely related to the topography, sub-surface
lithology, precipitation, irrigation methods, surface water bodies and groundwater draft by
different means. The depth to water table in the study area is being discussed, district wise
as below.
Bijnor District : Pre-monsoon and post-monsoon depths to water table, below ground
level in the part of the area under study lying in Bijnor district, for the years 1993 to 2007,
are shown in Figs. 1.5 and 1.6, respectively. The pre-monsoon and post-monsoon depths
to water table varied from 1.1 m to 11.45 m, and 0.4 m to 9.2 m, respectively, in the study
area. The minimum depth to pre-monsoon water table in the range of 1.1 m to 5.6 m was
mostly recorded in Aliyapur, Berkhera, Rasulpur, Afzalgarh, Udhowala, and Suawala
blocks. Pre-monsoon watertable depth data for different years (1993-2007) showed the
continuous decline of watertable at the rate 0.124 m/year and 0.0657 m/year in Allehpur
and Afzalgarh blocks, respectively (Figs. 1.5 and 1.6). The study showed that the depth to
water table increased from south to north. In central part of the district the water table
depth was maximum from north to south. The trend clearly showed the physical scope of
recharging of groundwater in the area lying near the banks of the rivers.
Moradabad District: The pre-monsoon and post-monsoon depths to water table for the
years 1993 to 2007 were observed to vary from 2.26 m to 12.42 m, and 1.07 m to 11.75 m,
respectively, in the part of Moradabad district, lying under the study area (Figs. 1.7 and
1.8.) The minimum depths to water table were in the range of 2.26 m to 6.89 m, recorded
in Moradabad, Bhojpur, Jahangirpur, Dalpatpur, Jatpura, Sultanpur, Surjannagar and
Thakurwara blocks near the river Ramganga. The behaviour of water table showed

7
continuous decline at the rate 0.044 m/year and 0.027 m/year in Jatpura and Thakurdwara
blocks, respectively (Figs. 1.7 and 1.8).

Fig. 1.5. Year wise variation in Pre-monsoon depth to watertable in Bijnor district.

8
Fig. 1.6. Year wise variation in Post-monsoon depth to watertable in Bijnor district.

Fig.1.7. Year wise variation in Pre-monsoon depth to water table in Moradabad

district.

9
Fig. 1.8. Year wise variation in Post-monsoon depth to watertable in Moradabad
district.

Rampur District: Swar and Chamraua blocks of Rampur district lye under the study area
and the maximum water table depth recorded in Chamraua block was 5.97 m below
ground level. Pre-monsoon and post-monsoon depths to water table below ground level
for the years 1993 to 2007, were found to vary from 2.95 m to 5.97 m and 1.05 m to5.65
m, respectively (Figs. 1.9 and 1.10).

Fig. 1.9. Year wise variation in Pre-monsoon depth to watertable in Rampur district.

10
Fig. 1.10. Year wise variation in Post-monsoon depth to watertable in Rampur
district.

Nainital District : Only Ramnagar block of Nainital district falls under the study area. In
case of this district data were available for years 2001 to 2007. Maximum depth to water
table was found to be in the year 2007. Water table depth was continuously increasing at
the rate 0.039 m/year at Thari in Ramnagar block (Figs. 1.11 and 1.12).

Fig. 1.11 Year wise variation in Pre-monsoon depth to watertable in Nainital district.

11
Fig. 1.12 Year wise variation in Post-monsoon depth to watertable in Nainital district

Udham Singh Nagar District : In case of this district data was available for the years
2001 to 2007 only. Maximum depth to watertable was observed at Kanaura for pre-
monsoon and post-monsoon. Watertable showed continuously decline trend at the rate of
0.375 m/year and 0.287 m/year in Sultanpur and Kanaura, respectively (Figs. 1.13 and
1.14).

12
Fig. 1.13. Year wise variation in Pre-monsoon depth to watertable in Udham Singh
Nagar district.

Fig. 1.14. Year wise variation in Post-monsoon depth to watertable in Udham Singh
Nagar district.

13
Fig. 1.15. Pre-monsoon depth to watertable contour map of Ramganga-Kosi river
interbasin for the year 2007.

Fig. 1.16. Post-monsoon depth to water table contour map of Ramganga-Kosi river
interbasin for the year 2007.
Fluctuation of Water Table

The seasonal fluctuation of water table is the difference between pre-monsoon and
post-monsoon water table depth in a particular year at a place. The values of seasonal
fluctuation for a particular place for different years were averaged out to get the average
value of seasonal fluctuation at that point. On the basis of these values the fluctuation of
depth to water table map had been prepared. (Fig. 1.17), it showed that, in Moradabad
district the water table fluctuation rate was minimum during the study years.

Maximum fluctuation was observed in Udham Sing Nagar and Rampur districts,
where it was up to 0.20 to 0.35 m/year. Fluctuation increases in the direction from west to
east towards Kosi river. While in the part of Bijnor district, it was found to be 0.20 m/year.
These observation wells are located in the areas which have a network of canals or lying
near the banks of Kosi river. The problem of water table depletion was not distributed
throughout the areas of blocks, identified as the problematic blocks. Some blocks had
certain areas, under problem, in some blocks half of the area, in some blocks entire area
was facing the problem of continuous decline of water table.

14
Fig. 1.17. Average seasonal fluctuation of watertable in Ramganaga – Kosi
interbasin.

Causes of Water Table Decline

The problem of declining water table is experienced in the study area mainly
because of a lack of proper planning of a systematic groundwater extraction programme.
Over-exploitation of groundwater is taking place to meet the increased demand of
irrigation water for crop production, expansion of industrial and domestic activities etc.
Some of the factors responsible for lowering of water table may be described as growing
of heavy duty crops irrespective of soil conditions prevailing in the area, continuous
increasing trend of construction of minor irrigation structures and reduction of area under
canal and pond irrigation etc. These factors are being discussed in detail in the following
sections.

Cropping pattern

15
 The study area is containing mainly agriculture land. The major quantity of
groundwater draft is being utilized by agricultural sector in the study area. Thus, it is
necessary to study existing the cropping pattern, land use area occupied by different major
crops such as wheat, paddy and sugarcane as well as by some minor crops like Barley,
Jowar and Bajra.

Bijnor district : Afzalgarh and Allehpur blocks of the district come under the study area.
Non-agricultural land acreage was found to be 9081 ha in the part of the study area lying
in the district. The data recorded for the years 1997 to 2007 showed that forest area was
found to be more in Afzalgarh block and in Allehpur block after the non-agricultural land.
The rice and wheat crops occupied nearly equal area with an increasing trend from 12161
ha in 1997 to 14956 ha in 2005 in Afzalgarh block. The area under rice and wheat
cultivation changed little in Allehpur block. The cultivated area of wheat was lower than
rice. For wheat it was 7532 ha whereas for rice it was 4159 ha (Fig. 1.18). It seems from
the Figs. 1.19 and 1.20, that there was decreasing trend for Barley, Jowar and Bajra crops
in Bijnor district. The decreasing trend for Barley was observed from 13 ha in 1997 to 3 ha
in 2007 and in case of Bajra from 7 ha in 1997 to 4 ha in 2007, in Afzalgarh block.

Moradabad district : The part of study area, lying under Moradabad district, contains
Moradabad, Dillari and Thakurdwara blocks. The area under non-agricultural land showed
increasing trend from year 1997 to 2007, for all the three blocks. Other land use types like
barren cultivated land, fallow land, pasture trend varied from 200 to 600 ha in all the
blocks with decreasing trend from the year 1997 to 2007. In major crops, area under rice
crop increased from 11821 ha to 18983 ha, in Thakurdwara block. In case of Moradabad
block, the area under rice crop increased from 7714 ha to 11411 ha and then it decreased
up to 7485 ha in year 2007. Area under wheat crop also showed similar trend like rice
cultivated land. In case of minor crops, more area under the minor crop was for Bajra in
all the three blocks. In Moradabad block, trend of area coverage by Bajra crop was
decreasing from 290 to 21 ha in the year 1997–2007. After the Bajra, Jowar crop
occupied second larger area under the minor crops. (Fig. 1.22).

16
Fig. 1.18. Yearly variation of area under major crops in Afzalgarh and Allehpur
blocks of Bijnor district.

Fig. 1.19. Yearly variation of area under minor crops in Afzalgarh block of Bijnor
district.

17
Fig. 1.20. Yearly variation of area under minor crops in Allehpur block of Bijnor
district.

25000

20000 Rice(Thakurwara)
Crop area, ha

Wheat(Thakurwara)
15000
Rice(Dilari)

10000 Wheat(Dilari)
Rice(Moradabad)
5000 Wheat(Moradabad)

0
95

97

99

03

05

07
0
19

19

19

20

20

20

20

Year

Fig. 1.21. Yearly variation of area under major crops in Thakurdwara, Dilari and
Moradabad blocks of Moradabad district.

18
Fig. 1.22. Yearly variation of area under minor crops in Moradabad block of
Moradabad district.
Rampur District: The part of this district falling in the area under study includes Swar,
Chamraua, and Shahabad blocks. Non-agricultural land was more in all the blocks and it
was almost constant with the area of 5500 ha in the years 1995 to 2001 and then it
increased from the year 2002 to 2005. The forest area was also almost constant having the
area of 4197 ha in Swar block. Similar trend of area coverage by other land uses was also
had similar area coverage in three blocks. For major crops the maximum area was covered
by rice and wheat, recorded minimum from 25018 ha in the year 1993 to 30942 ha in the
year 2007 for Swar block (Fig. 1.23). In minor crops, the area coverage was highest for
Jowar followed by Bajra. The area coverage in case of major crops increased whereas in
case of minor crops it declined in all the three blocks.

Fig. 1.23. Yearly variation of area under Major crops in Swar, Chamraua and
Shahabad blocks of Rampur district.
19
Fig. 1.24. Yearly variation of area under minor crops in Swar block of Rampur
district.

Fig. 1.25. Yearly variation of area under minor crops in Chamraua block of Rampur
district.

20
Fig. 1.26. Yearly variation of area under minor crops in Shahabad block of Rampur
district.

Nainital District : Only Thari block of Nainital district falls in the study area. Forest area
had been increasing from the year 1995 to 1997, and after that it maintained constant level
with the area coverage of about 9930 ha for the rest of the years. Barren cultivated land
was the second position in the block. In case of major crop, Fig. 1.27 indicates that
acreage under wheat cultivation has been ever high by the year 1995 to 2005 than rice
coverage area. For rice and wheat crops, area had been constant after the year 2001. For
minor crops, area of coverage by Barley crop was 236 ha. Jowar and Bajra had negligible
contribution. The study showed that the areas under Barley, Bajra and Jowar were much
less as compared to the areas covered by wheat and paddy.

Fig. 1.27. Yearly variation of area under major crops in Ramnagar block of Nainital
district.

21
Fig. 1.28. Yearly variation of area under minor crops in Ramnagar block of Nainital
district.

Thus, there has been an intensification of rice-wheat cropping system in the entire
study area. Therefore, the draft of groundwater became so high that the exploitation of this
resource has gone beyond the permissible limit. Situation is further deteriorating due to
increase in cultivation of excessive water demanding crops.

Water table decline under different cropping patterns

The major consumer of water for any area is the agriculture sector, which needs
water for irrigation purposes. Since the surface water resources are limited, the major
source of water supplies for agricultural and other purposes has been from groundwater
system, to meet the ever-increasing water demand. The study showed that the areas under
sorghum, maize and pulses are much less as compared to the areas covered by wheat,
sugarcane and paddy. Thus, there has been an intensification of rice-wheat cropping
system in the entire study area, except Bijnor district where Sugarcane is dominating. Also
to get more economic advantages, there has been advancement in rice transplantation from
July to June with the main dependence on groundwater resource only. Thus the draft of
groundwater became so high that the exploitation of this resource has gone beyond the
permissible limits. Situation is further deteriorating due to increase in cultivation of
excessive water demanding crops, like sugar cane, mentha and summer vegetables etc.

Area irrigated by canals and tube wells

The area irrigated by different sources like canals, tube wells, wells and ponds is
shown in Figs. 1.29 to 1.32. The trend of irrigated area in different districts is properly
depicted. These figures indicate that the area irrigated by canals was either constant or
decreasing during the study period 1997 to 2007, in most of the canal irrigated blocks of
the study area. In two blocks of Bijnor district, namely; Afzalgarh and Allehpur, the area
under private tube well irrigation increased from 7034 ha in 1990 to 11139 ha in 2007.
22
The increasing trend of private tube well irrigation, results in the lowering of groundwater
table. In Moradabad district, private tube wells were increasing day by day as shown in
Figs.1. 40 and 1.41.

Fig. 1.29. Variation of area irrigated by different sources with time in Afzalgarh
block of Bijnor district.

Fig. 1.30. Variation of area irrigated by different sources in Allehpur block of Bijnor
district.

23
Fig. 1.31. Variation of area irrigated by different sources in Thakurdwara block of
Moradabad district.

Fig. 1.32. Variation of area irrigated by different sources in Dillari block of

Moradabad district.

Soil Associations

The Ramganga-Kosi interbasin comes under alluvial soils developed from the
alluvium deposited by the river Ganga and its tributaries. The alluvium material deposited
24
by the river system of the area has been derived from the soft dolomitic rocks of
Himalayas. According to USDA Taxonomy, these soils have been classified as Alfisols,
Inceptisols and Mollisols at great group level. The soil series occur together in a particular
pattern in the group of two or more and their separation on the scale of reconnaissance soil
map has not been practically feasible. Therefore, on the basis of local and field correlation,
each auger hole site on the base map was given a series name and named with the symbol
of that series, based on the pattern of occurrence of there series in relation to landscape
features, physiography, landform etc., the soil series have been combined on the soil map
of the study area into 7 soil associations. Soil association map of the study area is shown
in Fig. 1.33. The names of these associations are given after the names of constituent soil
series listed in order of their area occupied in a particular association For example; soil
association named as Paltha – Mallpura - Joya indicates that in this association largest area
is occupied by Paltha series followed by Mallpura and Joya series in that order. Soil series
covering less than. 1% area, in a particular association, have not been included in the name
of association.

Fig. 1.33. Soil association map of Ramgnaga-Kosi interbasin.

25
Table 1.3. Soil series and their properties in Ramganga-Kosi interbasin.

Name of the soil series Soil characteristics Taxonomic classification

and property
Dhamora Sandy loam, deep on 0-1 % Fine loam, non calcareous
slope, water table deep,
moderately drained soil
Milak Loam, very deep on 0-1 % Fine loamy, calcareous
slope, water table deep,
moderately drained soil
Paltha Silty loam, very deep on 0-1 Clayey, calcareous
% slope, water table deep,
moderately drained soil
Mallpura Sandy loam, very deep on 0- Fine loamy, calcareous
1 % slope, water table deep,
moderately well drained soil
Joya Loamy, very deep on 0-1 % Fine loamy, calcareous
slope, water table deep,
imperfectly drained soil
Ucheti Silty clay loam, very deep on Clayey, non calcareous
0-1 % slope, water table
deep, imperfectly drained soil
Beni Fine loamy, poorly drained Fine loamy, mixed
soil calcareous, fine silty
Haldi Fine loamy, moderately well Fine loamy, mixed
to well drained soil calcareous
Haldwani Sandy, well drained and Sandy, mixed calcareous
loose soil
Patharchatta Coarse loamy, moderately Coarse loamy, mixed
well to well drained soil calcareous
Kashipur Coarse loamy, moderately Coarse loamy, mixed
well drained soil calcareous
Tigri Silty loam, low-lying area Silty loam , calcareous,
having 0.1% slope, micaceous, hyperthermic
imperfectly drained soil
Gangeshwari Sandy loam, slight Sandy loam , calcareous,
undulating area having 1-3% micaceous, hyperthermic
slope, moderately drained
soil

26
Table 1.4. Soil type and texture of different soil series.

Sl. No. Soil series Soil type Soil Texture

Sand (%) Silt (%) Clay (%)

1 Dhamora Sandy loam 63.5 23.5 16.8
2 Milak Loam 47.3 37.3 19.7
3 Paltha Silty loam 28.1 45.9 26.0
4 Mallpura Sandy loam 59.8 15.5 24.7
5 Joya Loamy 29.3 54.9 15.8
6 Ucheti Silt clay loam 12.2 42.1 45.7
7 Beni Fine loamy 44.4 23.5 32.1
8 Haldi Fine loamy 27.2 43.3 29.5
9 Haldwani Sandy 53.4 22.9 23.7
10 Patharchatta Coarse loamy 61.7 32.6 5.7
11 Kashipur Coarse loamy 58.4 28.6 6.1
12 Tigri Silty loam 27.41 52.87 20.20

13 Gangeshwari Sandy loam 58.59 25.29 16.23

DELINEATION OF VARIOUS LANDFORMS USING REMOTE SENSING AND

GIS

In the present study, different types of landforms have been delineated in the study
area for hydromorphological studies of the Ramganga - Kosi interbasin. Fig. 1.3 depicts
the entire Ramganga - Kosi interbasin in false colour composite. The textural and tonal
differences can easily be seen by visual interpretation of the image varying from one block
to another. Thematic map for different landforms showing various colour schemes of the
study area, has been prepared. There are fifteen landforms identified in the study area, the
geomorphic details of these landforms are described as below.

Piedmont Plain (P)

This is the transition zone lying at the junction of Siwalik hill and plain of the
study area. The landform is divided into three geomorphological units as given
below:

Upper Piedmont (P1): The geomorphological unit is located in upper most zone of the
study area, extending from north-east to north-west of the interbasin under Afzalgarh
block of Bijnor district and Ramnagar block of Nainital district. Unconsolidated sediments
with variable runoff and infiltration characterize it. Depth to water table is also varying
from shallow to deep. In upper and lower piedmont zones, a number of buried and
27
abandoned channels is found due to regular and frequent changing of flow direction of
different riverlets. The groundwater prospect is high along buried and abandoned
channels.

Lower Piedmont (P2): It is also located in Afzalgarh block of Bijnor district and
Ramnagar block of Nainital district. just south of upper piedmont zone lying in northern
region of the study area. The geomorphological characteristics of the unit is by and large
similar to upper piedmont landform except altitude and slope, which is relatively low. The
zone has equally groundwater prospects varying from shallow to deep.

Piedmont Flood Plain (P3): It is also known as transitional plain between piedmont and
flood plain lying mostly under Afzalgarh block of Bijnor district, Ramnagar block of
Nainital district, and Jaspur and Kashipur blocks of Udham Singh Nagar district. The unit
is frequently visited by flood from upland runoff during monsoon season. The
geomorphological feature is similar to other flood plains. The prospect of groundwater is
very high; somewhere the depth to water table in the unit is quite shallow.

Young Flood Plain (YFP)

The young flood plain has been identified at either sides of river courses which,
frequently visited by floods and, the sand content and depth of sand layer in the area are
comparatively medium to high. The study area has been divided into two parts :

Mixed sand and silt dominated (YFP-1) : This type of landform is limited in the study
area, lying in Shahabad block of Rampur district, Thakurdwara, Dilari, Mundhapande and
Moradabad block of Moradabad district. Besides, such unit is concentrated in small
patches along the riverlets flowing in upper piedmont, lower piedmont and transitional
plains in Afzalgarh block of Bijnor district, Ramnagar block of Nainital district, and
Jaspur and Kashipur blocks of Udham Singh Nagar district. The percentage of sand and
silt contents varied from one patch to another.

Sand dominated (YFP-2) : This is sand dominated landform. It extends from Afzalgarh
block of Bijnor district to Mundhapande block of Moradabad district, along Ranganga
river. The depth and width of the layer varied from place to place. Most of the area of
Afzalgarh, Allehpur, Thakurdwara, Dilari, Mundhapande and Moradabad blocks lying
along Ramganga riverside are under the landforms of YFP-2. The width of the landform
along river Kosi is narrow. Small patches of this flood plain are also found either side of
both main rivers. The groundwater prospects of this landform are very high because of
high percentage of sand contents in upper layer of the geomorphic unit which provides
sufficient opportunity of groundwater recharge, if the surface of the landform is modified
to store water.

Old Flood Plain (OFP)

These types of geomorphic units are known as older upper alluvial plain because
such plains do not come under active flood plain. A larger area between these two rivers is
under category of old alluviul plain. The landform has been classified in four geomorphic
units:

Sand dominated (OFP-1) : This is sand dominated geomorphic unit of old alluvial
landform. The geomorphic unit having dominating sand content after young flood plain
and the unit extends from Thakurdwara block to Moradabad block of Moradabad district
28
along river Ramganga after Young Flood Plain-2; and Swar, Chamraua and Shahbad
blocks of Rampur district. Such geomorphic unit is second phase formation of young flood
plain, therefore the sand materials are dominating in the unit. This is not under active
flood plain is the only difference from young flood plain. The prospect of groundwater is
sufficient but the unit is better to correlate the underlying hydro-geological strata.

Table 1.5. Blocks and water table decline under different landforms of the study
area.

Water table
Landforms Blocks
decline (m)
P1 Northern part of Afzalgarh & Ramnagar 0-5
P2 Central part of Afzalgarh & Ramnagar 0-5
P3 Afzalgarh, Ramnagar and Jaspur 0-5
YFP1 Shahabad, Mundhapande 1-7
YFP2 Allehpur, Thakurdwara and Mundhapande 0-8
Swar, Saidnagar, Chamraua, Shahbad, Ramnagar,
OFP1 0-8
Afzalgarh and Jaspur
Afzalgarh, Allehpur, Delari, Moradabad and Bhagatpur
OFP2 0-5
Tanda
OFP3 Thakurdwara, Delari and Bhagatpur Tanda 0-8
OFP4 Moradabad, Mundhapande and Bhagatpur Tanda 0-5

Silt dominated (OFP-2) : This is a geomorphic unit of old upper alluvial landform having
high silt proportion in surface textural morphology. Such type of landform exits in upland
portion of the interbasin in Bijnor, Rampur and Udham Singh Nagar districts. It is spread
over Afzalgarh block of Bijnor district, and Jaspur and Kashipur blocks of Udham Singh
Nagar district. Such landform needs attention for developing recharge structures to sustain
the prospect of groundwater in future.

Mixed sand and silt (OFP-3) : Geomorphic unit of this category is spread over every part
of the study area from north-west to south-east. Although, the main constituent of the unit
is sand and silt, the proportion of the sand and silt varies from one part to another. The
patch lying under Thakurdwara, Dilari and Mundhapande blocks of Moradabad district
and Swar block of Rampur district composes relatively high percent of sand than that of
silt. While, in some areas of these blocks compose high content of silt.

Silt-clay dominated (OFP-4) : Geomorphic unit of this category is spread over middle
part of the study area mostly in Moradabad district. It comprises mainly silt and clay
materials away from riparian area of the river courses of Ramganga and Kosi. The areas
closer to the Young Flood Plain of the Ramganga and Kosi rivers composes relatively
high percentage of silt. The percentage of silt decreases as we go towards inner land from
main course of either rivers. Other geomorphic features like slope and altitude of this unit
are similar to old flood plain-3. No doubt, the area needs suitable recharge plan for its
sustainability to meet out the demand of groundwater for the local people. Although,

29
groundwater prospect in the geomorphic unit is medium to high, equilibrium between
recharge and discharge is required to maintain.
Fluvial Landforms

Various kinds of geomorphic features, formed either sides of river by fluvial action
of rivers, are known as fluvial landforms e.g. channel bar, channel island, point bar, river
terrace, natural levee, back swamp, cut-off meander, abandoned channel, ox-bow lake,
palaeochannel and buried channel. Out of these geomorphic features, palaeochannel,
natural levees, back swamp and channel scare / cutoff have been delineated in the study
area. Palaeochannel are remnant of stream/river appear as buried or abandoned channels.
They are found in Afzalgarh and Allehpur blocks of Bijnor district. These features possess
a good promising zone for shallow aquifer with excellent ground water yield. Natural
levee is a bund along river bank formed with fluvial sediments brought by river. It extends
like narrow strip from north to south along Ramganga River and a small strip along Kosi
River in Swar, Chamaraua and Shahbad blocks of Rampur district. Natural levee
comprises characteristics of low runoff, high infiltration and moderate depth to water level
and good prospects of groundwater. Back swamp is low-lying swampy/marshy area
adjoining natural levee. It has good prospect of groundwater. It extends from north to
south along natural levee formed by the Ramganga river. Channel scares are found in
lower part of back swamp.

STRATEGY FOR ARTIFICIAL GROUNDWATER RECHARGE

Augmentation of water in the underground reservoir by artificial means is nothing

but groundwater recharge as defined earlier. Planning for groundwater recharge in any
problematic area may include measures to reduce groundwater draft and increasing
recharge through various methods. From the fore-going discussion it is evident that in
respect of declining groundwater table, the problematic areas have been identified as most
of the blocks of Bijnor, Moradabad and Rampur districts under the study except a small
portion along both the rivers. Thus for proper groundwater recharge planning, it is
imperative to study in detail the delineation of various landforms and their hydro-
geomorphic characterization, the trends of adoption of various cropping patterns in the
problematic zone, and the need to monitor in terms of changing water requirements.

Water Table Decline Under Various Soil Associations

It is necessary to identify problematic areas, where the water table is continuously

declining at faster rate, for proper ground water recharge planning. Keeping it in view, the
areas having different water table decline depths were delineated under different soil
associations by superimposing the soil association map on water table decline contour
maps. The dominant soil series in the problematic areas were identified as Mallapura,
Dhamora, Haldwani, Patharchatta, Kashipur and Gangeshwari.

Water Table Under Different Landforms

All identified landforms under the study area have been correlated with present
situation of rise or fall of water table. The area lying under back swamp showed water
table fluctuation from 0 to 5 m because the area would have been opportunity of flood,
time and again. Besides, the situation of palaeochannel was also satisfactory as shown in
the water table decline map. The area lying under Young Flood Plain-2 was having a
water table decline range of 0 to 8 m and this landform comprises high percentage of sand
30
contents. In similar pattern, the range of decline, of water table, varying from 0 to 8 m was
also found under Old Flood Plain-1, as it is clear that this landform also contains high
proportion of sand. The situation of landform Old Flood Plain-4 was worst and near to
mining condition. The maximum decline of water table in this landform observed to be
about 9 m. Hence the area needs immediate recharge plan. Although some parts of the
study area are experiencing no decline of water table, almost all blocks of the study area
lying under alluvial zone are facing the danger of groundwater mining or blocks would
come under the mining situation if the present agriculture practices prevail.

Cropping Pattern

The major consumer of water for any area is the agriculture sector, which needs
water for irrigation purposes. Since the surface water resources are limited, the major
source of water supplies for agricultural and other purposes has been from groundwater
system to meet the ever-increasing water demand. Study revealed that the food grains like
wheat and paddy along with cash crops like sugarcane occupied the maximum area in
most of the blocks in comparison to other crops. In all the blocks where water table has
declined by 5 m or more than 5 m, paddy, sugarcane and wheat are the major crops. Even
in the areas where the water table decline depth is less than 5 m, paddy and sugarcane are
the main crops, which may lead to the problem of groundwater mining in the near future.

Feasible Recharge Measures

The selection of suitable sites has been suggested by Integrated Mission for
Sustainable Development (IMSD) of National Remote Sensing Agency (NRSA),
Hyderabad and Indian National Committee on Hydrology (INCON), National Institute of
Hydrology (1995). The entire study area was reviewed for the construction of suitable
water harvesting and recharge structures and on the basis of above mentioned
recommendations the following water harvesting / recharge structures were considered for
their suitability.

Series of check dams on natural streams

These are the barriers of low height, which are constructed across the Nala to
reduce runoff velocity and allow the retained water to percolate. The surface water
impounded during monsoon behind the structure spreads over the entire stream bed
thereby increasing the wetted area. The impounded water helps in replenishment of
groundwater. Such types of structures are constructed on lower order streams generally up
to third order and on medium to gentle slope topography. Where the water table
fluctuations are very high and stream is influent or intermittent is also favorable
conditions. While constructing the check dam, following points are considered.

• The catchment area should be about 25 hectares.

• Minimum ecological disturbances
• Should be 500 metres away from settlement area.

A series of check dams can be constructed on a stream to recharge the depleted

groundwater aquifers in Afzalgarh and Allehpur blocks of Bijnor district and Ramnagar
block of Nainital district where a number of 1st and 2nd order steams flow under piedmont
landforms. Such structures may be constructed on other streams if local topography
permits. The stream density in Thakurdwara, Dilari, Bhagatpur Tanda and Mundhapande
blocks of Moradabad district, and Kashipur block of Udham Singh Nagar district has been
31
found high. These channels can be modified by widening, leveling, ditching or erecting
temporary low check dams by stream materials, and would be highly beneficial for ground
water recharge in the area.

Percolation Tanks

Percolation ponds / tanks are the potential techniques for recharging the
groundwater aquifer utilizing the excess water available during monsoon season.
Percolation ponds are small surface storage structures just like irrigation tanks, in which
surface run-off is collected and stored to percolate in to the ground. The basic requirement
for pond site is a permeable strata to facilitate easy infiltration and percolation.

Percolation tanks are generally constructed on the small streams or rivulets of the
2nd to 3rd order with adequate catchment for impounding surface runoff. These tanks are
used entirely for recharging the aquifer through percolation. Construction of percolation
tanks take into account the catchment area, likely runoff, designed storage as well as the
area to be benefited due to the structure. The basic requirement for percolation tank site is
a permeable strata to facilitate easy infiltration and percolation.

In the present study Gangeshwari, Dhamora, Mallpura, Haldwani, Patharchatta and

Kashipur series have more than 50 % sand content in the top soil. These soils were well
drained to moderately well drained soils. Therefore, the areas having these soil series as
dominant soil series, are most suitable for the construction of percolation ponds because of
increased infiltration rate due to high sand content.

In the present study, the landforms Young Flood Plain-2 (YFP-2) and Old Flood
Plain-1 (OFP-1) are highly suitable sites for percolation tanks because these landforms
contain high percentage of sand contents and favourable stream orders. If these landforms
are correlated with bore well strata lying under the landform, both the land forms have
high sand content in the top soil. These areas are most suitable for the construction of
percolation ponds because of increased infiltration rate due to high sand content. The
Young Flood Plain-2 is highly suitable for the construction of trenches across the slope
because in these landform areas shallow permeable strata are available. In the YFP-1 and
OFP-3, the silt content retards the infiltration rate, therefore, these areas should have the
percolation tanks having more width and less depth. OPF-4 contains silt and clay, the
recharge ability of the area is slow but indiscriminate draft of groundwater is continued.
Hence, the area needs immediate recharge plan to develop farm pond at every pico-
catchment of 10 ha farm. Dhela river with its tributaries passing through the landforms-
Old Flood Plains 3 and 4, may serve as a feeder to the percolation ponds during rainy
season utilizing the excess flood water. The presence of thick clay layers along these
landforms may restrict the movement of water into the underground aquifer.

Construction of a large number of smaller percolation ponds at different places in

the problematic area would be more useful and need satisfying than a single pond at a
selective place. Since the percolation pond is useful for a large number of farmers living
wide over, the construction of such ponds is socially tenable and pragmatically beneficial
besides their economic feasibility.

Bunds, trenches and stream modification

Bunds may also be constructed in farmers’ fields. These serve dual purpose of
rainfed farming and water harvesting during the scarcity period and recharging of the
32
groundwater aquifer. As the soils are almost sandy in the problematic areas, the presence
of bunds near cropped area would not create the waterlogged conditions. The percolation
ponds may serve as a safety measure for absorbing the flood and mitigating its havoc, and
as a venue for fish culture. The land with the construction of a percolation tank gets its
value enhanced 2 to 6 times as compared to its initial value. Construction of a large
number of smaller percolation tanks at different places in the problematic area would be
more useful and need satisfying than a single tank at a selective place. Since the
percolation tank is useful for a large number of farmers living wide over, the construction
of such tanks is socially tenable and grammatically beneficial besides their economic
feasibility. The construction of trenches in upper piedmont zone and in the riverside area
of YFP-2 across the slope would enhance the recharge of the area.

In the parts of the study area where the Ucheti and Paltha series are the dominating
soil series, containing silty clay loam to silty loam with the lower sand content (12.2-
28.1%), and which can hold water growing paddy with the raised bunds will help in
recharging the ground water aquifers. Dug well recharge method can be powerful tool for
the landform OFP-3 and 4 where the silt and clay contents in the upper surface are high.
As reported by state tube well department a large number of wells were abandoned. Under
subsurface practice, the exiting dug wells may be utilized as recharge structures when
filter materials or pebbles would properly back fill these wells.

In the study area a good net work of streams was identified under different
landforms. Most of the water of monsoon seasonal runoff flow wasteful since there is no
any recharge plan at either side of the channels. The recharge capability of the riparian
area can be increased by modification of these channels like putting permanent low check
dams or constructing ditches/ furrows across slope.

Changing of cropping pattern

As discussed earlier, the maximum area under different blocks is under paddy,
sugarcane and wheat, which may be treated as high water demanding crops. In the absence
of surface water source, the water requirement for these crops is to be met by groundwater.
There is an urgent need to revise the prevailing cropping pattern by occupying more area
under low water demanding crops, reducing pressure on groundwater to certain extent.
This may be achieved by introducing more area under pulses and oilseed crops such as
Arhar, mung, urd, gram, pea, lentil, mustard etc. Such crops also come under the category
of cash crops. The farmers in the problematic areas, should also be discouraged from
growing, crops like Mentha and other vegetables, which are very high water demanding
crops.

Increasing canal irrigated area

Presently, a small net work of canals is available in the study area. Therefore, it is
the urgent need of the time to extent network of canals to problematic areas. More and
more area under canal irrigation will not only reduce the pressure on groundwater but also
prove as potential source of recharge to the aquifer through seepage and return flow of
irrigation water.

It may be concluded that besides adopting preventive measures, the farmers and
the public may be educated about the seriousness of the depleting groundwater and
impressed upon, for economic use and richly recharging the groundwater to maintain it at
a safer level.
33
APPLICABILITY OF THE STUDY

The above study provides useful findings for delineating the hydro-
geomorphological units in order to demarcating the groundwater prospect zones and
groundwater recharge plan for the units. Use of satellite and collated data can be made for
evolving various kinds of information to correlate the subsurface geological strata, water
table, and soil characterization to identify the problems and their causes. It also suggests
appropriate measures to arrest further decline of water table in the study area. Above all, it
outlines and establishes a procedure for studying and monitoring groundwater status in a
problematic area such that if the various parameters as used in the above study can be
estimated.

Various measures, as described above, may be adopted either for increasing the
recharge or decreasing the groundwater draft in the problematic zone of the study area.
The quantitative estimates may be made on the basis of existing norms as described
earlier. The anticipated estimates for groundwater recharge and draft may be used as input
parameters for the further study of the area. The effects of combination of various recharge
measures on the water table situation may be predicted making use of simulation model
for any period of time. The combination of the most economic and feasible recharge
method may be adopted to maintain the groundwater table at safer and desired level. This
model and suggested measures for groundwater recharge to arrest the declining water table
may be useful for other problematic areas also.

34