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Examiningeconomicdevelopment,environmentalpolicyandtransboundary
pollution:ThecaseofIskandarMalaysiaandairquality
ThisNTSInsightexploresthepossibleeffectsofrapiddevelopmentinIskandarMalaysiaforairqualityonbothsidesoftheStraitsof
Johor.ItunpacksrelevantregulatorystructuresinMalaysia,andrevealschallengesinpromotingandrealisingenvironmentalhealth
inthefaceofeconomicdevelopmentimperatives.IttheninvestigatesIskandarMalaysiasairpollutionconcernsmoredirectly,and
examinestheprospectsforcooperationbetweenIskandarMalaysiaandSingaporeinareassuchasmanagingtheirshared
ecosystemandmitigatingtherisksofdevelopmentdrivenpollution.

ByMargarethSembiringandJ.JacksonEwing
CentreforNonTraditionalSecurity(NTS)Studies
S.RajaratnamSchoolofInternationalStudies(RSIS)
Singapore
Introduction
Airpollutionisamongthemostinescapablysharedenvironmentalchallengesimpacting
societies.Atitscore,thechallengeiseasilyframed.Humanactivitiescauseemissionssome
NTSInsight,no.IN1402,March2014
ClickhereforthePDFversion.
RapideconomicgrowthinIskandarMalaysiawillcausethenumberofvehiclesontheroadtorise.Proactiveeffortstodevelopand
implementsoundenvironmentalpoliciesarethereforeimperative.
Credit:WorldBank/flickr.
Contents:
l Introduction
ofwhicharepollutive andthesereadilycrossborderstoaffectneighbouringstates.The
challengeisnotnew.Theneedtorespondtotransboundaryairpollutionwaspresentatthe
genesisofthemodernenvironmentalmovement,withsulphuremissionsfromcontinental
Europeduringthe1960scausingtheacidificationofScandinavianlakesrepresentinganearly
rallyingpoint.
Similarscenarioswouldplayoutelsewhereoverthefollowingdecades,withSovietera
industriescreatingairpollutionimpactsforEuropetothewestandAsiatotheeast,theUSand
Canadasharingairpollutionacrossvariouspartsoftheirborder,andthegrowthofAsias
economiesleadingtopollutionincitiesandruralhinterlandsbothathomeandabroad.
SoutheastAsiasexperi enceswi thhazefroml andcl eari ngfi reshavedri venhomethe
transferabilityofairpollutionevenmoredirectly.
Inthiscontext,thepossibleramificationsoftherapidexpansionofIskandarMalaysiaforair
qualityinSingaporeandsouthernMalaysiaareworthinvestigating.AsoneofMalaysiasfive
economiccorridorsandoneseenasaninextricableelementofthevisionofafullydeveloped
Mal aysi a by 2020 IskandarMalaysiacarriessignificantweightinMalaysiannational
developmentplanning. Atthesametime,thedevelopmentofIskandarMalaysiacreates
potentialenvironmentalstresses.
Environmentalregulationsarelargelyinplace,buttherearedynamicsinMalaysia,politicaland
institutionalamongothers,thathindertherobustenforcementofenvironmentallaws,andtheprioritisationofdevelopmentoverthe
environmenthastranslatedtolaxenforcementpractices.Moreover,asIskandarMalaysiaseconomicsuccessisintheinterestofboth
federalandJohorstategovernments,commitmentstoforwardthinkingenvironmentalprotectionsmayprovedifficulttorealise.Specifically,
theprojectedeconomicgrowthandincreaseinthenumberofpeople,vehiclesandindustrieswillcreatepronouncedenvironmental
challengesandmaydeteriorateenvironmentalqualitybothinJohorandSingaporeifthesituationisnotcloselymonitoredandregulated.
Respondingtosuchconcerns,thearchitectsandoperatorsofIskandarMalaysiaareencouragingmoreenvironmentallyfriendly
developmentsthroughagreen agenda. TheseactorshaveastrategicstakeinpresentingIskandarMalaysiaasanenvironmentally
soundenterpriseforreputational,costandqualityoflifereasons.Thisgreenvisionwarrantsreviewinlightofboththesesupportingforces
andthosethatmaymakeitdifficulttoattain.
ThisNTSInsightconductssuchareviewbymovingfromtheoutsidein,beginningwithabroadanalysisofthestructuralarrangementsthat
giveprioritisationtodevelopmentovertheenvironmentinMalaysia.Thispaperthenhonesinonspecificairqualityconcernsarisingfrom
IskandarMalaysiasdevelopments.ItarguesthatsignificantthreatstoairqualityinSingaporeandsouthernMalaysiaareunlikelyinthe
shorttermbutthatoverthemediumandlongterm,attentioniswarranted.Addressingthecausesofsuchfuturethreatstoairqualityisan
immediatestrategicimperativeonbothsidesoftheStraitsofJohor.
^Tothetop
Developmentoverenvironment:AstructuralchallengeinMalaysia
Malaysiahashistoricallyprioritisedthedevelopmentagendaoverenvironmentalprotection.Malaysiaisnotuniqueinitsdesiretodevelop
rapidlyandengagewithindustriesthatcanbringstrongshorttermreturns.Similaroutlooksandstrategiescanbefoundinstatesrunning
theentiredevelopmentcontinuum, includingmanyofitsSoutheastAsianneighbours.InMalaysia,suchprioritiesmanifestinafragmented
approachtoenvironmentalmanagementandatendencytoregardtheenvironmentaleffectsofeconomicgrowthandindustrialisationas
inevitableconsequencesthatneedtobeminimised.
Statefederaldynamics
TheConstitutionalarrangementwhichspecifiesdifferentresponsibilitiesacrossfederal,stateandlocalgovernments,particularlyin
relationtotheuseoflandandnaturalresources,furtherpushesenvironmentalmanagementtotheperiphery.Thestategovernmentis
givenauthorityoverthemanagementofforests,waterresources,mining,wildlifeandfisheriesunderitsjurisdiction,asituationwhich
providesopportunitiesforstatestocapitalisefinanciallyonthoseresourceendowments.Withscantfundingandresourcesflowingfromthe
federaltothestatelevel,ithasbeenhighlytemptingforstateandsubstateactorstoprioritisedevelopmentanddeemphasise
environmentalconcernssoastobooststaterevenues. Theneedtogeneratesourcesofincomecanbeevenmorestronglyfeltinstates
whoserulingpartydiffersfromthepartyholdingpoweratthefederallevel.
Meanwhile,thefederalgovernment,despitehavinglimitedjurisdictionovertheexploitationofnaturalresources,isresponsibleforthe
countrysoverallenvironmentalmanagement.Thepoliticaltensionsbetweentheinterestsofgrowthoriented,marketdrivenstate
governmentsandenvironmentalpoliciesemanatingfromthefederallevelareamongfactorsthatrenderenvironmentalprotectionmore
l Developmentover
environment:Astructural
challengeinMalaysia
l IskandarMalaysiaandair
pollution
l Transboundaryairpollution:
Istherecauseforconcern?
l Conclusion
n ConsortiumofNTSStudies
inAsiaWebsite
n RSISCentreforNTSStudies
Website
Recommendedci tati on:Margareth
Sembi ri ng and J. Jackson Ewi ng,
Examiningeconomicdevelopment,
environmentalpolicyandtransboundary
pollution:ThecaseofIskandarMalaysia
andairquality,NTSInsight,no.IN1402
(Si ngapore: RSI S Cent re f or Non
Tradi ti onal Securi ty(NTS)Studi es,
2014).
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challenging.
ThesituationinIskandarMalaysiahasanaddedcomplexity.There,becausetheregionispartofalargernationalmasterplantodevelop
areasoutsideofthetraditionaleconomichuboftheKlangValley, federalandstateinterestshavecoalescedarounddevelopment
objectives.WhilethisalignmentofinterestscanbebeneficialforIskandarMalaysiasrapidgrowth,itmaymakeitmoredifficultfor
environmentalconcernstoreceiveadequatepolicyprioritisation.
Environmentalimpactassessments(EIAs)
Malaysia,likemanycountries,reliesonenvironmentalimpactassessments(EIAs)asacheckonunfettereddevelopmentcomingatthe
expenseofkeyenvironmentalsystemsandithasmadeEIAsmandatoryforarangeofactivities. TheexistenceofEIAs,however,doesnot
guaranteeenvironmentallyfriendlydevelopmentalpractices,asEIAreportsoftencontainsubstantialweaknesses,suchaspoorimpact
analysis,alackofmitigationalternativesandpollutioncontrol,andanabsenceofalternativeproposalsforenvironmentalmonitoring
programmes. AninvestigationintoEIAsofcoastalresortdevelopmentsinMalaysia,forexample,foundlessthan30percentofthereports
satisfactoryandtherestborderlineorpoor. ThemajorityoftheEIAreportsdidnotemploysoundmethodsandthedatacollectedwere
attimesinaccurateoroutofdate. SuchobservationssuggestthatEIAsaresometimesconductedmerelytoplacateenvironmental
concernsratherthantopreventenvironmentalproblems.
Transparencyhasalsoproventobeamajorconcern.EIAsareconductedintwostages.ThePreliminaryEIAonlyinvolvesofficialsand
governmentagencies.ItisonlyattheDetailedEIAphasethatthereisprovisionfortheparticipationofthepublicandnongovernmental
organisations(NGOs).Bythen,certainmajordecisions,suchasprojectsiting,havealreadybeenmade. Additionally,approvalsareoften
notmadepublic,andthehighpriceschargedforEIAreportsmakeitdifficulttoaccessthedocumentsandassesstheveracityofEIA
claims. EvenifanEIApointsoutseveralunsatisfactoryconditions,thatdoesnotputanautomaticstoptoadevelopment.Rather,EIAs
serveasnonbindingrecommendationsthatprojectsmaynotevenfollowupon.
AsthestructuresgoverningnaturalresourceuseandenvironmentalmanagementinMalaysiacanunderminethecreationofarobust
environmentalregulatoryframework,theprioritisationofdevelopmentovertheenvironmentislikelytoendure,includingintheaspiring
greenIskandarMalaysia.
^Tothetop
IskandarMalaysiaandairpollution
IskandarMalaysiapresentsitselfasamodelforanenvironmentallyfriendlysmartcity. TheIskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority
(IRDA),astatutorybodyestablishedbythefederalgovernment,takestheleadinpromotingandhelpingtoachievethisvision.TheIRDA
incorporatessustainabilityinitsComprehensiveDevelopmentPlan, andinanumberofitsblueprints,includingthoseforIntegrated
PublicTransportation,EnvironmentalPlanning,GreenBuildingGuidelines,IntegratedLandUse,DrainageandStormwaterManagement,
andRenewableEnergyandEnergyEfficiency.
EnvironmentalinitiativesinIskandarMalaysia
TheIRDAisinapositiontopromoteenvironmentallyresponsiblepracticestopotentialdevelopersasithelpsfacilitateapplication
processesforIskandarMalaysiaprojectsandadvisesthosebusinessesonobligatoryenvironmentalmeasures.Concurrently,theIRDA
workstopromoteawarenessonthebenefitsofsustainableprojectstolocalgovernmentsandcommunities.Aspartofitscommitmenttoa
greenagenda,theIRDAhascollaboratedwithvariousstakeholdersincludingalocalinstitution,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia(UTM),and
foreigninstitutionssuchastheJapanInternationalCooperationAgency(JICA)andKyotoUniversitytoformulateaLowCarbonSociety
blueprint.
However,theIRDAhasneithertheauthoritynorthecapacitytoenforcecompliance.Itsroleistofacilitate,promoteandcoordinatethe
progressofIskandarMalaysiabycreatingastrategicvisionandvariousplansdesignedtoleadtospecificdevelopmentoutcomes,
includingthoserelatingtotheenvironment.TheauthoritytoenforceregulationsremainsinthehandsoftheDepartmentofEnvironment.
Toencouragebuyins,theIRDApeddlessoftincentivessuchastheComprehensiveAssessmentSystemforBuiltEnvironmentEfficiency
(CASBEE),theGreenAccordInitiativeAward(GAIA)forconstructioncompanies,aswellasratingsandcommendations.Taxbreaksare
alsogiventobusinessesthatcomplywithgreenmeasures. WhilesuchincentivesmayinfluencekeyactorsinIskandarMalaysia,their
voluntarynaturerenderstherealisationofthewidergreenagendauncertainandprovidesspacefordisparateapproachestoenvironmental
management.
Thesuccessofitsgreeninitiativesisparticularlyimportantforactivitieswithhighpollutionpotential.IskandarMalaysiaissettofurther
expanditsmanufacturingsector,notablyitselectrical,electronics,petrochemicalandoleochemicaloperations,aswellasservicessuchas
logistics. Thisisinlinewithboththe10thMalaysiaPlan(20112015)andtheThirdIndustrialMasterPlan(20062020).The10th
MalaysiaPlanenvisionsthatthemanufacturingsectorwillcontribute26.3percenttogrossdomesticproduct(GDP)in2015. Theplan
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alsoidentifiestheoilandgasandelectricalandelectronicsectors majorsectorsemphasisedintheIskandarMalaysiadevelopment
plansaskeyeconomicareas. Complementingthis,theThirdIndustrialMasterPlanlooksatsustainingthegrowthmomentumofthe
manufacturingsectorwhilepromotingtheservicesector. Giventheambitiousplansforindustrialgrowth,thenumberofsourcesofair
pollutantsissettoincreaseincludingintheIskandarMalaysiadevelopmentcorridor.
GrowthofIskandarMalaysiasindustrialandtransportationsectors
Theel ectri cal andel ectroni cssectori sadomi nantsectori n
IskandarMalaysia,accountingforUSD1.5billionofvalueadded
production,andrepresenting38percentofemploymentinthe
zonesmanufacturi ngsector. I skandar Mal aysi a seeks t o
developadvancedelectricalandelectronics,renewableenergy,
aer ospace, secur i t y and def ence, and medi cal devi ces
technologiesaspartofitsvisiontobeanelectricalandelectronics
CentreofExcellenceby2025. Tosupportthisgoalandother
manufacturingsubsectors,severalareashavebeendesignated
asindustrialparks.ExamplesincludetheSenaiHiTechPark,the
JohorTechnologyPark,the527acreNusaCemerlangIndustrial
Park,the700acreSedenakIndustrialParkandthe1,300acre
SouthernIndustrialandLogisticsClusters(SiLCNusajaya). Of
these,Si LCi stheonl yonedesi gnatedforcl eanandgreen
industrialactivities thisfallsinsharpcontrastwiththeoverall
greenagendathatIskandarMalaysiaispromoting.
Expansi on i s al so expect ed f or t he ol eochemi cal sect or .
Investmentsinthesectoronacountrywidebasishaveincreased
fourfoldbetween19962000(USD26.2million)and20012005
(USD1.2billion),andthesectorisexpectedtoreceivethemajorityofthetotalinvestmentofUSD8.1billioninthepalmoilsectorbetween
2006and2020. AsoneofthebiggestcentresofpalmoilandoleochemicalsinMalaysia,IskandarMalaysiawillbenefitgreatlyfromthe
projectedgrowthofthesector.
Similarly,MalaysiaspetrochemicalsectorisprojectedtoreceiveUSD10.5billionofinvestmentsbetween2006and2020. Theambitious
expansionoftheoilandgasindustriesinIskandarMalaysiawillwitnessthedevelopmentoftheUSD18.2billionPetronasRefineryand
PetrochemicalsIntegratedDevelopment(RAPID)atthePengerangIntegratedPetroleumComplex,thelargestinvestmentinthe
downstreamsectorintheAsiaPacific.
Astheaboveindustriesareknownsourcesofairpollutants,concernsoverincreasingairpollutionresultingfromIskandarMalaysia
developmentarenotunfounded.Nationally,industrialsourcesarethehighestemittersofPM
10
(particulatematterofupto10micrometres
indiameter)andthesecondhighestemittersofsulphurdioxide(SO
2
).The2011MalaysiaEnvironmentalQualityReportrecordsthatthe
stateofJohorhas3,787suchindustrialsources,thehighestinMalaysia. IskandarMalaysiasongoingandplanneddevelopmentswill
significantlyincreasethesefigures.
IskandarMalaysiaalsoplanstodevelopaworldclasslogisticsinfrastructure.Itaimstoincreasethecapacityandoperationsofitsexisting
hubs,notablyJohorPort,thePortofTanjungPelepasandSenaiInternationalAirport,bycapitalisingonlandavailabilityintheirvicinity.
Theplantoexpandsixprioritysubsectors, includingthezonesoilstorageandtradinghub,willboosttrafficatports,theairportandonthe
roads.
Increasinglogisticsactivitiesalongsideeconomicandpopulationgrowthwillimpactemissions.ThepopulationofJohorispredictedto
increasefrom3.3millionin2010to4millionin2030. In2013,Johorhadthesecondhighestnumberofnewlyregisteredmotorvehicles
inMalaysia. Vehicleownershipispredictedtogrowfrom500carsper1,000populationtomorethan800by2025. Vehiclesarethe
primarysourceofmobilepollutants,thesinglebiggestsourceofcarbonmonoxide(CO)emissionsandcontributesignificantlyto
emissionsofnitrogendioxide(NO
2
)andPM
10
. ShipsarealsosourcesofNO
2
andSO
2
,andmostofthemoperateathightemperatures
andpressureswithfewemissionreductiontechnologies. Theinevitableincreaseinthenumberofvehiclesandshipscreatesmore
sourcesforairpollution.

Rapidgrowthoftheindustrialandtransportationsectorsin
IskandarMalaysiawillincreaseemissionsofvarioustypesof
pollutants.
Credit:MargarethSembiring/CentreforNTSStudies.
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Addressingemergentairpollutionconcerns
TheIRDAisattemptingtoaddresssomeoftheseemergentairquality
concerns.ItsEnvironmentalPlanningBlueprintaimstoreduceair
pollutionfrommobileandstationarysources,andseekstomaintain
moderateairquality20percentofthetimeandgoodairquality80per
centoftheti me. Toattainthesetargets,theBlueprintproposes
several measures,i ncl udi ngexpandi ngthenetworkofai rqual i ty
stations,establishinganairemissioninventorysystem,conductinga
studyonai remi ssi onl i mi tsandtradesystems,reduci ngorgani c
pollutantemissions,promotingcarpoolinginurbanspaces,increasing
usageofalternativefuels(biodiesel)inpublictransport,providing
accesstogreenvehi cl esforspeci fi cpubl i ctransportroutes,and
includingPM
2.5
(particlesupto2.5micrometresindiameter)aspartof
airqualitymonitoring.
TheIRDAalsospellsoutplanstomanagethetransportationsectorin
ant i ci pat i on of economi c growt h and popul at i on i ncreases. The
TransportationBlueprintspecifiesmeasurestoincreasetheuseofpublictransport,arguingthattheavailabilityofmoreefficientoptionswill
reducethecurrentpreferenceforprivatecarownership. Italsoincludesstrategiestoencouragelowemittingtransportation,suchas
raisingawarenessaboutnonmotorisedtransportation,employingintegratedlanduseandtransportplanning,andencouragingtheuseof
renewableenergyandthepracticeofenergyefficiency.
Laudablethoughtheseinitiativesmaybe,questionsremainabouttheIRDAscapacitytosuccessfullyimplementitsstrategicvisionofa
greeneconomichub. Withhundredsofprojectsinsight,itmaybestretchedforresourcestofullycarryoutandoverseeitsplans.Italso
haslittleinfluenceoverfactorssuchasprestige,affordabilityandcomfort,whichdrivepreferenceforprivatevehicles.Further,encouraging
nonmotorisedtransportationthroughcreatinganetworkofpedestrianfriendlynetworks islikelytoworkasintendedonlywithstrong
publicconfidenceinthesecurityofthesurroundingareas.Dealingwithemissionsfromshiptrafficatportsisevenmoreproblematicgiven
thatshipsarenotsubjecttoairpollutioncontrolstandardsunderthe1974EnvironmentalQualityAct,andtheonlyregulationthatappliesis
AnnexVIoftheInternationalConventionforthePreventionofPollutionfromShips2001. TheextenttowhichtheIRDAwouldbeableto
manageemissionsfromshipsisthereforelessthanclear.Theidealscenarioswrittenintheblueprintsmayfacesignificantchallenges
whenitcomestoimplementationandsustainability.
^Tothetop
Transboundaryairpollution:Istherecauseforconcern?
RapiddevelopmentsinIskandarMalaysia,alongwiththechallenges
ofrei ni ngi npotenti al sourcesofpol l uti on,maycreatenewai r
pollutionconcernsforbothJohorandSingapore.Suchconcernsare
nohoweverimmediatelypressingdespiterecentvehicularand
industrialgrowth.
AirqualitytrendsandinitiativesinMalaysia
WhilethenumberofvehiclesinMalaysiaincreased28percentinthe
fouryearsbetween2006and2010,anaverageof6.3percenteach
year, andtherewasa94percentj umpi npowergenerati on
between2000and2012, the2011MalaysiaEnvironmentalQuality
Reportsuggeststhatthegrowthdidnotleadtoacuteincreasesin
PM
10
,SO
2
,NO
2
andCO. Airqualitytrendstodateinitiallyseemat
oddswi ththei mpactsonemi ghtexpectgi venthei ncreasei n
sourcesofmanufacturingandtransportationemissions.Indeed,
currentdatasuggestthatMalaysiaisfaringbetterthanmanyother
Asiancountriesincontrollingairpollution. Thismaybebecause,
asi defromexi sti ngregul ati onstocontrol pol l uti ngemi ssi ons,
Malaysiaalsohasseveralinitiativestoaddresspollution.
MalaysiaintroducedEuro2M,acleanerfuelthatreducessulphuremissionsto500partspermillion(ppm),in2009.Withtheuseofbetter
qualityfuel,SO
2
concentrationdroppedmorethan70percentfrom1999to2011. Thecountryaimstofurtherreducesulphuremissions
withtheadoptionofEuro4Mby2016. Ithasalsobeenpromotingnaturalgasvehicles(NGVs)since1989andisgivingvarious
incentives,suchasanInvestmentTaxAllowance,grantsandarebateonexcisedutytoencouragetheuseofhybridandelectricvehicles.

WhiletherhetoricofagreenIskandarMalaysiais
pervasive,thereremainquestionsastowhetherthevision
willmaterialise.
Credit:Doug8888/flickr.

Theexpansionoflogisticsactivitieswilltranslatetohigher
trafficvolumeatportsinIskandarMalaysiaandincreasethe
emissionofairpollutants.
Credit:mepief/flickr.
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Malaysiaalsoplanstointroducemorestringentemissionstandardsforbothheavydutydieselvehiclesandvehiclesusingpetrol.
Intheindustrialsector,MalaysiaseffortstoreduceemissionsofpollutantswereevidentintheMalaysianIndustrialEnergyEfficiency
ImprovementProject(MIEEIP). Asindustrialmotorsaccountforthemajorpartoftotalindustrialenergyuse,improvingtheirenergy
efficiencycanresultinsubstantialemissionsreduction. Asignificantlevelofsupportwasgiventothisproject.Theenergyefficiencyand
conservationguidelinesandtheenergyauditprogrammedevelopedundertheMIEEIPwereimplementedandoverseenbytheMinistryof
Energy,GreenTechnologyandWater andtosupportthosemeasures,fiscalincentivesandtheEfficientManagementofElectricalEnergy
Regulations2008wereputinplace. Asaresult,electricalconsumptiongrowthintheindustrialsectorhasdroppedsignificantly,froma
238percentincreasebetween1990and2000toa44.2percentincreasebetween2000and2011. Theseinitiativestakentocontrol
vehicularandindustrialemissionscouldhavepartlycontributedtothelowoverallconcentrationsofvariousairpollutants.
IskandarMalaysiaandSingapore:Understandingairqualityimpacts
InthestateofJohor,aswiththerestofMalaysia,airqualityhasgenerallybeeninthegoodandmoderaterangesoverthepastdecade.
TheDepartmentofEnvironmenthasinstalledairqualitymonitoringstationsatKotaTinggiandMuar,andwithinIskandarMalaysia,at
LarkinLama,asuburbneardowntownJohorBahru,andPasirGudang,anindustrialtownalsojustoutsidethecitycentre.Throughout
2011,PasirGudang,theareaofJohorBahruwiththemostpollution,experienced184daysofgoodAPI,184daysofmoderateAPI,and1
dayofunhealthyAPI(API,orAirPollutionIndex,isthemeasureofpollutionusedinMalaysia).InLarkin,therewere214daysofgoodAPI
and151daysofmoderateAPI.Thereadingsshowlittlefluctuationinthepast10years, withtheexceptionof2007whenhazefrom
Indonesiaenvelopedtheregion.
DespitethegenerallypositiveairqualitytrendsinMalaysiaandJohor,thereisstillaneedtoremainvigilant.Foronething,pollution
numbersderivedfromaveragingnumbersfromlargeareasonanannualbasisarguablydonotprovidesufficientinformationtomapair
pollutioninadevelopingurbanenvironment.Concentrationsofairpollutantsarebothtime and areasensitive. Forinstance,an
investigationconductedatPasirGudangrevealedthat,duringweekdays,industrialareashadhigherSO
2
,COandNO
2
concentrationsthan
commercialandresidentialareas,andthatfluctuationsinairpollutantconcentrationswerestronglyinfluencedbytrafficvolume.
Acloserlookaturbanandindustrialenvironmentsrevealsfurthertroublingpatterns.InPasirGudang,therewereinstanceswhereNO
2
and
SO
2
levelswentaboveambientairqualityguidelines. SimilarobservationsweremadeintheKlangValley.Thereweretimesoftheyear
whenozone(O
3
) and PM
10
concentrationswentabovetheambientairguidelinesregardlessoftheoveralllowannualaverage
concentrationofO
3
andPM
10
.
Givensuchlocalvariationsandeffects,assessingthetransboundaryimpactsofthedevelopmentsinIskandarMalaysiawouldrequirethe
capacitytocollectandanalysedisaggregatedanddetaileddata.Inthisrespect,Singaporeisalreadyonestepahead.Ithasmonitoring
stationsspreadthroughoutitsterritory(14ambientstations,3roadsidestationsand1surveystation)anditsTelemetricAirQuality
MonitoringandManagementSystemmeasuresnotonlymajorpollutants(SO
2
,NO
2
,CO,O
3
andPM
10
)butalsoPM
2.5
.Acommon
approachtoairqualitystandardswouldalsobeimportantineffortstoachieveabetterunderstandingofpollutioneffectsonJohorand
Singapore.Atpresent,however,SingaporehastighterambientairqualitytargetsthanMalaysia(seetable1).
Todate,transboundaryairpollutioninSingaporeandMalaysiahasbeenoverwhelminglyassociatedwithhaze.However,theproximityof
SingaporeandIskandarMalaysia,alongwiththephysicalandmeteorologicalcharacteristicsthatbindthem,meansthatfutureairpollution
resultingfromtheincreaseinindustrialactivityandnumberofvehiclesinIskandarMalaysiacouldbecomeatransboundaryconcern.
Cooperationaimedatmonitoringandcontrollingairpollutionmayreducethepossibleoccurrenceofsuchascenario.Thistypeofjoint
efforthasbeeninpracticeinthePearlRiverDeltabetweentheGuangdongProvincialEnvironmentalMonitoringCentreandthe
Table1:Airqualitytargets,SingaporeandMalaysia.
Sources:NationalEnvironmentalAgencyofSingapore,Airqualityandtargets,NationalEnvironmentalAgency,accessed20
January2014,http://www.nea.gov.sg/psi/DepartmentofEnvironmentofMalaysia(DOE),Malaysiaenvironmentalqualityreport
2011(KualaLumpur:DOE,2011).
Singapore Malaysia
SO
2

(24hourmean)
50g/m
3

105g/m
3

PM
10

(Annualmean)
(24hourmean)
20g/m
3

50g/m
3
50g/m
3

150g/m
3
O
3

(8hourmean)
100g/m
3

120g/m
3

CO (8hourmean)
(1hourmean)
10mg/m
3

30mg/m
3
10mg/m
3

35mg/m
3
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EnvironmentalProtectionDepartmentoftheHongKongSpecialAdministrativeRegion.ARegionalAirQualityMonitoringNetworkwas
establishedaspartofcollaborativeinitiativesaimedatreducingandcontrollingairpollutioninthearea. However,asinformationsharing
cancreatesensitiveissues,fosteringinterstatecooperationonpollutioncontrolmaynotbestraightforward, andwillrequireforward
thinkingonthepartofbothpartiestopursuewhatisultimatelyintheirsharedstrategicinterest.
^Tothetop
Conclusion
InIskandarMalaysia,themuchanticipatedsuccessofitsdevelopmentvisionwillbringattendantgrowthintheindustrialandtransportation
sectorstwomajorsourcesofairpollutants.Takentogether,Malaysiasrelativelypoorrecordinimplementingenvironmentalregulations
andthetransformationalgrowthbeingwroughtbyIskandarMalaysiacreatelegitimateairpollutionconcerns.
Allthingsbeingequal,developmenthasoftenbeengivenpriorityoverenvironmentrelatedissues.Implementationofenvironmental
regulationsandassessmentshasoftenbeenunevenorhinderedbytransparencyissues.Theinfluenceofstatesovertheimplementation
ofenvironmentalregulationsislikewiserelevantgiventheirinterestingeneratingrevenuefromtheuseoftheirnaturalresources.Inareas
wheretheauthorityoftheDepartmentofEnvironmentdoesnotcomeintocontactwithstateauthority,suchasinthecontrolofvehicle
emissions,theimplementationofenvironmentalregulationsislesscontentious.However,asvehicularuseexpands,itispossiblethat
theseregulatoryeffortswillbeoutstrippedbythevolumeofemissionssources.
AcuteairqualityproblemscomingfromIskandarMalaysiaareunlikelytomanifestintheneartermhowever.TrendsinJohorsuggestthat
airqualityisnotthemostpressingenvironmentalconcernatpresent.Concernsabouttherepresentativenessofdataandtrends,
particularlyforarapidlydevelopingurbanspacesuchasIskandarMalaysia,areworthnoting,astheeffectsofgrowingnumberofair
pollutantsourcesmayactuallybeworsethanwhatisreflectedintheaggregateddatacollected,butanecdotalexperiencesalsosupport
argumentsthatairpollutionconcernsarenotyetpressing.
Thatisnottosaytheywillnotbecomeso,however,andcurrentdevelopmenttrajectorieswillcreateorpreventairpollutionchallengesofthe
future.ThisdecaderepresentsaformativeperiodofgrowthinIskandarMalaysia,andanimportanttimeforthedevelopmentcorridorand
Malaysiaasawholetoimproveenvironmentrelatedregulatorypractices.Whetherthishappenswilldependlargelyontheextenttowhichit
isrecognisedthatitisinthecountrysandregionsstrategicinteresttodoso,andontherelativesuccessoftheIRDAplatform.IftheIRDA
effectivelycompelskeyindustriestogreentheiroperations,itmayprovidethefoundationformoresustainabledevelopmentparadigms
acrossIskandarMalaysia.Publicopinionandcivilsocietyactionalsohaverolestoplay,andtherearesignsthattheyaregrowinginforcein
socialmediaandthroughariseinenvironmentalawareness.
Singapore,asaneighbourwithinasharedecosystem,canalsoinfluencedevelopmenttrendsinIskandarMalaysia.Asthelargestforeign
investorintheeconomiczone, thereisthepotentialforSingaporeanenterprisestobemoreactiveinmitigatingtheenvironmental
consequencesthattheirprojectsmaybringtoSingapore.TheirleadershipinprotectingtheenvironmentbyadheringtoMalaysian
environmentalregulationscouldbecritical.Singaporecanalsodeepenitscrossstraitcollaborationonairpollutioncontrolandmonitoring
wherepossibleprospectsofthishappeningaregreaterifthisissueisaddressedwithinhighlevelstatetostatediscussionsonIskandar
Malaysiasdevelopment.Ifsuchactionscanproceedinconcert,clearaironbothsidesoftheStraitsofJohorwillbemorelikelyfordecades
tocome.
^Tothetop
Notes
1. ThissituationwasformativeforcreatingtheUNs1979GenevaConventiononLongrangeTransboundaryAirPollution.
2. ThepoliciesunderpinningthegrowthagendaincludetheNinthMalaysiaPlan(20062010)andtheThirdIndustrialMasterPlan(20062020).See:
I s k andar Regi onal Dev el opment Aut hor i t y ( I RDA) , I n v e s t i n g i n I s k a n d a r ( J o h o r B a h r u : I R D A , 2 0 0 7 ) ,
http://www.iskandarmalaysia.com.my/pdf/brochures/Investing_in_Iskandar.pdf
3. ThegreenapproachispresentinanumberofIskandarMalaysiasblueprints,includingtheTransportationBlueprint,theEnvironmentalPlanning
Blueprint,andtheRenewableEnergyandEnergyEfficiencyBlueprint.See:IskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority(IRDA),BlueprintforIskandar
Malaysia,IskandarMalaysia,2013,accessed28October2013,http://www.iskandarmalaysia.com.my/blueprintforiskandarmalaysia
4. A.A.HezriandMohdNordinHasan,Towardssustainabledevelopment?TheevolutionofenvironmentalpolicyinMalaysia,NaturalResources
Forum30,no.1(2006):3750,http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.14778947.2006.00156.x
5. SteveMcCoy(EnvironmentalConsultant,FounderandPrincipalofCounterpointConsulting),indiscussionwithauthor,23September2013.
65
66
67
68
6. GurmitSingh(Chairman,CentreforEnvironment,TechnologyandDevelopment,Malaysia(CETDEM)andDirectorofSustainableDevelopment
Initiatives),indiscussionwiththeauthor,25September2013.
7. TheKlangValleyencompassesthecapitalcityofKualaLumpur,itssuburbsandpartsofneighbouringSelangorstate.Itisatpresentthemost
developedareainMalaysia.
8. Environmentalimpactassessments(EIAs)aremandatoryforalistofPrescribedActivities.Thelistencompassesarangeofactivitiesinagriculture,
airports,drainageandirrigation,landreclamation,fisheries,forestry,housing,industry,infrastructure,ports,mining,petroleum,powergeneration
andtransmission,quarries,railways,transportation,resortandrecreationaldevelopment,wastetreatmentanddisposal,andwatersupplysystems.
9. AddinulYakin,ImplementationandenforcementofenvironmentalpoliciesinpromotingsustainabledevelopmentinAsia:LearningfromMalaysiaand
Japan,inAsianPublicIntellectualsProgram,Power,purpose,process,andpracticeinAsia:Theworkofthe2003/2004APIFellows(KualaLumpur:
AsianPublicIntellectualsProgram,2006),http://www.apifellowships.org/body/international_ws_proceedings/year3.pdf
10. LeongWanVun,AbdulLatiffandMohdNordin,ReviewofecologicalinputinpreliminaryEIAsforcoastalresortdevelopmentprojectsinMalaysia,
JournalofEnvironmentalAssessmentPolicyandManagement6,no.3(2004):385401,http://dx.doi.org/10.1142/S146433320400178X
11. Ibid.
12. Singh,discussion.
13. Ibid.
14. NajibRazak,quotedin:FionaHarvey,IMThegreenmegacityrisingaboveSingapore,Guardian,2November2012,
http://www.theguardian.com/environment/2012/nov/02/iskandarmalaysiagreenmegacity
15. KhazanahNasional,ComprehensivedevelopmentplanforSouthJohorEconomicRegion20062025(KualaLumpur:KhazanahNasional,2006),
http://www.iskandarmalaysia.com.my/comprehensivedevelopmentplancdp
16. FortheIskandarMalaysiablueprints,see:IRDA,BlueprintforIskandarMalaysia.
17. UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,IskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority(IRDA),KyotoUniversity,OkayamaUniversity,NationalInstitutefor
EnvironmentalStudies,LowcarbonsocietyblueprintforIskandarMalaysia2025 Summaryforpolicymakers(JohorBahru:LowCarbonAsia
ResearchCenter,2012),http://2050.nies.go.jp/cop/cop18/SPM_LCS%20Blueprint_Iskandar%20Malaysia.pdf
18. BoydDionysiusJoeman(SeniorVicePresidentEnvironment,IskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority(IRDA)),indiscussionwiththeauthor,12
September2013.
19. IskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority(IRDA),WhatisIskandarMalaysia:Industrycluster,IskandarMalaysia,2013,accessed29October2013,
http://www.iskandarmalaysia.com.my/whatisiskandarmalaysiaindustrycluster
20. EconomicPlanningUnit,RancanganMalaysiaKesepuluh20112015:Ringkasaneksekutif(10thMalaysiaPlan20112015:Executivesummary)
( Put r aj aya: Economi c Pl anni ng Uni t , 2010) , 11, http://www.epu.gov.my/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=b6475444df14411cb54f
98493ed29c2e&groupId=283545
21. Ibid.,14.
22. MinistryofInternationalTradeandIndustryofMalaysia(MITI),ThirdIndustrialMasterPlan(IMP3),MinistryofInternationalTradeandIndustry,18
June2010,http://www.miti.gov.my/cms/content.jsp?id=com.tms.cms.section.Section_8ab58e8f7f00001072f772f7dbf00272
23. IskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority(IRDA),InvestelectricalandelectronicsIskandarMalaysia:AsiasnextelectricalandelectronicsCentre
ofExcellence(Kual aLumpur:PerpustakaanNegaraMal aysi a,2011),23,http://www.iskandarmalaysia.com.my/pdf/investment/IMInvest
Electronic.pdf
24. Ibid.,24.
25. Ibid.,304.
26. Ibid.,32.
27. MinistryofInternationalTradeandIndustryofMalaysia(MITI),Oilpalmbasedindustry,inThirdIndustrialMasterPlan(IMP3)20062020(Kuala
Lumpur:MITI,2010),4658 8 , http://www.miti.gov.my/cms/documentstorage/com.tms.cms.document.Document_879bae59c0a815731bef1bef
926c5327/chapter14_25.pdf
28. IskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority(IRDA),InvestpetrochemandoleochemIskandarMalaysia:Theworldclasspetrochemicaland
oleochemicaldestination(KualaLumpur:PerpustakaanNegaraMalaysia,2011),29,http://www.iskandarmalaysia.com.my/pdf/investment/IMInvest
PetroOleo.pdf
29. MITI,Petrochemicalsindustry,inThirdIndustrialMasterPlan(IMP3)20062020,398.
30. EconomicTransformationProgramme,RefineryandPetrochemicalIntegratedDevelopment(RAPID),13June2011,
http://etp.pemandu.gov.my/13_June_2011@Refinery_and_Petrochemical_Integrated_Development_%28RAPID%29.aspx
31. DepartmentofEnvironmentofMalaysia(DOE),Malaysiaenvironmentalqualityreport2011(KualaLumpur:DOE,2011).
32. IskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority(IRDA),InvestlogisticsIskandarMalaysia:Asiasmostcentralandexpandablelogisticshub(Kuala
Lumpur:PerpustakaanNegaraMalaysia,2011),http://www.iskandarmalaysia.com.my/pdf/investment/IMInvestLogistic.pdf
33. Thesixlogisticsprioritysubsectorsareregionaldistributioncentres(RDCs),internationalprocurementcentres(IPC),integratedlogisticsservices
(ILS),internationalintegratedlogisticsservices(IILS),oilstorageandtradinghub,andhalallogisticshub.See:IRDA,InvestlogisticsIskandar
Malaysia,30.
34. DepartmentofStatisticsofMalaysia,Populationquickinfo,DepartmentofStatisticsMalaysiaOfficialPortal,undated,accessed9September2013,
http://statistics.gov.my/portal/index.php?option=com_content&id=471:populationfinder&Itemid=111&lang=en
35. RoadTransportDepartmentofMalaysia,Land,PortalRasmiKementerianPengangkutanMalaysia,2013(TablesforNewregisteredmotorvehicles
bytypeandstate,Malaysia f or Firstquarter,2013, Secondquarter,2013, andThirdQuarter,2013) , accessed18February2013,
http://www.mot.gov.my/en/Statistics/Pages/Land.aspx
36. IskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority(IRDA),Transportationblueprint20102030forIskandarMalaysia:Publicversion(JohorBahru:IRDA,
2011),2,http://www.iskandarmalaysia.com.my/pdf/blueprint/TransportationBlueprint.pdf
37. DOE,Malaysiaenvironmentalqualityreport2011,72.
38. MuhammadHanisWahab,EmissionsofgaseousandparticulatepollutantsofoceangoingvesselsinJohorPort(mastersthesis,University
TeknologiMalaysia,2009),http://eprints.utm.my/11996/
39. IskandarRegionalDevelopmentAuthority(IRDA),Environmentalplanning:BlueprintforIskandarMalaysia:Publicversion(JohorBahru:IRDA,
2011),14,http://www.iskandarmalaysia.com.my/pdf/blueprint/environmentalblueprint.pdf
40. Ibid.
41. IRDA,Transportationblueprint20102030forIskandarMalaysia.
42. Ibid.
43. NazeryKhalid(ResearchFellow,CentreforCoastalandMarineEnvironment,MaritimeInstituteofMalaysia),indiscussionwiththeauthor,23
September2013.
44. KhazanahNasional,Chapter13:JohorBahruCityCentre,inComprehensivedevelopmentplanforSouthJohorEconomicRegion20062025.
45. NazeryKhalid,JoannaTangandSureshRajamanickam,Greeningthemaritimesector:Preparingforalowcarbonfuture(KualaLumpur:Maritime
I ns t i t ut e of Mal ay s i a, 2010) , http://www.mima.gov.my/mima/wpcontent/uploads/greening%20the%20maritime%20sector_final%20report%
207oct10.pdf
46. DepartmentofStatisticsofMalaysia,StatisticsyearbookMalaysia2011(Putrajaya:DepartmentofStatisticsofMalaysia,2012),
http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=1824%3Ayearbookofstatisticsmalaysia2011&catid=129%
3Aonlinepublications&lang=en
47. SuruhanjayaTenaga(EnergyCommission),Energybalance:Electricitygeneration,MalaysiaEnergyInformationHub,2011,accessed18February
2013,http://meih.st.gov.my/statistics?p_auth=10SDFiep&
p_p_id=Eng_Statistic_WAR_STOASPublicPortlet&p_p_lifecycle=1&p_p_state=maximized&
p_p_mode=view&p_p_col_id=column1&p_p_col_pos=1&p_p_col_count=2&
_Eng_Statistic_WAR_STOASPublicPortlet_execution=e1s1&_Eng_Statistic_WAR_STOASPublicPortlet__eventId=ViewStatistic2&categoryId=
4&flowId=6&showTotal=true
48. Overall,pollutantconcentrationsarewellbelowMalaysiasambientairqualityguidelines.Averageconcentrationsinpartspermillion(ppm)wereas
follows(guidelinelevelsareshowninbrackets):SO
2
0.0023(0.4)NO
2
0.0082(0.17)CO 0.72(9)PM
10
44.38(50).See:DOE,Malaysia
environmentalqualityreport2011.
49. AsianDevelopmentBank(ADB)andCleanAirInitiativeforAsianCities(CAIAsia),Countrysynthesisreportonurbanairqualitymanagement:
Malaysia(Manila:ADB,2006),http://www.cleanairinitiative.org/portal/system/files/documents/malaysia_0.pdf
50. DOE,Malaysiaenvironmentalqualityreport2011.
51. MalaysiatoimplementEuro4Min2015,AsianCleanFuelsAssociation(ACFA),June2012,http://www.acfa.org.sg/newsletterinfocus08_01.php.
See:DepartmentofStandards,Malaysia,Malaysianstandard:DieselfuelSpecification Part2:Euro4M(Cyberjaya:DepartmentofStandards
Malaysia,2011),http://www.msonline.gov.my/catalog.php
52. MinistryofTransportofMalaysia(MOT)andDepartmentofEnvironmentofMalaysia(DOE),Sustainablemobility(presentationfortheSixthRegional
ESTForum,NewDelhi,46December2011),http://www.uncrd.or.jp/env/6thregionalestforum/doc/country_r/group3/EST23_02_Malaysia.pdf
53. FromEuro1toEuro2forheavydutydieselvehiclesandfromEuro2toEuro3forvehiclesusingpetrol.EurostandardsareindexedasEuro1,Euro
2,Euro3onwards,withthehighernumberssignifyingmorestringentemissionlimits.
54. JanvanderAkker,Finalevaluation:MalaysianIndustrialEnergyEfficiencyImprovementProject(MIEEIP)(finalversion,GovernmentofMalaysia,
UNDevelopmentProgramme(UNDP)andGlobalEnvironmentFacility,2008),http://www.undp.org.my/uploads/MIEEIP%20Final%20Evaluation%
20Report%20Jan%202008.pdf
55. R.Saiduretal.,EnergyandemissionanalysisforindustrialmotorsinMalaysia,EnergyPolicy37,no.9(2009):36508.
56. MinistryofEnergy,GreenTechnology,andWaterofMalaysia,MalaysianEnergyEfficiencyImprovementProgramme(MIEEIP),KeTTHA,3December
2009,http://www.kettha.gov.my/en/content/malaysianenergyeffiencyimprovementprogrammemieeip
57. AhmadZairinIsmail,EnergyefficiencyandenergymanagementinitiativesinMalaysia(powerpointpresentation,2012),http://home.jeita.or.jp/greenit
pc/activity/symposium/120803/pdf/sympo_2012_s02_3.pdf
58. SuruhanjayaTenaga(EnergyCommission),Nationalenergybalance2011(Putrajaya:EnergyCommission,2013),
http://www.st.gov.my/index.php/component/k2/item/553nationalenergybalance2011.html
59. DOE,Malaysiaenvironmentalqualityreport2011.
60. DepartmentofStatisticsofMalaysia,Environmentalstatisticstimeseries:Malaysia2012(Putrajaya:DepartmentofStatisticsofMalaysia,2012),3,
http://www.statistics.gov.my/portal/download_Environment/files/Environmental_Statistics_Time_Series_Malaysia_2012.pdf
61. SitiZawiyahAzmietal.,TrendandstatusofairqualityatthreedifferentmonitoringstationsintheKlangValley,Malaysia,AirQuality,Atmosphere,
andHealth3,no.1(2010):5364,http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s1186900900511NorazrinaYusof,ThestudyofairqualityinPasirGudang(masters
thesis,UniversitiTeknologiMalaysia,2005/2006).
62. Yusof,ThestudyofairqualityinPasirGudang.
63. Ibid.
64. DOE,Malaysiaenvironmentalqualityreport2011,1011.
65. GuangdongProvincialEnvironmentalMonitoringCentreandEnvironmentalProtectionDepartmentoftheHongKongSpecialAdministrativeRegion,
Pe a r l Ri v e r De l t a Re g i o n a l Ai r Qu a l i t y Mo n i t o r i n g Ne t wo r k : A r e p o r t o f mo n i t o r i n g r e s u l t s i n 2 0 1 2 ( 2012) ,
http://www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/resources_pub/publications/files/PRD_2012_report_en.pdf
66. ThisisevidentmostdirectlyinSoutheastAsiainthedifficultiesofaddressingtransboundaryhaze.
67. WanPortiahHamzahandDrTanJunE(researchers,InstituteofStrategicandInternationalStudies(ISIS)),indiscussionwiththeauthor,24
September2013.
68. WongWeiHan,Spore,MsiatradegrowsonIskandaractivities,Today,21November2013,http://www.todayonline.com/business/sporemsia
tradegrowsiskandaractivities
^Tothetop
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inauguratedbyAssociationofSoutheastAsianNations(ASEAN)SecretaryGeneralDrSurinPitsuwaninMay2008.TheCentre
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