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INTRODUCTION

This article presents details on some new materials for race engine components as well as some additional
engineering information on some alloys currently in use. The terms used here to define material properties and
processing are explained immediately below.
BASIC MATERIALS TERMINOLOGY
Stress is a normalized method for expressing the severity of loading applied to a material. It is expressed as the
applied load divided by the area to which the load is applied. For example, if a 9,8 pound tension load was
applied to a !"#$inch diameter bar %.!9& s'uare inch cross$sectional area ( diameter x diameter x .)8*+, the
tensile stress would be *, pounds per s'uare inch %psi, %stress ( load " area ( 98 " .!9&,.
-ote that this is the simplest form of stress, to illustrate the point. It does not ta.e into account bending, shear,
torsion, or any other complexities. /tress values in this article are stated in ksi, meaning thousands of pounds per
s'uare inch %0 .si ( 0, psi,.
The Yield Stress (YS) of a given material is the stress value re'uired to permanently stretch a test specimen a
specific amount %usually #1,.
The Ultimate Tensile Stress (UTS) of a given material is the stress value re'uired to fracture the specimen %pull it
apart into two pieces,. The UTS and YS values are measured on a testing apparatus designed to gradually
increase the load on a specimen until it fails, and measure the deflection as the load is applied. i!"res
# and $show such a test before and after fracture.
Figure 1
Tensile Test, Pre-fracture
Figure 2
Tensile Test, Post-fracture
Cree% is the phenomenon in which a metal, when exposed to a high stress level over an extended time period
%typically hundreds or even thousands of hours, will exhibit a 'uasi$permanent strain %deformation,, which occurs
at different rates depending on the length of exposure. 2igh temperatures generally increase the rate of creep.
ati!"e is the term used to describe the brea.age of a metal part that occurs when the part is sub3ected to a load
which varies over time, even though the varying load is well below the 4/ of the material. ati!"e is covered in
detail on a dedicated page on this site.
There are different types of fatigue loading. 5ne is zero$to$max$to$zero, where a part carrying no load is sub3ected
to a specific load, then the load is removed. 6n example is a chain used to pull logs behind a tractor. 6nother type
is a varying$load$superimposed$on$a$constant$load. The suspension wires in a bridge are an example of this type.
The wires carry a constant static load from the weight of the bridge, plus an additional varying tensile load from the
vehicles traveling across the bridge. The most severe case is the fully$reversing$load in which a specific tensile
load is applied to the part then released, then a compressive load of the same value is applied and released. 6n
example is the load applied to the roots of the teeth in an idler gear.
Fatigue tests use fully reversing loading to test the properties of materials, and the results are extremely statistical.
The number of cycles a given material can survive a specific fully$reversing stress increases as the stress level
decreases. 7ertain materials exhibit a property .nown as 8infinite life9, which is defined as the fully$reversing stress
level %the endurance limit, or EL, which a material can survive for ! million applications %cycles,.
N&t'h T&"!hness is a measurement of a material:s resistance to brea.age from impact loading. If you hit a
diamond with a hammer, it will shatter; If you hit the head of another hammer with a hammer and the hammer in
your hand will spring bac.; If you hit the fender of your car with a hammer, well you .now how that turns out...<
-otch toughness is measured by several different tests, the 7harpy =$-otch %7=-, being one of the most
fre'uently used. In that test, a specific size 8=9$shaped notch is cut into a specific size rectangular bar of the test
material %>specimen>,, then the specimen is mounted in a testing machine which has a pendulum$type hammer.
The pendulum is raised to a specific height and released. It stri.es the specimen right behind the notch and
fractures it. The .inetic energy %ft$lbs, contained in the pendulum at the time it stri.es the specimen is easily
calculated. The energy remaining in the pendulum after it brea.s the specimen can be calculated from the distance
it travels post$fracture. The energy re'uired to brea. the specimen is obviously the difference between the two
values, which is the 7=- value %ft$lbs, for the material at the tested hardness.
(R' $ The hardness of a material as measured on the ?oc.well >7> scale. %There are several other hardness
scales@ ?oc.well 6 and A, Arinell, =ic.ers, Bnoop, /hore, etc., having different uses and ranges. 2?c is the most
fre'uently used scale for steels; 2?b is a common measurement for softer metals., /ince the strength versus
hardness relationship is .nown for each material, this test is a simple way to verify the strength of a .nown
material.
)&rk*(ardenin! is an increase in the strength and hardness of a metal resulting from plastic deformation at a
temperature below the crystal$restructuring range.
+a'""m Ind"'ti&n Meltin! (+IM) is a primary$melt process for producing very high purity steels by melting the
materials by induction heating inside a high$vacuum chamber.
Ele'tr&*Sla! Remeltin! (ESR) is an open$air remelting process through a reactive slag which produces a clean
steel with good crystallography.
,ress"ri-ed ESR (,ESR) is an C/? remelt but the furnace is pressurized with !$!* bar of nitrogen to prevent the
formation of oxides, producing a cleaner steel than C/?.
+a'""m Ar' Remeltin! (+AR) is a refining process in which steels are remelted inside a vacuum chamber to
reduce the amount of dissolved gasses in the metal. 2eating is by means of an electric arc between a consumable
electrode and the ingot, and typically ta.es twice as long as C/? or DC/?.
It is well established that material cleanliness %absence of contaminants, oxides, bubbles, unwanted elements, is a
ma3or contributor to high fatigue life. 6fter the primary melt, there are various remelt processes which produce an
increasing level of purity in the metal. =IE$=6? is generally used to produce the cleanest %and most expensive,, of
double$melt steel, nic.el and titanium alloys, and therefore, the best fatigue properties of double$melt methods.
Triple$melt =IE$C/?$=6? produces extreme cleanliness in exchange for extreme cost.
(&t Is&stati' ,r&'essin! ((I,) is a method of essentially eliminating internal voids and microporosity in cast
components and powder forgings. The components are put in an autoclave and heated to a temperature
appropriate for the material and held for several hours while being sub3ected to a high pressure atmosphere of
inert gas %as high as # bar,.
MATERIAL SELECTION
The correct selection of a material for a particular application is a highly specialized field and usually re'uires
consideration of a wide spectrum of re'uirements. In a race engine environment, the demands can be extreme,
calling for various combinations of high strength and high fatigue resistance at high temperatures, and the
minimum weight which will meet the stress and life re'uirements.
The perfectly$designed race engine component would operate at its design level until 3ust after the chec.ered flag
of the last race it was designed to run. The engineering challenge in material selection is complicated by the highly
statistical nature of strength and fatigue ratings, as well as the practical problems of cost and availability. /imply
stated, what is the point of specifying a + .si material if it has limited availability and"or a cost that ma.es the
target product unaffordableF
That trade$off provides the motivation to solve component$life problems by modifying the design to suit materials
which are available in commercial 'uantities and"or for reasonable costs. The word 8reasonable9 is highly
ambiguous in the context of costs in the racing world. The 0$E which CDI, Inc. uses for highly$stressed aircraft
components costs over G* per pound, or nearly G!9 for a !$foot bar of #$inch round. The exotic nitriding steel
%0#7rEo=!0, used for certain high$end cran.shafts can cost over G# per pound in the very high purity %=IE$=6?,
form; over G* for a #&> bar of )> round suitable for a 7up cran.shaft, for example. 7ertain high$end DE alloys
can cost over G#+ per pound. /ome titanium alloys cost over G& per pound. In the nether$worlds where cost is no
ob3ect %Formula 5ne, 7up, factory He Eans teams and the li.e, those numbers might not seem important, but at
other levels of racing, the costs can be prohibitive.
STEELS
In the article on Cranksha.ts, I briefly discussed the ultra$high$strength steel .nown as /00*M %6E/ &+!9,. This
alloy has been used in a variety of high$strength applications including cran.shafts, con rods, torsion bars and
gears %not to mention various critical aircraft applications such as landing gear components,. This alloy is
interesting because, although it has a remar.able combination of properties %strength, fatigue life, impact
resistance and ductility,, it has somewhat fallen out of favor, primarily because it has been misused.
2ere is an example. /uppose a company has been ma.ing successful con rods from +0+, and it decides to add a
higher strength product. The engineers at the company have heard that 0$E is a great material, so they decide
to use it for the new con rod. 6t a hardness of ++$+& 2?c, their +0+ con rod has good strength %## IT/ " #
4/, and impact resistance %## ft$lb 7=-,. 2owever, although the strength of +0+ increases at hardness values
above +& 2?c, the impact resistance becomes 'uite poor, so ++$+& 2?c is the typical compromise hardness for
+0+ cran.s and con rods.
Jhile developing their 0$E con rod, some designers have incorrectly reasoned that since 0$E is a >modified>
+0+ %see Ta1le #,, the 0$E part should be tempered bac. to the same hardness used for +0+ %+& 2?c, to
achieve good toughness. The resulting con rod has issues, and 0$E gets a bad rap.
The problem is that even though the strength of 0$E at ++$+& 2?c is higher than +0+, its notch sensitivity at +&
2?c is 2er3 %&&r %! ft$lb 7=-,.
In fact, the pea. value for 0$E notch sensitivity occurs at a hardness of *0 2?c, where the value %## ft$lb 7=-,
is the same as for +0+ at +& 2?c, but the 0$E has far greater strength %#89 IT/ " #+* 4/,.
6t *02?c, it is a bit more challenging to machine, but that is not a significant problem. Further, the extra carbon in
0$E allows a &2?c surface to be produced on *02?c through$hardened parts by induction hardening and
tempering at 0KF, ma.ing it useful for some challenging gear and shaft applications. %Aoeing uses lots of 0$E
at *#$*0 2?c in landing gear components.,
?ecently, I heard about a new high$strength steel product from Aohler$Cdelstahl, which offers potential for
improvements in gearing and shafting applications. This steel, .nown as J$0&, is a high$strength chrome$moly$
vanadium alloy, having somewhat different chemistry %see Ta1le #, than the exotic chrome$moly$vanadium
cran.shaft alloy %0#$7rEo=$!0, discussed in my Cranksha.t Desi!n article. J$0& achieves post$heat$treat
IT/"4/ values of #9 " #) .si, with a through$hardness of *&2?c, by austenitizing at !9#*KF %!*K7,, oil$
'uenching and triple tempering at !)*KF %*8K7,. The alloy exhibits extremely low distortion after heat treating.
6t #9 " #) .si IT/"4/, J$0& exhibits a *1 reduction of area %?56, during tensile testing. 6s an aside@ careful
examination of i!"re $ reveals the 8nec.ing$down9 a tensile specimen undergoes 3ust before failure. The
reduction in cross$sectional area provides a 'uantitative measurement of a material:s ductility. This phenomenon is
discussed further on the Stress and Strain page.
6lthough J$0& already has * points of carbon, it can be successfully carburized, but a non$standard carbon
potential is re'uired. The high tempering temperature allows post$heat$treat nitriding and the application of D=L
coatings while retaining the high core strength. Jith this steel, it is possible to produce a component having
carburized gear teeth on one end and nitrided splines on the other.
Mears made from J$0& alloy have been successfully application$tested in an extremely$brutal form of high$end
motorsport. In these applications, the best 0$E and carburized 90! gears were failing in root fatigue from
impact loading, while similar gears from J$0& survived a much longer exposure to that environment. Himited axial
fatigue testing of 6irEelt$DC/? samples shows an endurance limit of !N) cycles at !08 .si %9*! mpa,. 5ne
cannot help but wonder how a =IE$=6? version of this steel would perform in fatigue testing.....
SU,ERALLOYS
There are some uni'ue material selection challenges in the design of very$high$strength threaded fasteners. 2igh$
grade fasteners are exposed to high stress concentration in the thread roots caused by the tensile stresses
produced from extremely high clamping loads, on top of which are superimposed any fatigue loads %as in the case
of a con rod bolt,.
6 thread with a sharp$cornered root would be doomed to a 'uic. failure. 2igh$grade fasteners typically use the
large full$radius fillet 8I-O9 thread form to minimize the stress concentrations there. -evertheless, those radii are
very small in relationship to the other dimensions of the fastener %minimum radius ( .!** " threads$per$inch, so a
#$thread$per$inch fastener has a .))> minimum radius in the root,.
In order for a highly$loaded fastener to survive, the thread must be rolled with a die, producing the full$fillet thread
root with a high residual compressive stress, which counteracts applied tensile stresses and adds dramatically to
the fatigue life of the part.
There has been lots of research and experimentation with ma.ing ultra$high$strength threaded fasteners out of
#8P .si 'uenched " tempered and maraging steels, but there have been problems with notch sensitivity, stress
corrosion, fatigue, and other issues.
To solve those problems, producers loo.ed to exotic alloys. 5ne of the best solutions was the alloy 6E/$*8++
%also .nown as ED0*-,, which was initially developed for extreme corrosion resistance and strength re'uired in
hot, corrosive oil and gas drilling operations. 6E/$*8++ is a multiphase nic.el$cobalt based alloy containing
significant amounts of chrome and moly but almost no carbon or iron %Ta1le $,. It can be wor.$hardened, then
aged to strength levels as high as 0 .si. The wor.$hardening feature lends itself to the production of very$high$
strength rolled threads. Fasteners made from 6E/$*8++ are routinely specified for aerospace applications and in
the highest levels of motorsport.
Aecause of the large amount of cobalt in 6E/$*8++, the material cost is 'uite high %currently around G8 per
pound,. To find a more economical solution that provides the same performance, a leading I/
fastenermanufacturer (AR,) wor.ed with 7arpenter Technology to develop 7ustom$6ge$&#*$DHI/ %a modification
of 7arpenter:s 76$&#* chemistry,.
7ustom$6ge$&#*$DHI/ is a nic.el$based alloy with a significant chrome and moly content, but with no cobalt,
virtually no carbon and a small amount of iron. It can be wor.$hardened, then aged to strength levels around #)
.si. %-5TC@ 5ther superalloys shown in Ta1le $ are discussed in the article on T"r1&'har!ers.,
Table 2
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Hots of in. has been used on discussions of aluminum piston material. Forged #&!8 was used for piston material in
/econd Jorld Jar aircraft engines. In certain piston engine applications, forged +0# was preferred because of its
lower coefficient of expansion. 6lloy #&!8 is often described as having higher strength than +0#, but at elevated
temperatures %where pistons tend to operate,, the strength distinction becomes 'uite small %Ta1le /,. In fact, at
+KF, the 0# .si 4/ of +0# alloy is !81 higher than that of #&!8 %#) .si, at the same temperature. 2owever,
#&!8 has an impressive resistance to wea.ening with prolonged exposure to elevated temperatures. #&!8 is a
copper$magnesium alloy with low silicon, but it expands with temperature about !*1 faster than the high$silicon
+0# alloy. 7urrently, piston manufacturers seem to prefer the #&!8 alloy, and many have done slight modifications
either to the chemistry or to the tolerances to produce >proprietary> alloys.
There is a new family of high$strength extruded aluminum alloys currently under development by a ma3or I/
titanium valve manufacturer %Del )est,. The members of this family are derived from existing # and )
series wrought alloys, by a proprietary process in which existing chemistries are modified by the addition of
spheroidized aluminum oxide, with the volume percentage varying between * and #1 depending on the targeted
properties of the new material.
Jhen compared to the base alloy, this process yields substantial improvements in the 3ield and "ltimate stress
values %!$!*1, and in the .ati!"e %er.&rman'e across the usable temperature range of the base alloy, plus a
significant red"'ti&n in the thermal e4%ansi&n rate, and a dramatic in'rease in sti..ness, with the elastic
modulus increased as much as +1 %to nearly the value of titanium,.
For example, comparing the new #$based alloy %8LJ #$!*9, to #&!8 at +KF, the yield strength of #&!8 is #&.8
.si, while the yield strength of the #$!* is 0#.& .si, an improvement of more than #!1. Aut that:s not all. The
coefficient of thermal expansion of the #$!* alloy is #+1 lower than #&!8, and is even 81 lower than the >low
expansion> +0# alloy.
Fatigue testing on the )$based alloy %8LJ )$!*9, showed a tremendous improvement in fatigue performance
compared to the very$high$strength ))*$T&. 6s an aside@ Ta1le / contains some interesting information on
several often$used alloys, both wrought and cast.
The fatigue testing of the #$based alloys has yet to be completed. 2owever, preliminary indications are that the
results will show strength and fatigue improvements similar to the improvements realized in the )$series. If the
expected results are verified, that will present the opportunity for yet another improvement in piston technology@
strength and fatigue properties exceeding #&!8 with expansion less than +0#. The materials will be available in
extruded bar and plate form, with planned release in late #8.
Table 3
Chemistry and Physical Properties of Some Interesting luminum lloys
Ta1le / contains the chemistries and some physical properties of the alloys discussed above, as well as properties
of several other popular wrought and cast aluminum alloys. 5f particular interest are the room temperature and
elevated temperature strengths of some of the cast alloys, ma.ing them applicable to such demanding applications
as t"r1&'har!er '&m%ress&r 5heels. -ote, for example, how the strength of the famous high$strength alloy
))*$T& drops to 0)1 of its room temperature value at 0KF and to less than #1 at +KF. 6lso, note how the
strength of )+)*$T&! drops to about #&1 of its room temperature value at +KF.
MAGNESIUM ALLOYS
Eagnesium is the eighth$most abundant element in the earth:s crust %#.)1,. 6lthough sometimes perceived as
exotic, magnesium alloys have been used for decades in both motorsport and production vehicles. For example,
=J began using cast magnesium cran.cases for its !9&!$model, + horsepower flat four, air$cooled engine.
It is generally accepted that it is more difficult to successfully cast magnesium alloys than aluminum alloys, for
reasons which include %a, the melt must be covered with either an inert atmosphere or with a special flux to .eep
oxygen away from the molten metal and %b, magnesium has a relatively low heat of fusion, which can distinctly
increase the problems encountered with gating and feeding.
7ertain contemporary sand$casting magnesium alloys are ideal for high$strength cast housings which are exposed
to operating temperatures up to +KF %#+K7,. 2igh$strength magnesium alloys are currently used in aircraft
gearboxes, J?7 transmission components, and %allegedly, in Formula 5ne engine ancillaries. 6 low$creep die$
casting magnesium alloy is used in a new AEJ production engine bloc..
7orrosion issues have often been seen as intimidating, but recent metallurgies plus combinations of contemporary
technologies %chromating, anodizing, sealing, painting, have made the atmospheric corrosion issues much less
significant. /ince magnesium is highly anodic, there are galvanic corrosion issues to be dealt with, but they can be
designed out.
Eagnesium alloys are approximately 0*1 lighter than aluminum alloys, and certain alloys can be heat$treated to
IT/ values approaching +0 .si, ma.ing them attractive because of their high strength " weight ratio. The stiffness
of magnesium is generally only about &01 of aluminum alloys, so components being switched from aluminum to
magnesium will re'uire larger cross$sections and section moduli to achieve the same stiffness as the aluminum
part, and can result in a weight saving of #$#*1 depending upon the design.
There are two ma3or magnesium alloy systems %and several others less fre'uently used,. The first system
%aluminum$zinc, is primarily targeted at high$volume die$casting re'uirements. These alloys contain from 01 to
!1 aluminum and smaller percentages of zinc and manganese. These alloys They are widely available and
modest in cost. Their mechanical properties are good to approximately ##KF, but beyond that point, begin to
diminish rapidly. In the early eighties, it was discovered that if the 'uantity of iron, nic.el and silicon %contaminants
to these alloys, were .ept very low, the corrosion properties of the 6l$Qn alloys became 'uite reasonable.
Eost alloys in this family are best$suited to high$pressure die$casting methods because in those processes, the die
acts as a huge chill, and causes fairly rapid freezing %3ust a few seconds, of the melt. The rapid cooling of the melt
is what gives the 6l$Qn alloys their good strength properties. 7onversely, extreme s.ill and care is generally
re'uired to obtain good sand$castings in 6l$Qn alloys. The slow cooling rate which occurs in sand$casting generally
provides poor material properties and inconsistent strength between thic. and thin sections unless elaborate chill
systems are installed in the molds.
Typically, it ta.es high$volume production operations to cost$3ustify the investment in die$casting tooling.
Eotorsports, on the other hand, often need relatively small numbers of castings, and therefore, rely on the lower
tooling costs of sand$casting methods.
It was the need for good sand$casting magnesium alloys which provided part of the motivation for the development
of the second ma3or alloying system. That system consists of magnesium alloyed with various combinations of
other elements %rare earths, zinc, thorium, silver, but -5T aluminum, to achieve a set of desired properties. This
system includes a small, but essential 'uantity of the grain$refiner zirconium, which produces a very tiny grain size
in the metal, thus giving the alloys very consistent, homogeneous properties, without the need to rely on a fast
cooling rate.
These ?are Carth containing alloys have some highly desirable properties@ %a, they can be sand$cast, investment$
cast and extruded, %b, many of them have excellent tensile and yield values, %c, they do not depend on fast
freezing rates to achieve good strength, and %d, very important is the fact that these alloys retain their room
temperature strength values much better than Eg$6l$Qn and aluminum alloys at higher temperatures %see Ta1le
6,.
Table !
Chemistry and Physical Properties of Some "agnesium lloys
The alloy JC$+0A is a high$strength, corrosion$resistant casting alloy specifically developed to maintain its high
mechanical properties up to *)KF 5ith&"t using silver %which degrades the corrosion properties, or thorium
%which is radioactive,. Jhen this alloy is extruded, the mechanical properties are uniform in all directions
%isotropic,. In the $T& condition, it has reasonably$high room temperature properties, but the way it maintains
almost constant properties up to and above +KF is highly desirable for certain applications %see Ta1le 6,. This
alloy was originally developed for the aerospace industry, and it is currently used for several helicopter
transmission housings, the propeller gearbox housing on a new, very$high power turboprop engine, and in several
high$end motorsport applications.
There is a recent high$strength sand$casting alloy %Cle.tron$#!, which has room$temperature and high$temperature
%to +KF, strength properties similar to JC$+0A %Ta1le 6,, but which has been specifically developed for better
casting properties than JC$+0A.
I was told that it is typically 'uite difficult to investment$cast magnesium alloys to obtain thin$wall therefore very
lightweight parts. The developers of Cle.tron$#!alloy reasoned that %a, if they could provide a high$strength alloy
from which it is easier to cast successful parts,, then %b, it will be easier to ma.e design changes, %c, the scrap rate
will be lower, so %d, the overall cost of parts will decrease. Cle.tron$#!is a high$strength alloy which is highly
suitable for investment casting as well as sand$casting technology, and I have heard that it is now being used more
regularly in military aircraft applications as well as J?7, EotoMD and other forms of high$end motorsport.
Figure 3
#le$tron-%&' Properties
6n interesting new wrought mag$nesium alloy is currently under development. This alloy %Cle.tron$&)*, represents
a step$change upward in mechanical properties. The tensile " yield values are listed as &# " +) .si respectively, with
initial tests showing excellent fatigue properties. The chemistry, thus the alloying system, is presently undisclosed
while the patent is being sought. The strength versus tem$perature properties are shown in i!"re /, constructed
from data provided by the manufacturer. This material, being in the early stages of life, is not yet available in
production volumes.
Figure !
(") "agnesium (loc$
The alloy 6O$&#6 is a recently developed high$pressure die$casting alloy based on the -oranda$developed
magnesium$aluminum$strontium ternary alloy system, with the specific goals of providing excellent high$
temperature creep resistance and excellent high$pressure die casting properties in order to avoid the problems of
hot tearing, cold shuts, porosity and difficult removal from the dies.
Ising this alloy, AEJ developed a composite inline$& engine bloc. %i!"re 6, which uses 6O$&# for the external
bloc., and an aluminum alloy for the liners, coolant passages and main bearing bul.heads. This bloc. is reported
to be #+1 lighter than a conventional aluminum bloc. and contributes to AEJ:s claim that the ?& engine, at !&!
.g, is the lightest 0. litre inline$six in the world.
TITANIUM
Titanium based alloys have been commercially available for 3ust a little over * years. 2owever, they have
achieved widespread use in aerospace and various forms of motorsport. The valves and con rods in Formula 5ne
engines and the valves in -6/76? 7up engines are made from titanium alloys. It is used in various other
applications including springs, torsion bars, fasteners, flywheels and clutch components.
Titanium is alloyed with combinations of other elements %mainly aluminum, vanadium, molybdenum, silicon,
chromium, iron, zirconium and niobium, to produce titanium$based alloys metals with various physical properties.
These alloys have densities which range between .!*8 $ .!)* lb"inR %+.0) $ +.8+ gm"cc,, ma.ing them *&1 to
&#1 of the weight of steel, and stiffnesses which vary between *01 to &!1 of steel %!*.* to !).)x!N& psi,.
7ertain alloys can be heat$treated to strengths exceeding #!* .si %!+8 mpa, IT/. ?egardless of the strength
levels, applications which have stiffness re'uirements would re'uire a redesign to ta.e best advantage of titanium.
Inli.e steel alloys, where the basic melt is an air$melt process, all titanium melting must be done in a vacuum, so
the basic grades are =IE; high purity grades are =IE$=6?, and in extreme aerospace cases, there are triple$melt
versions.
There are several manufacturers producing aftermar.et titanium conrods. I was told by one ma3or titanium supplier
that the most fre'uently used alloy for conrods is the old standby Ti$&6l$+= %&1 aluminum, +1 vanadium,, also
.nown as Mrade * titanium. This alloy can be solution heat$treated and aged up to tensile strengths of !8! .si
%!#* mpa,. It is interesting to note that the nomenclature >&6l$+=> has become nearly a generic, because there
are more than # different variations available, all having the same basic chemistry but with differing melt
practices, impurity tolerances, inspection re'uirements, etc.
I was told %by 6llegheny Technologies Htd., about a new alloy under development that achieves a step$change in
titanium material properties. This alloy was developed from the old existing alloy .nown as Aeta$7 %grade !9@ Ti$
06l$8=$&7r$+Eo$+Qr,.
Jhereas the commercial manufacture of Aeta$7 re'uired a lengthy solution treatment and ageing cycle to achieve
a tensile strength of !8! .si %!#* mpa,, this new material, using a patented process, can be cold$wor.ed then
direct$aged to a IT/ over ## .si %!*!) mpa,. Cven more interesting is the fatigue performance of this alloy. Jhile
the /$- %fatigue, curve for &6l$+= continues downward as cycles increase, the curve for this material in fully$
reversing fatigue %? ( $!, appears to go flat at a stress level of about 90 .si %&+ mpa, at !x!N& cycles. This new
Aeta$7 alloy was initially developed as a cold$winding spring alloy, but has evolved into favored usage for shafts,
torsion bars and high$strength fasteners %where titanium is allowed,.
4et another interesting titanium based material is the alloy .nown as !*=$06l. This is a cold$formable beta alloy
produced in sheet form %!. $ !.* mm thic.ness,. Inli.e many titanium alloys, this one is easily bendable to form
complex fabricated sheet metal parts. Jhen fabrication is complete, the part can be solution treated and aged, and
the net result is a very high$strength, lightweight fabricated part. Imagine the possibilities for a fully$titanium
monoco'ue chassis<<
Ea.ing titanium valves survive in the harsh operating environment of a Formula 5ne or 7up engine was a
substantial challenge, especially in the case of exhaust valves, which are exposed to extremes of temperature and
corrosive gasses along with high levels of fatigue loading %zero$max$zero plus bending,, with 'uasi$impact
compressive loads on the tip and seat.
To meet the challenge, the metallurgists at a ma3or I/ titanium valve manufacturer %Lel Jest, developed a
proprietary, precipitation$hardening titanium alloy which begins with the tightly$controlled chemistry and melt
processes of a 8rotary9 %turbine blade, grade of Ti$&#+# %&6l$#/n$+Qr$#Eo, and the re'uirement for !1 virgin
input %no scrap, no recycled metal,. To that base, they add an undisclosed amount of silicon, which significantly
improves the strength at elevated temperatures. %If there is any doubt regarding how much a small change can
alter the properties of a material, compare the chemistries of 0$E and +0+ in Ta1le #.,
/ome manufacturers ma.e LH7$coated inta.e valves and spring retainers from &6H$+=, but this manufacturer
ma.es both its inta.e and exhaust valves from its proprietary version of Ti$&#+#. The heat treatment process is
'uite different for each type. The inta.es are heat$treated below the beta transus temperature and subse'uently
'uenched to form a martensitic titanium structure. That is followed by a stabilization " aging cycle at a lower
temperature to achieve the desired strength properties.
The exhaust valves are heat$treated above the beta transus to produce an acicular, JidmanstStten structure %a
8bas.et weave9 microstructure,, which substantially improves the fatigue properties at elevated temperatures.
It has been discovered through experience that this microstructure also has crac.$arresting properties. /ample
exhaust valves which had been sub3ected to extreme mechanical and thermal loads have been found during
teardown to have hundreds of tiny crac.s in the stem$to$head transition area, but they had not failed in service.
These titanium valves are D=L$coated with chromium$nitride to provide the wear$resistant surfaces. 5ther
hardcoating processes have been tried, such as controlled oxidization of the outer surface to form a hard layer of
titanium$oxide. 2owever, contrary to what was predicted by papers on that process, users of valves with that
coating reported a huge loss of fatigue life, which would be expected since the Ti5 layer is an extremely brittle
case.
Eore materials technology is presented in the article on t"r1&'har!ers, including the use of titanium in high$
temperature compressor wheels.

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