Objective: SQL Server 6.5

SQL SERVER 6.
5
Chapter-8/1
Copyright Tata Infotech Ltd. : Copying of this document in part or full is not permitted without express authority.
OBJECTIVE
Implementation of Triggers and Stored procedures
SCOPE
Triggers
Creation of triggers
Enforcing data integrity through triggers
Stored procedures
Creating and executing stored procedures
Remote and system stored procedures
How stored procedures are processed
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TRIGGERS
About triggers
A trigger is a special kind of stored procedure that is invoked whenever an attempt is
made to modify the data in the table it protects.
Modifications to a table are made using INSERT, UPDATE, or DELETE statements.
Triggers are used to enforce business rules and data integrity such as automatically
updating summary data.
Triggers allow to perform cascading delete or update actions, if a referential integrity
violation occurs.
If constraints exist on the trigger table, they are checked prior to the trigger execution.
If constraints are violated, the statement does not execute, hence trigger will not run.
Characteristics of trigger
Are associated with tables.
Are automatic; they work irrespective of the cause of the data modification.
Are automatically invoked by SQL Server.
Cannot be called directly and do not have parameters.
Can nest up to 16 levels.
This allows a trigger that changes a table on which there is another trigger to invoke
the second trigger, which can fire a third trigger and so on.
Are conceptually advanced form of rules, used to enforce more elaborate restrictions
on data. They prevent incorrect, unauthorized, or inconsistent changes to the data.
Creation of triggers
Triggers are created with the CREATE TRIGGER statement.
Statement specifies
(a) the table on which a trigger is defined.
(b) the events for which trigger will invoke.
To prevent a trigger from firing , DROP TRIGGER statement is used.
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Syntax:
CREATE TRIGGER [ owner.] trigger_name
ON [owner.] table_name
FOR [ INSERT | UPDATE| DELETE ]
AS
IF UPDATE (column_name)...
[ { AND | OR } UPDATE (column_name)...]
sql_statements }
Trigger rules and guidelines
A table can only have three trigger actions per table: one UPADTE, one INSERT and
one DELETE trigger.
Each trigger applies to only one table only. A single trigger can process all three
actions (UPDATE, DELETE, INSERT) .
Only table owners can create and drop triggers for the table. This permission cannot
be transferred.
A trigger cannot be created on a view or a temporary table, although triggers can
reference them.
A trigger should not include SELECT statements that return results to the user,
because the returned results would have to be written into every application in which
modifications to the trigger table are allowed.
Triggers can be used to help ensure the relational integrity of the database.
Triggers should be used only for the data integrity enforcement and business rules
processing.
If a trigger is defined for an operation (INSERT, UPDATE or DELETE) that already
has a trigger association, the existing trigger is replaced with the new trigger.
On dropping a table all triggers associated to the triggers are automatically dropped.

The system stored procedure sp_depends can be used to find out which tables have
trigger on them.

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Following SQL statements are not allowed in a trigger:

All CREATE statements.
All DROP statements.
ALTER TABLE and ALTER DATABASE.
TRUNCATE TABLE.
GRANT and REVOKE.
UPDATE STATISTICS.
RECONFIGURE.
LOAD DATABASE and LOAD TRANSACTION.
All DISK statements.
SELECT INTO (because it creates table).

INSERT trigger

When an INSERT trigger statement is executed, new rows are added to the trigger table
and to the inserted table at the same time.

The inserted table is a logical table that holds a copy of the rows that have been inserted.

DIAGRAM

inserted

FRANCIS MARY POND VILLA

APPLICANT
LAST_NAME FIRST_NAME ADDRESS
BARR PETER CHURCH ROAD
ALLEN SAM PARK STREET

The inserted table can be examined by the trigger, to determine whether or how the
trigger actions should be carried out.

The inserted table allows to compare the INSERTED rows in the table to the rows in the
inserted table.

The rows in the inserted table are always duplicates of one or more rows in the trigger
table.

With the inserted table, inserted data can be referenced without having to store the
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information in the variables.

DELETE trigger

When a DELETE trigger statement is executed, rows are deleted from the table, and are
places in a special table called deleted table.

DIAGRAM

APPLICANT
LAST_NAME FIRST_NAME ADDRESS
BARR PETER CHURCH ROAD
ALLEN SAM PARK STREET

deleted


When using the DELETE trigger statement consider the following:

The deleted table and the database tables will not have any rows in common.
When a row is appended to the deleted table, it no longer exists in the database table.
Space is allocated the deleted table from the databases allocated space. The deleted
table is always in cache.
The DELETE trigger does not execute for the TRUNCATE TABLE statement.
Deleted and inserted tables are conceptual tables. They are structurally like the table
on which the trigger is defined. They hold the rows of information modified by the
user.

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UPDATE trigger

When an UPDATE statement is executed on a table that has an UPDATE trigger, the
original rows are moved into the deleted table, while the update row is inserted into the
inserted table and the table being updated

DIAGRAM

TABLE

inserted

deleted

When using the UPDATE trigger statement, consider the following:

After all rows are updated, deleted and inserted tables are loaded, and then the
UPDATE trigger executes.
The deleted and inserted tables, as well as the updated table can be examined by the
trigger to determine whether multiple rows have been updated or how the trigger
actions should be carried out.
UPDATE on a column
UPDATE trigger can be defined
(a) to protect data in a specific column.
(b) to test modifications of a specified column.
Original record that is being updated
goes to the deleted table.
Updated row is
inserted into the
inserted table and the
table is updated
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Syntax:
IF UPDATE < column_name>
EXAMPLE
CREATE TRIGGER trigger1
ON member
FOR UPDATE
AS
IF UPDATE (last_name)
BEGIN
RAISERROR (Transaction cannot be processed)
ROLLBACK TRANSACTION
END
OUTPUT:
Prevents the user from modifying the last_name field of the table member.
Enforcing data integrity through triggers
Triggers are used to enforce:
(a) Data integrity
(b) Referential integrity
Can take actions or cascade actions.
Can define custom error message.
(c) Business rules
Enforce restrictions that are more complex than those defined with CHECK
constraints.
Enforcing data integrity
Triggers can be used to enforce data integrity by cascading changes to affected tables
throughout the database.
The following example shows, how a trigger cascades to change affected tables
throughout the database.
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EXAMPLE
CREATE TRIGGER del_trig
ON fine
FOR DELETE
AS
UPDATE member
SET fine_amt = 0
FROM member, deleted
WHERE member.mem_no = deleted.mem_no
OUTPUT:
Enforces data integrity by changing the status of fine_amt to 0 in the member table when a fine record
for that member is deleted from the fine table.
Note: The record is fetched in the member table for updation on the basis of the record in the deleted
table.
Enforcing referential integrity
Database accuracy

Assures vital data in database remains accurate and useable as database changes

Maintains Primary and Foreign keys
Keeps the values of foreign keys in line with those in primary keys.
Allows actions to be taken when a key is inserted, updated or deleted.
Triggers can be used to enforce referential integrity.
Referential integrity can be defined by using FOREIGN KEY and REFERENCE
constraints with the CREATE TABLE statement.
Triggers are useful to ensure appropriate actions when cascading deletions or updates
need to occur.
EXAMPLE
CREATE TRIGGER adult_insert
ON adult
FOR INSERT
AS
IF (SELECT COUNT(*)
FROM member, inserted
WHERE member.mem_num=inserted.mem_num)=0
BEGIN
PRINT Transaction cannot be processed
PRINT No entry for member for this adult.
END
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OUTPUT:
When a user inserts a record in the table adult, the trigger adult_insert is fired.
The mem_num inserted in the adult table should be present in the member table.
The existence of the mem_num inserted into the adult table is checked against the member table
using the inserted table.
The trigger works when a single row is inserted. If multiple rows are inserted as with
(SELECT statement), the trigger will not work correctly.
Multi-row trigger
A multi-row insert can occur from an INSERT with a SELECT statement. Multirow
considerations can also apply to multi-row updates and multi-row deletes.
EXAMPLE
CREATE TRIGGER adult_insert
ON adult
FOR INSERT
AS
DECLARE @rcnt int
SELECT @rcnt = @@rowcount
IF (SELECT COUNT(*)
WHERE member.mem_num=inserted.mem_num)=0
BEGIN
PRINT Transaction cannot be processed
PRINT No entry for member for this adult.
END
IF (SELECT COUNT(*)
WHERE member.mem_num=inserted.mem_num)<> @rcnt
BEGIN
PRINT Not all adults have an entry in the Member table
PRINT Multi-row insert transaction has been rolled backed..
END
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Business rules
The following example involves a member who is discontinuing membership. A
member with outstanding loans can be prevented from being deleted from the database.
If there are no outstanding loans, member can be deleted.
EXAMPLE
CREATE TRIGGER mem_withdraw
ON member FOR DELETE
AS
IF (SELECT books_on_issue FROM member, deleted
WHERE member.mem_no = deleted.mem_no) > 0
BEGIN
PRINT Transaction not processed
PRINT Member has books with him
END
ELSE
PRINT Member deleted
Nested and non-nested triggers
Any trigger can contain an UPDATE, INSERT or DELETE statement that affects another
table.
With nesting enabled, a trigger that changes a table can activate a second trigger, which
can in turn activate a third trigger and so on.
Nesting is enabled at installation, but can be disabled or enabled using the sp_configure
system stored procedure.
Triggers can be nested up to 16 levels.
If any trigger in a nested chain sets off an infinite loop, the nesting level is exceeded and
the trigger terminates.
Nested trigger can be used to perform functions such as storing a backup copy of rows
affected by a previous trigger.
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CLASSROOM EXERCISES
1. What are the ways in which you can display the information about triggers?
2. Will the trigger work if you change the name of the object referenced by a trigger?
If no, what should be done to make the trigger work?
3. What is nesting of triggers?
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STORED PROCEDURES
Stored procedures enhance the power, efficiency and flexibility of SQL Server and
improves the performance of SQL statements and batches.
About Stored Procedures
Stored procedures are a way to create routines and procedures that are run on the
server, by the server processes.

These are pre-complied SQL statements and control-of-flow language stored on the
server that execute very quickly.

These routines can be started by an application calling them, or called by data
integrity rules or triggers.
Using Stored Procedures
Stored Procedure can:
Return values ( the values which are part of the table and also the values that are not
the part of the table but are calculated during the running of stored procedures ) or
modify values
Compare a user-supplied value against the pre-requisites for information in the
system.
Take parameters
Call other procedures
Return a status value to a calling procedure or batch to indicate success or failure
Permissions for creating a stored procedure
A stored procedure can only be created in the current database.
Permission to execute the procedure that is created is set by default to the owner of
the database, who can transfer it to the other users.
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Creating stored procedures
Stored procedures are created using the CREATE PROCEDURE statement.
Syntax:
CREATE PROCedure [owner.] procedure_name[ ;number]
[@parameter_name datatype [ = default] [ OUTPUT]
...
[FOR REPLICATION] | [WITH RECOMPILE], ENCRYPTION
AS sql_statements
EXAMPLE
CREATE PROCEDURE all_members
AS SELECT * FROM members
OUTPUT:
A procedure called all_members has been created that contains a SELECT statement to display all
rows of the table member
.
Execution
After a procedure is created, its name is entered on a line to execute the procedure.
If the name of the stored procedure is preceded with other statements, the keyword
EXEC needs to precede the name of the stored procedure.
EXAMPLE
The procedure all_members created in the previous example can be executed as follows:
all_members /* Executes procedure when not preceded
by any other statements */
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OUTPUT:
All records of the member table will be displayed.
OR
SELECT * FROM applicant /* When preceded by other statement
EXEC insert_procedure such as SELECT. */
OUTPUT:
All records of the applicant table will be displayed first.
Then, all records from the member table will be displayed.
;number option
The semicolon and an integer after the name of the stored procedure enables to create
multiple versions of a procedure with the same name.
When the procedure is executed, the version number determines the version of the
procedure to be executed.

If no version is specified, the first version is executed.

A single DROP PROCEDURE statement will drop all the versions of the stored
procedure.

After procedures have been grouped, individual procedures within the group can not
be dropped.
EXAMPLE
CREATE PROCEDURE pr;1 /* Creates version 1 of the
AS procedure pr */
PRINT Version 1
CREATE PROCEDURE pr;2 /* Creates version 2 of the
AS procedure pr. */
PRINT Version 2
OUTPUT:
When the procedure pr;1 is executed, it prints Version1.
When procedure pr;2 is executed, it prints Version 2.
When procedure the group name is specified to execute the procedure ,the first version gets executed
and Version 1 is printed.
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Execution of procedure Output
pr;1 Version 1
pr;2 Version 2
Pr Version 1
Using parameters with procedures
If a procedure is executed that calls another procedure, the called procedure can
access objects created by the calling procedure.
Parameters can be used to pass the information into a procedure from the command-
line.
This is done by defining the parameters with the CREATE PROCEDURE statement
using the following options.
@parameter_name
It specifies a parameter in the procedure.
One or more parameters can be declared in the CREATE PROCEDURE statement.
When the procedure is executed the user must supply the value of each declared
parameter.
Parameter name is always preceded by the symbol @.
datatype
It specifies the datatype of the parameter.
All system-supplied and user-defined datatypes are supported except the image
datatype.
default
It specifies the default value of the parameter.
If a default is default is defined a user can execute the procedure without specifying ,
a value for that parameter.
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EXAMPLE
CREATE PROCEDURE insert_proc /* A procedure insert_
(@p1 char (10), @p2 char (20) , @p3 int) proc is created
AS which defines 3
INSERT INTO table1 parameters */
VALUES (@p1, @p2, @p3)
insert_proc Harry, Gill, 222 /* Using INSERT
statement three
values are supplied
from the command
line to the
procedure which
inserts the values
into the table
table1 */
SELECT * FROM table1 WHERE code = 22 /* Lists the record just
inserted into the
table through the
procedure */
OUTPUT option
EXAMPLE
Creation of a stored procedure
CREATE PROCEDURE p1
@a1 smallint,
@a2 smallint,
@result smallint OUTPUT
AS
SELECT @result = @a1 * @a2
GO
Executing store procedure
DECLARE @var smallint
SELECT @var = 40
EXEC p1 3, 4, @var OUTPUT
SELECT The result is :, @var
GO
OUTPUT:
The result is: 12
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In the above example, a stored procedure is created which calculates the product of
two numbers.
Then a batch calls this procedure to obtain the product of the number 3 and 4.
The batch first loads a value in the @var just to verify that it will be replaced but the
correct result during the call to p1.
If the keyword OUTPUT were omitted from the procedure call, the call would still
execute but the value of @var would be unchanged by the execution of the procedure.
If the OUTPUT keyword were omitted from the procedure definition but left in the
procedure call then an error condition would exist because the batch would be asking
the stored procedure for output that the stored procedure was not written to produce.
RECOMPILE option
Should be used when you are executing stored procedures with atypical parameters
for example, where the plan stored for the procedure might not be optimal for that
parameter.
EXAMPLE
Example 1
CREATE PROC testproc @title_no title_no WITH RECOMPILE
AS SELECT * FROM loan
WHERE title_no= @title_no
OUTPUT:
Recompiles and optimizes every execution of the stored procedure and creates a new query plan.
Example 2
EXEC sp_help WITH RECOMPILE
OUTPUT:
Creates new query plan during the execution of the stored procedure. The new execution plan is stored
in the cache.
Example 3
sp_recompile title
The option causes any stored procedures and triggers that use the named table to be recompiled the
next time it runs.
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ENCRYPTION option
Encrypts the syscomments table entry that contains the text of the CREATE
PROCEDURE statement.
Stored procedure rules and guidelines
The name of the stored procedure should follow the rules of naming an identifier.
An object can not be referenced in the stored procedure definition if it does not exists.
Except CREATE statements, any number and any type of SQL statements can be
included in stored procedures.
The CREATE PROCEDURE statement can not be combined with other SQL
statements in a single batch.
The maximum number of parameters in a stored procedure is 255.
Temporary tables can be referenced within a procedure.
If a procedure is executed that calls another procedure, called procedure can access all
objects except temporary tables created by the first procedure.
If a private temporary table is created inside a procedure, the temporary table exists
only for the purposes of the procedure; it disappears when you exit the procedure.
Private and public temporary stored procedures analogous to temporary tables can be
created.
# prefix to the procedure name denotes a private temporary stored procedure.
## prefix to the procedure name denotes a public temporary stored procedure.
Information on stored procedure
To list the definition of the procedure, the system stored procedure sp_helptext is
executed.
Procedures created with the ENCRYPTION option can not be viewed with
sp_helptext.
For a report on the objects referenced by the stored procedure, use the sp_depends
system stored procedure.
sp_help system stored procedure can be used to list information about the procedure
Auto execution stored procedure
It is possible to have one or more stored procedures execute automatically when SQL
Server starts.
Execution of the stored procedure starts when the last database has been recovered at
startup.
Infinite number of start up procedures can be present.
Each startup procedure consumes one connection when executing.
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If multiple procedures need to be executed at startup and you dont need to execute
them in parallel only one procedure can be made as the startup procedure and that
procedure can call other procedures.
This will use only one connection.
System stored procedure Description
sp_makestartup Makes an existing stored procedure a startup procedure.
sp_unmakestartup Stops a procedure from executing at startup
sp_helpstartup Provides a list of all procedures that will execute at startup.
EXAMPLE
CREATE PROCEDURE testproc /* Creates a procedure called
INSERT t1 DEFAULT VALUES testproc, which inserts default
values into the table t1 */
sp_makestartup testproc /* Makes the procedure testproc as
startup procedure. */
sp_helpstartup /* Lists all the startup procedures
defined. */
Executing a Stored Procedure on a remote server
Stored procedures residing on a remote server are called remote stored procedures.
Remote stored procedures can be executed from the local server.
To use remote stored procedures, you must have remote servers established.
A remote server on a SQL Server network is a server that a user can access through
the local server.
When servers are configured to allow remote stored procedures, this information is
stored in sysservers and sysremotelogins system tables in the master database.
A client connected to one SQL server, when executes the remote stored procedure on
another SQL Server, client connection to that SQL server is not established.
The server to which the client is connected accepts the clients request and send it to
the remote server on clients behalf.
Remote server processes the request and sends the results to the original server.
The original server, then, in turn passes the results to the client.
Remote stored procedures request can also be initiated by the server.
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Syntax:
EXECUTE servername.dbname.owner.stored_procedure_name
Client includes the EXECUTE statement as part of a normal batch submitted to the
local server.
EXAMPLE
EXEC sp_addlogin user1
EXEC server2.master.sa.sp_addlogin user1
OUTPUT:
The login name user1 is added to both the servers i.e to the local server as well as the remote server
server2.
Conditions for implementing remote store procedures
A server must allow remote access from other servers. By default, access is allowed.
To turn off this feature, use sp_configure to turn off the Remote Access
configuration option.
Each server must store both its own name as the local server (stored by default) and
the name of the other server in the sysservers table.
The login ID that the local server uses when opening the connection must exist on the
remote server.
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Processing of Stored Procedures
DIAGRAM
Parsing
Stored Procedure
Resolve names
Normalize
Resolve views
Resolve
aggregates
Protection Map
Name stored in sysobjects table
Text stored in syscomments table
Decision Compile
Query tree stored in sysprocedures
table
Execute
Execution plan held temporarily in
procedure cache
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Creation
When a stored procedure is created, it is analysed by the query processor.
It prepares an internal normalized structure for the procedure called as query tree. The
stored procedure is placed in the following system tables:
Stored procedures Name sysobjects
Text syscomments
Query tree sysprocedures

Execution

When a stored procedure is executed for the first time, the procedure is brought into
the memory and compiled
The fully compiled form called as execution or procedure plan is then stored in the
procedure cache - SQL Servers temporary memory buffer.
The execution plan is not stored permanently in a system table.
The execution plan remains in the procedure cache unless other memory needs force
it out so that the next request for execution can be processed without any compilation
overhead.
CLASSROOM EXERCISES
1. Can a trigger contain a stored procedure?
2. How can the text of a stored procedure and a trigger be viewed?
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LAB EXERCISES
1. Create a trigger called warn which prints a message to the user when he tries to add or
change the data in the table titles of pubs database.
2. Create a trigger that updates the ytd_sales column in the titles table every time a new
row is added to the sales table. Update the ytd_sales column in the titles table such that
ytd_sales is equal to its previous value plus the value added to the qty field of sales
table.
3. Create a trigger that updates ytd_sales column in the titles table every time one or more
sales rows are deleted.It updates the ytd_sales column in the titles table so that
ytd_sales is equal to its previous value minus the value subtracted from sales.qty.
4. Display the information about all the available triggers in the database.
5. Drop the triggers.
6. Create a stored procedure which shows the list of tables available in the database.
7. Create a stored procedure such that if authors first name and last name are given, it
displays the title and publisher of each of that authors books. (Use pubs database)
8. Create a procedure which displays the name of all authors who have written a book
published by the publisher given as a parameter. If no publisher name is supplied, the
procedure should show the authors published by Algodata Infosystems.
9. Create a procedure that performs division of two integer variables . The third variable
should be defined as an output parameter. If the divisor is 0, value 100 should be
returned, otherwise 0 should be returned. Check by displaying the return value as well
as the third variable defined as output parameter.
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SUMMARY
Trigger is a special kind of stored procedure that is invoked whenever an attempt is made
to modify the data in the table it protects.
Triggers are created using CREATE TRIGGER statement.
A table can have only three trigger actions UPDATE, INSERT and DELETE.
When INSERT trigger is executed, new rows are added to the trigger table as well as a
logical table called inserted.
When a DELETE trigger statement is executed, rows are deleted from the table and are
placed in table deleted.
When an UPDATE trigger statement is executed, original rows are moved to deleted
table and update row is inserted into the inserted table and the table being updated.
Stored procedures are pre-compiled SQL statements stored on the server.
Stored procedures are created using CREATE PROC statement.
Auto execution stored procedure are created using the system stored procedure
sp_makestartup.

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