Solid Waste Management

Lectures Nos.
l, 2 and 3

Evolution of Solid Waste Management
Part I, Chapter 1, p.3

1. General

Solid wastes are the wastes arising from human activities and are normally solid as
opposed to liquid or gaseous and are discarded as useless or unwanted. Focused on
urban waste (MSW) as opposed to agricultural, mining and industrial wastes.
Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM) is the term applied to all the activities
associated with the management of society's wastes.
In medieval times, wastes discarded in the streets led to the breeding of rats and the
associated fleas which carried the bubonic plague. The lack of management of solid
wastes thus led to the Black Plague which killed half of 14th century Europe.
USPHS has traced 22 human diseases to improper solid waste management.
Solid wastes also have a great potential to pollute the air and water. Mining tailings
from Colorado gold and silver mines will probably being spilling arsenic into the
water supply forever. Just finished toxic metal treatment facility in Park City, Utah.
Materials Flow - The best way to reduce solid wastes is not to create them in the first
place. Others methods include: decrease consumption of raw material and increase the
rate of recovery of waste materials.
Technological advances - Increased use of plastics and fast, pre-prepared foods.

2. Solid Waste Management

Solid waste management is the control of :
- generation, materials are identified as being no longer value
- storage, management of wastes until they are put into a container
- collection, gathering of solid wastes and recyclable materials and the transport of these
materials where the collection vehicle is emptied. 50% or higher of the total cost.
- processing, source separated (at the home) vs. commingled (everything together) is a
big issue. Includes: physical processes such as shredding and screening, removal of
bulky material, and chemical and biological processes such as incineration and
composting.
- transfer and transport, small trucks to the biggest trucks allowable
- disposal of solid waste, landfilling with or without attempting to recover resources.
Waste
Generation
Waste handling, separation,
storage and processing
at the source
Collection
Transfer and
Transport
Disposal
Separation and processing
and transformation of
solid waste

in a manner that is in accord with:
- public health
- economics
- engineering
- conservation
- aesthetics
- public attitudes
Final disposal at the turn of the century included:
- dumping on land
- dumping in water
- plowing into soil
- feeding to hogs
- incineration
Modern landfilling was begun in the 1940's in NYC under Major LaGuardia and in
Fresno, Ca under Dir. of Public Works, Jean Vincenz

3. Integrated Solid Waste Management (ISWM)

ISWM - defines as the selection and application of suitable techniques, technologies
and management programs to achieve specific waste management objectives and
goals. AB939 in California: 25% reduction by 1995, 50% reduction by 2000.
Hierarchy - adopted by EPA to rank actions:
- source reduction, most useful, may involve design of packaging with minimum toxic
content, minimum volume or a longer useful life.
- recycling
- waste combustion (transformation), physical, chemical and biological alteration of the
waste for the purposes of:
- improving efficiency
- recover reusable material, glass
- recover conversion products, compost
- landfilling, material that:
- cannot be recycles
- has no further use
- residual matter attendant to another process, ash left over after combustion

HOMEWORK
Read Chapter 1, pp. 3-22
Problems, p.22, 1-3, 1-4
Part I Perspectives and Part II Sources, Composition and Properties of MSW Page
No.4

Legislative Trends and Impacts
Part II, Chapter 2, p.23

Rivers and Harbors Act, 1899, regulated the dumping of debris in navigable waters
and adjacent land. The idea was to protect navigation.
Solid Waste Disposal Act, 1965, PL89-272,
- The intent was:
- Promote solid waste management and resource recovery.
- Promote technical and financial aid
- Promote national research.
- Provide for guidelines.
- Provide for training grants.
- Enforcement was by USPHS.
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 1969, Required Environmental Impact
Statement (EIS).
Resource Recovery Act, 1970, PL95-512, amended the SW Disposal Act of 1965.
Directed that the emphasis should be shifted from disposal as its primary objective to
recycling and reuse. Management activities were transferred the US EPA which was
formed by presidential order under Reorganizational Plan No. 3 of 1970.
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (RCRA), 1976, PL94-580. Legal basis for
implementation of guidelines and standards for solid waste storage, treatment and
disposal. RCRA was amended in 1978, 1980, 1982, 1983, 1984, 1986 and 1988. The
1980 and 1984 versions emphasized concern with hazardous waste.
Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation and Liability Act
(CERCLA), 1980, (Superfund), PL96-510. Response to uncontrolled hazardous waste
disposal sites.
- Ancillary laws:
Public Utility Regulation and Policy Act (PURPA), 1981. Directs public and private
utilities to purchase power from waste-to-energy facilities.
Noise Pollution and Abatement Act, 1970. Limits noise.
Clean Air Act, 1970, PL91-604, (reauthorized in 1990), pertains where dust, smoke
and gases discharged from solid waste operations are involved.
- California Law, T2-1, p.28.
AB939, 25% reduction by 1995, 50% reduction by 2000.
Local agency in LA is the LA County Sanitation Districts.

Part II, HOMEWORK
No.5

Sources, Composition, and Properties of Solid Waste
Part III, Chapter 3, p.39

1. Sources of Solid Waste (T3-1, p.41)

MSW, Municipal Solid Waste, is the primary focus of this course, which excludes
industrial, mining and agricultural wastes.

A. Residential and Commercial

Residential:Generated by me and you: Organic (combustible) and inorganic (non-
combustible), food, paper, garden trimmings, glass, white goods, waste oil, spent cans
of insecticide.
Commercial: stores, restaurants, hotels, car repair: paper, plastic.
Commingled. Mixed wastes, not separated at the source.
Putrescible, wastes that will decompose rapidly primarily food.
Plastics, see p. 42 and handout, contain a numerical code, 1 through 7, which is
stamped on the bottom of the container inside a small triangle.
- Polyethylene terephthalate (PETE/1), 2-liter soda bottle
- High-density polyethylene (HDPE/2), milk bottles
Special Wastes:
- Bulky items: furniture, lamps.
- Electronics
- Major appliances (white goods)
- Batteries, oil and tires

Household hazardous wastes:
- paint
- cleaners
- bug and garden sprays

B. Institutional and others

Generated by government buildings, schools, prisons and hospitals.
Does not include medical wastes which are typically incinerated and manufacturing
wastes from prisons.
Construction and Demolition. Road repair, sewer jobs, renovations: wood, concrete,
steel, shingles, electrical parts.
Municipal Services. Street cleaning, parks, catch basins: trimmings, food, paper,
sweepings, dead animals, abandoned vehicles.
Treatment Plant Sludges.

No.6

C. Industrial Wastes(T3-2, p.46)

SIC (Standard Industrial Classification) codes. Excludes process and hazardous
wastes.
SIC 32 - Stone, clay and glass products from the manufacture of flat glass etc.,
yielding glass, gypsum (sulfur source) abrasives, etc.

D. Agricultural Wastes

Enormous quantities from planting, harvesting from row, field, tree and vine crops
and animal husbandry, feedlots.
2. Composition of Solid Waste (T3.-3, p48)

Composition describes the individual components that make up solid waste and the
distribution of these components by weight.
Example
Given: Scales indicate that a landfill is collecting about 800 ton/day of MSW, 5 days per week.
Find: The weight of material collected from the catch basins in a year.

T3-3, p48 catch basins .7%
Weight MSW generated per week = 800 tons/day x 5 days/week
Weight MSW generated per week = 4000tons/week

Weight in catch basins = 4000tons/week x .007 x 52 weeks/year
Weight in catch basins = 1456 tons/year

Knowing the composition is becoming critical:
- Selection and operation of equipment and facilities
- Feasibility of resource and energy recovery
- Design of disposal facilities
The residential and commercial component is typically 62% of MSW.
Components of MSW excluding specials, recycled materials and food wastes: (T3-4,
p.49)
- Organic, combustible, paper and yard wastes are predominate.
- Inorganic, non-combustible, glass and tin cans.
Composition T3-7, p.52, with and without food wastes, with and without recycling.
Example
**Problem 3-3, p. 67

No.7

3. Variation in Distribution

Highly variable, local studies should be considered, collected data is expensive and of
limited value; make sure that collected data is useful before collecting.
Location, warmer more affluent communities generate more wastes.
Season, T3-8, p.56, More yard and food wastes in the summer; more glass and metals
in the winter.
Example
Given: A recycling company is expecting about 1500 tons/year of glass and they did some field
testing during the winter to verify this number. They chose winter to get a low end of the range
assuming that less beverages would be consumed in the winter.
Find: The percentage decrease in revenues when the glass is actually counted. Assume that the real
glass production will be based on the average of winter and summer months.

T3-8, p.56 Glass in winter 3.5%, glass in summer 2.5%

Total tonnage = 1500 tons/year .035
Total tonnage = 42,857 tons/year

Actual glass percentage = (3.5 + 2.5)/2
Actual glass percentage = 3.0%

Real tonnage of glass = 42,857 tons/year x .03
Real tonnage of glass = 1286 tons/year

% decrease = (1500 - 1286)/1500
% decrease = 14.3% reduction in revenues
Note: They made an incorrect assumption by assuming that there would be more glass in the
summer.
Economics and others.

4. Materials Recovered from MSW (T3-10, p61)

Aluminum: cans and others, window frames, lawn furniture.
Paper: 4 categories: newspaper, cardboard, high-quality, mixed(magazines). Defined
by fiber, source, homogeneity, printing etc.
Plastics: Mostly PETE/1, soda and HDPE/2, milk. Less than 5% being recycled.
Glass: Often separated by colors.
Ferrous metals: cars and appliances and steel (tin) cans.
Yard wastes: Needs to collected separately. Uses include use as compost or
intermediate cover at landfills.
Construction and Demolition: Directly recoverable such as used brick or plumbing
fixtures, gross material may serve to construct temporary roads at landfills.

No.8

EXAMPLES
3-3

HOMEWORK
Problems, p.67, 3-4 also 3A, 3B and 3C
No.9

Physical, Chemical and Biological Properties of MSW
Part IV, Chapter 4, p.69

1. Physical Properties of MSW

A. Specific Weight (T4-1, p.70)

lb/yd
3
, a volume measure and, therefore, subject to interpretation and variable.
Beware of reporting: loose, as found in containers, uncompacted, compacted.
Use:
- 220 lb/yd
3
for residential
- 270 lb/yd
3
for commercial
- 500 lb/yd
3
in the compactor truck
- 760 lb/yd
3
in the landfill
Example
Given: MSW
Find: What's the decrease in volume for MSW from the house to the landfill.

Volume =

Volume = (1/220 - 1/760) / 1/220 = (.004545 - .001316)/.004545
Volume = 71.0% decrease
Example
**Problem 4-1, p.97

B. Moisture Content (Ex. 4-1, p.72)

Wet-weight relationship:
M = 100 eq.4-1, p.72
Varies from 15-40%, use 21%, food and yard wastes very high-70%; paper, plastics
and inorganics very low-3%.
Important consideration for transformation processes: energy recovery (incineration)
and composting. Rain soaked trash will way more than its dry counterpart, a
consideration at the weighing scales.
Example
**Problem 4-3b, p.97

C. Particle Size and Distribution

No.10

Imprint consideration in the recovery of materials, pre-processing antecedent to a
classification or sorting process.
Eqs. 4-2 to 4-6, based on a single linear measurement, the average size is 7-8".

D. Field Capacity (FC)

The amount of moisture that can be retained in a waste sample subject to the
downward pull of gravity. Water in excess of FC will flow out of the waste as
leachate.
50-60% for uncompacted, commingled waste from residential and commercial
sources.

E. Permeability (hydraulic conductivity) of Compacted MSW

Measures the movement of gasses and liquids in landfills.
K = Cd
2
Error! = kError! eq. 4-7, p.76
k= 10
-11
to 10
-12
m
2
in the vertical and 10
-10
in the horizontal.
Example
Given: The horizontal direction
Find: Calculate the coefficient for permeability at 60F.
K = Cd
2
Error! = kError! = 10
-10
m
2
x (ft/.3048m)
2
x 62.37 lb/ft
3
/ 2.359x10
-5

K = .02845 ft/s

2. Chemical Properties of MSW

A. Proximate Analysis (T4-2, p78)

Includes the following tests:
- Moisture
- Volatile combustible matte
- Fixed carbon (combustible residue after volatile matter is removed)
- Ash (weight of residue after combustion in an open crucible
Fusing point of ash - temperature at which the ash forms a solid (clinker) by fusion
and agglomeration. 2000-2200F.
Magazines are:
- 4.1% moisture
- 66.4% volatile matter
- 7.0% fixed carbon
- 22.5% non-combustible
- energy content, 4600 Btu/lb as collected.
- Note: rubber as in tires and plastics have a very high energy content.
Example
Given: The Town of Waytogo, population 56,789, has decided to burn its as collected MSW
which amounts to about 6 lb/capita.day
No.11

Find: How many barrels of oil do they save on a daily basis.
1bbl oil = 5.8x10
6
BTU

T4-2, p78 Energy of as collected MSW is 4600 Btu/lb

Energy in the MSW = 4600 Btu/lb x 56,789 cap x 6 lb/capita.day
Energy in the MSW = 1.57 x 10
9
Btu

Oil = 1.57 x 10
9
Btu / 5.8x10
6
BTU
Oil = 270 barrels/day

B. Ultimate Analysis of SW Components (T4-3,4, p.80)

Determination of the percent C, H, O, N, S, and ash.
Opportunity to calculate chemical formula, which then can be used in various
chemical and biological reactions.
Magazines are:
- 32.9 % C
- 5.0 % H
- 38.6 % O
- .1 % N
- .1 % S
- 23.3 % ash
**Problem 4.0, p.97
C. Energy Content of SW Components (T4-5, p.84)

Potentially critical element in incineration. Can be measured or calculated.
DuLong Formula:

Btu/lb = 145C +610(H
2
- O
2
/8) + 40S +10N eq.4-10, p.86
Constituents are % by weight

Plastics have:
- An inert residue of 10.0%
- An energy value of 14,000 Btu/lb
Example
**Problem 4-7, p.97

D. Essential Nutrients (T4-6, p.87)

Potentially critical element in composting.
No.12

3. Biological Properties of MSW

VS, volatile solids, ignition at 550C is often used as a measure of the
biodegradability of the organic fraction.
An alternative is the lignin content can be used to determine biodegradability:
BF = 0.83 - 0.028 LC eq.4-11, p.88
BF is the biodegradable fraction and LC is the lignin content from T4-7, p.88
Odors typically result from the anaerobic decomposition of the organic fraction.
- Sulfate is reduced to sulfides and the to H
2
S.
- Organic compounds containing a sulfur radical can lead to the formation of methyl
mercaptan and aminobutyric acid.
Breeding of flies takes 9-11 days.
4. Physical, Chemical and Biological Transformations (T4-8, p.91)

A. Physical Transformations

Component separation
- Separating identifiable matter from the commingled MSW.
- Used to:
- Recover usable material
- Remove contaminants
- Improve specifications for the separated material
- Remove hazardous waste
- Recover energy and conversion products
Mechanical Volume Reduction (Densification)
- The initial volume is reduced usually by force or pressure.
- Compaction, baling.
Mechanical size reduction
- Purpose:
- reduce size
- create a more uniform product
- Size reduction does not necessarily mean volume reduction, shredded paper occupies
more volume than the parent material
- Shredding, grinding, milling

B. Chemical Transformations

1.) Combustion (Incineration)

Combustion is the chemical reaction of oxygen with organic materials, to produce
oxidized compounds with the emission of light and heat.
Results in gasses, ashes and heat, highly exothermic.

No.13

2.) Pyrolysis (Destructive Distillation)

The splitting or organics by thermal cracking and condensation in an oxygen-free
atmosphere into gaseous, liquid and solid fractions.
Highly endothermic.
Equation
3(C
6
H
10
O
5
) 8H
2
O + C
6
H
8
O + 2CO +CH
4
+ H
2
+ 7C
In which:
- C
6
H
10
O
5
is cellulose
- the gases are CO +CH
4
+ H
2

-

the tar and/or oil stream is C
6
H
8
O
- and the char is C

3.) Gasification

Partial combustion of a carbonaceous fuel to generate a combustible fuel gas rich in
carbon monoxide, hydrogen and methane. The fuel gas can then be combusted.
Results in low-BTU gas, char and oil.

C. Biological Transformations

Used to:
- Reduce weight and volume
- To produce compost
- To produce methane
Principal MOs:
- bacteria
- fungi
- yeasts
- actinomycetes
Aerobic composting, biological decomposition
Anaerobic digestion yields methane.

EXAMPLES
4-0 (added), 4-1, 4-3b, 4-7

HOMEWORK
Read Chapter 4, Physical, Chemical, and Biological Properties of MSW, pp. 69-98
Problems, p. 97, 4-2a, 4-3a, 4-5, 4-6, 4-8 and ancillary problems 4A, 4B, 4C and 4D
No.14

Sources, Types and Properties of Household Hazardous Wastes
Part V, Chapter 5, p.99

1. Properties and Classification of Hazardous Waste

A. General

Wastes are hazardous to humans if such wastes:
- Are non-biodegradable or persistent in nature
- Can be biologically magnified
- Lethal
- Cause detrimental cumulative effects

Safety-related problems:
- Corrosivity
- Explosivity
- Flammability
- Ignitability
- Reactivity

Health-related problems
- Carcinogenicity
- Infectivity
- Irritant
- Mutagenicity
- Toxicity
- Radioactivity
- Teratogenicity ( Causes monstrosities or abnormal formations)

Municipalities usually go with:
- Ignitability
- Corrosivity
- Reactivity
- Toxicity
- Carcinogenicity

B. EPA Definitions (T5-1,2, p.101)

RCRA Hazardous Wastes:
- Listed wastes. (40 CFR 261.11, Code of Federal Regulations). Presumed toxic in any
concentration.
No.15

- Characteristic hazardous wastes. Are established on the basis of their Ignitability,
Corrosivity, reactivity and toxicity.
- Other hazardous wastes. Mixtures of hazardous and non-hazardous wastes, wastes
derived from other wastes (Derived-From Rule) and hazardous wastes contained in
non-hazardous wastes (Contained-In Rule).
Priority Pollutants. In 1979, pursuant to the Federal Water Pollution Control Act as
amend by the Clean Water Act of 1977, the EPA prepared a list of toxic pollutants;
129 substances in 65 classes were identified. Four criteria were used:
- Damage due to toxicological properties.
- Seriousness of point source discharges.
- Effluent standards for point source dischargers.
- Environmental effects of control measures.
Other Hazardous Waste Classifications. Proposed by the following agencies:
- International Agency for Research on Cancer
- National Cancer Institute.

2. Sources, Types and Quantities of Hazardous Wastes in MSW (T5-4,5,
p.106)

Residential (T5-3, p.104) cleaners, paint, nail polisher remover, antifreeze,
photographic chemicals, pesticides.
Commercial: solvents from dry cleanings, oil from automotive.
Hazardous waste is typically .1% (.01-1% range) by weight of MSW. 75-85%
residential sources.

3. Significance of Hazardous Waste in MSW.

In conversion products. Trace amounts of HHW have been found in separated
components and compost and have rendered these materials and products unusable.
In combustion products. Have been found in emission gases and residual material
(ash) especially heavy metals, barium, chromium, silver.
In landfill. Trace organic constituents have been found in atmosphere, in extracted
gases and in leachate. Source may be direct or derived.
Example
**Problem 5-3, p.121
4. Physical, Chemical and Biological Transformations of HHW in MSW

A. Physical Transformations

Volatilization- produces gas.
Phase Distribution- Used to access the bioaccumulation potential of a compound.

No.16

B. Chemical Transformations

1.) Combustion.
If the combustion is complete, the hazardous organic compounds should be destroyed.
However, if chlorine containing compounds such as chlorobenzene (C
6
H
5
Cl), HCl is
formed, Vulcan, ocean going incinerator that spews HCl all over the oceans.
If the combustion is not complete, toxic PICs (Products of Incomplete Combustion)
are formed.

2.) Reactions in Landfills
Simple substitution
Dehydrogenation (hydrolysis)
Oxidation
Reduction

Example
**Problem 5-8a, p.121
C. Biological Transformations

1.) Metals
Chromium, mercury, etc. can be biologically converted to toxic compounds such as
methymercury, or dimethylselenide

2.) Non-Persistent Organic Compounds
Same reactions as B.2. above

3.) Persistent Organic Compounds

Biodegradable but at extremely slow rates involving processes such as
Dehalogenation and double bond reduction.
5. Management of HHW in MSW

Most effective way to handle HHW is to eliminate them at the point of separation, in
the household.
HHW collection programs.

EXAMPLES
5-3, 5-8a

HOMEWORK
Read Chapter 5, Sources, Types and Properties of Hazardous Wastes Found in MSW, pp.
99-122
Problems, p. 121, 5-2, 5-4, 5-5, 5-7, 5-8b

No.17

LECTURES NOS. L, 2 AND 3 .....................................................................................................................1
EVOLUTION OF SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT...............................................................................1
1. GENERAL.................................................................................................................................................1
2. SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT..........................................................................................................1
3. INTEGRATED SOLID WASTE MANAGEMENT (ISWM)................................................................2
LEGISLATIVE TRENDS AND IMPACTS................................................................................................4
SOURCES, COMPOSITION, AND PROPERTIES OF SOLID WASTE...............................................5
1. SOURCES OF SOLID WASTE (T3-1, P.41) ..........................................................................................5
A. RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL ............................................................................................................5
B. INSTITUTIONAL AND OTHERS...................................................................................................................5
C. INDUSTRIAL WASTES(T3-2, P.46) ...........................................................................................................6
D. AGRICULTURAL WASTES ........................................................................................................................6
2. COMPOSITION OF SOLID WASTE (T3.-3, P48)................................................................................6
3. VARIATION IN DISTRIBUTION..........................................................................................................7
4. MATERIALS RECOVERED FROM MSW (T3-10, P61) ....................................................................7
PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MSW............................................9
1. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MSW.....................................................................................................9
A. SPECIFIC WEIGHT (T4-1, P.70)................................................................................................................9
B. MOISTURE CONTENT (EX. 4-1, P.72).......................................................................................................9
C. PARTICLE SIZE AND DISTRIBUTION..........................................................................................................9
D. FIELD CAPACITY (FC)...........................................................................................................................10
E. PERMEABILITY (HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY) OF COMPACTED MSW....................................................10
2. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MSW.................................................................................................10
A. PROXIMATE ANALYSIS (T4-2, P78) .......................................................................................................10
B. ULTIMATE ANALYSIS OF SW COMPONENTS (T4-3,4, P.80) ...................................................................11
C. ENERGY CONTENT OF SW COMPONENTS (T4-5, P.84) ..........................................................................11
D. ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS (T4-6, P.87)......................................................................................................11
3. BIOLOGICAL PROPERTIES OF MSW.............................................................................................11
4. PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS (T4-8, P.91)...................12
A. PHYSICAL TRANSFORMATIONS..............................................................................................................12
B. CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS.............................................................................................................12
1.) Combustion (Incineration)..............................................................................................................12
2.) Pyrolysis (Destructive Distillation) ................................................................................................12
3.) Gasification ....................................................................................................................................13
C. BIOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS ..........................................................................................................13
SOURCES, TYPES AND PROPERTIES OF HOUSEHOLD HAZARDOUS WASTES.....................14
1. PROPERTIES AND CLASSIFICATION OF HAZARDOUS WASTE.............................................14
No.18

A. GENERAL ..............................................................................................................................................14
B. EPA DEFINITIONS (T5-1,2, P.101).........................................................................................................14
2. SOURCES, TYPES AND QUANTITIES OF HAZARDOUS WASTES IN MSW (T5-4,5, P.106)..15
3. SIGNIFICANCE OF HAZARDOUS WASTE IN MSW. ....................................................................15
4. PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS OF HHW IN MSW......15
A. PHYSICAL TRANSFORMATIONS..............................................................................................................15
B. CHEMICAL TRANSFORMATIONS ............................................................................................................15
1.) Combustion.....................................................................................................................................15
2.) Reactions in Landfills .....................................................................................................................16
C. BIOLOGICAL TRANSFORMATIONS ..........................................................................................................16
1.) Metals .............................................................................................................................................16
2.) Non-Persistent Organic Compounds ..............................................................................................16
3.) Persistent Organic Compounds......................................................................................................16
5. MANAGEMENT OF HHW IN MSW...................................................................................................16

Lectures 4 and 5
DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES AND RESIDUAL MATTER
Chapter 11, p.361

Waste
Generation
at the source
Collection
Transfer and
Transport
Disposal
solid waste

1. Overview

Solid wastes are components identified for disposal including residues:
- not recycled
- that remain after processing at a MRF
- that remain after recovery of conversion products and/or energy
Landfilling, by far, is the most common disposal method.
Major topics covered include:
- disposal methods at landfills
- types of landfills and landfilling methods
- siting considerations
- gas management
- leachate control
- surface water management
- settlement
- preliminary design
- operational plans
- closure and post closure care

2. Landfills - General

A. Definitions (p. 363)

Landfills are physical facilities perhaps encompassing several hundred acres used for
the disposal of residual solid wastes in the surface soils of the earth. Landfills are
engineered facilities involving a daily cover material typically 6" of soil.
A cell is the volume of MSW material placed in a day plus the cover material. The
cover controls the following functions:
- blowing debris
- vectors
- water seepage
A lift consists of one or more cells over the active area of the landfill and
considered with over material represents the height of the landfill.

B. Site Preparation

Important considerations include:
- drainage-away from landfill
- excavation and preparation of bottom and sides
- stockpiling of cover material
- placement of monitoring equipment

C. Placement of Wastes

The waste is placed in cells continuing upward and outward from the compaction
face.
spread in 18-24" layers from the delivery vehicle and compacted. It is important to
compact in thin layers.
heights from 8-12'
widths (in and out distance) 10-30'
length of working face, perhaps 100'

D. Landfill Classification

E. Landfilling Methods (p. 375)

1.) Excavated Cell/Trench

A depression is dug in the earth and subsequently filled:
plenty of cover material and water table not near the surface
Cells are typically square up to 1000', side slopes 1.5:1 to 2:1
trenches 200-1000' long, reflects volume of daily operation
3-10'deep, not too deep as to present a safety hazard for burial
15-50' wide, turn equipment around

2.) Area

used when pre-excavation is not appropriate perhaps because of high ground
water
limited cover material perhaps using imported soils
liners and leachate control systems are installed
a berm, earthen embankment, is constructed and serves as a starting point for
cells and lifts

3.) Canyon/Depression

filling in a hole, ravine, quarry that already exists
drainage is critical
3. Landfill - Siting Considerations

Haul Distance - Close to waste generation from an engineering point of view; a long
distance away from a political, NIMBY, point of view.
Location Restrictions - airports, flood plains, wetlands
Available Land - perhaps 25 years
Site Access - easy ingress egress for arterial roads, freeways; minimize passing of
residences; proximity to railroad lines for long hauls.
Soil Conditions and Topography - cover material and excavation
Classification Waste
I Hazardous Waste
II Designated Waste
III MSW
Climatological - precipitation for drainage and leachate control, prevailing winds for
litter and dust control, winter conditions for cover and overall ops.
Surface water - minimized on site
Geologic and Hydrogeologic Conditions - Most important environmental
considerations. Protect ground water aquifers from leachate, local buildings from
methane gas.

Example
Given: Millis, Ma. has a landfill site which is 23' high and encompasses 17 acres (assume a
rectangular solid) and has been in operation since for 13.7 years. Records show they do about 3.5
lbs/capita.day. Assume 4:1 cover (4/5 waste and 1/5 dirt)
Find: Estimate the population assuming a flat population curve.

T6-3, p.138, 6.16lb/cap.day
T4-1, p.70, 760lb/yd
3

Total volume = 23 ft x 17 acres x 43,560 ft
2
/acre x 1yd
3
/27ft
3

Total volume = 630,813 yd
3

Volume of waste = 630,813 yd
3
x 4/5 (ratio of waste to the total)
Volume of waste = 504,651 yd
3

Weight of waste = 504,651 yd
3
x 760lb/yd
3

Weight of waste = 383,534,507 lbs

Population = 383,534,507 lbs x x x
Population = 12,451

4. Landfill Gases

A. Overview
Landfill-
Biological Reactor
MSW
water
Leachate
Gas

organic matter + H
2
O (bacteria) biodegraded organic matter + CH
4
+ CO
2
+ other gases
(water is required for this reaction to go forward)
B. Composition and Generation of Gases(p. 382-385)

Primarily CH
4
(methane) and CO
2
(carbon dioxide); methane (.7167 g/L) has a
density less than air (1.2928 g/L) and will rise perhaps to building basements where it
may collect and be explode; CO
2
is heavier than air (1.9768 g/L) and will sink to the
GWT and perhaps cause chemical problems.
Also N, O, Sulfides (odors) etc. and trace gases.
Trace gases such as acetone, toluene etc. are associated with the deposition of
hazardous wastes, more in older landfills.
Generation takes place in four phases:
- Phase I - Initial Adjustment - aerobic phase, mainly N
2
and O
2
being generated.
- Phase II - Transition- going anaerobic, pH of leachate (if any) will drop.
- Phase III - Acid -
- hydrolysis - a chemical reaction, higher molecular compounds (proteins, lipids
etc.) are transformed into simpler compounds that the MO's can metabolize.
- acidogenesis - microbial conversion of above compounds into lower mass
compounds such as acetic acid.
- Phase IV - Methane Fermentation -A second group of microbes (strict anaerobes)
converts the phase III material into CH
4
(methane) and CO
2
(carbon dioxide).
- Phase V - Maturation - die off
Volume - 14.0 ft
3
/lb of biodegradable organic solids destroyed (see eq 11-2).
Function of lignin content. Lignin is the organic glue that binds trees and plants
together.
Example
Given: The previous landfill.
Find: Estimate the amount of gas over the life of the landfill. How many barrels of oil could have
been saved? 1.03x10
6
Btu/1000ft
3
of gas, 1bbl oil/5.8 x 10
6
BTU

Assume 14.0 lb/ft3 of biodegradable organic solids destroyed and 70% organics.

gas produced = 383,534,507 lbs x 14.0 ft
3
/lb x .70(organic fraction)
gas produced = 3,758,638,168 ft
3

methane = 3,758,638,168 ft
3
x 50%
methane = 1,879,319,084 ft
3

energy value of methane = 1.879x10
9
ft
3
x 1.03x10
6
Btu/1000ft
3

energy value of methane = 1.94 x 10
12

energy value of oil = 1.94 x 10
12
/ 5.8 x 10
6
BTU
energy value of oil = 334,482 bbls of oil

**Problem 11-2, p 531
**Problem 11-3, p. 532

C. Movement of Landfill Gas

Mechanisms include diffusion, migration of a gas from a higher to a lower
concentration and convection, the internal pressure of the landfill is greater than
atmospheric pressure.
Convection velocity 1-15 cm/d.

Most methane (lighter than air) is vented to the atmosphere, however, both CH
4

(methane) and CO
2
(carbon dioxide) have been found in concentrations of up to 40%
at lateral distances of up to 400' from the edges of unlined landfills. CO
2
is heavier
than air and sinks perhaps to the GWT where it is readily soluble in water and forms
carbonic acid. The carbonic acid lowers the pH which increases the hardness and
mineral content via solubilization.

D. Control of Landfill Gases

Passive and active controls. With passive systems, the pressure of the gas that is
generated serves as the driving force for the movement of gas. Active systems used an
induced vacuum to control the flow of gas. Condensate is a major consideration.

1.) Passive Control (p 403)
Vents
Trenches (interceptor to collect)
Trenches/walls (barrier to redirect)
2.) Active
Extraction wells
Extraction trenches
Air dams

E. Management of Landfill Gas

Flaring - thermal destruction, 1500F and a residence time of .3-.5s.
Energy Recovery Systems - direct use of gas in turbines to produce electricity, heat
water/steam for traditional steam electrical generating plant.
5. Leachate

Leachate is defines as the liquid that has percolated through solid waste and has
extracted dissolved or suspended materials. The liquid usually enters the landfill from
external sources such as drainage, precipitation and ground water.

A. Composition of Leachate (p. 418)

Function of the time i.e. landfill phase: BOD/COD ratio .5 initially, .05-.2 in mature
landfills. The BOD is consumed and the mature landfills contain humic and fuvic
acids which are not readily biodegradable.
Mature landfill: BOD 100-200 mg/l, pH 6.6-7.5, Total Iron 20-200 mg/l

B. Water Balance

Water entering as precipitation
Water entering in solid waste - typically MSW is 20% moisture
Water entering in cover material. Field Capacity(FC) is the maximum amount of
moisture that can be contained in the cover material: 6-12% for sands, 23-31 for clay
loams. FC is the quantity of water than can be held against the pull of gravity, eq. 11-
17
Water consumed in the formation of gas. (Rapidly Biodegradable Volatile Solids)
Water consumed = = 0.0119 lbH
2
O/ft
3

Example
Given: Continuing analysis of the previous landfill.
Find: The water consumed attendant to the gas production

Water consumed = 3,758,638,168 ft
3
x 0.0119 lbH
2
O/ft
3

Water consumed = 45.0 x 10
6
ft
3
x 7.48gal/ft
3
= 336 MG

Water lost as water vapor pV=nRT, .0022lb H
2
O/ft
3
landfill gas

Water balance equation:
S
sw
=W
sw
+W
TS
+W
CM
+W
A(R)
-W
LG
-W
WV
-W
E
+W
B(L)
eq 11-18

The FC is compared to the amount of water present calculated in part by using the
water balance equation. If the amount of water present > FC, leachate will be formed.

C. Movement of Leachate

Darcy's Law eq 11-19 predicts the rate of seepage of leachate from the bottom of the
landfill.
Q = -KA
K is the coefficient of permeability also and is 1333ft/day for uniform coarse sand and
.000003ft/day for colloidal clay.
Example
Given: Silty clay. The bottom area of a landfill is 7.7 acres.
Find: If available, how much leakage would accrue in a year?

T11-15, p. 425
Silty clay, .022 gal/ft2.day

eq. 11-21, p.427
Q(gal/yr) = K(gal/ft
2
.yr)(ft
2
)
Q(gal/yr) = .022 x 7.7 acres x 43,560ft2/acre
Q(gal/yr) = 7379 gal/yr

Breakthrough Time eq 11-22 is the time in years for leachate to penetrate a clay liner.
t = Error!
Example
**Problem 11-8, p.352

D. Fate of Constituents of Leachate in Subsurface Migration

The constituents, of course, are the main reason for concern.
heavy metals - Removal is a function of the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the
soil and defined as meq of cations/100 grams of soil e.g. 100 meq/100g for organic
colloids and 10meq/100g for clays. Should not be a problem.
trace organics - adsorption (the process of collecting soluble substances that are in
solution on a suitable surface) is the most common removal mechanism.

E. Control of Leachate

As the leachate travels through the soil many of its harmful characteristics will be
lessened by filtration and adsorption, however, best practice calls for elimination or
containment.
Liner Systems (p.434): geomembrane, clay, geosynthetic clay, combinations

The geotextile is a thin synthetic material which minimizes the intermixing of
different soil layers. The geonet is a thin synthetic material which serves as a
drainage layer, instead or sand. The geomembrane is a thin synthetic material which
serves as an impervious barrier.
Collection Systems (p.436) sloped terraces and piped bottoms.
Example
**Problem 11-11, p.532

F. Management Options

Recycle
Evaporate (possible air quality problems in LA area)
Treatment
Integrated systems fig 11-74, p.446 including wetlands etc.
6. Surface Water Management

Drainage facilities
Storm water storage basins
Intermediate cover perhaps using waste material from an old part of the landfill or
freshly processed.
Final cover
Percolation rates through cover soils eq 11-29 and tables p.456
S
LC
= P - R - ET -PER
SW

The amount of water that can be stored in a soil is the FC(field capacity) - PWP
(permanent wilting percentage). FC is the amount of moisture left after draining by
gravity PWP is the amount of water that a plant can suck out of the soil.
7. Settlement of Landfills (p.547)

Nominal angle of repose for waste material is 1.5 to 1. 3:1 most commonly used for
side slope.
If height is over 50', use benches which not only help slope stability but serve as
roadways, places to put gas and water pipes.
Settlement occurs as the material decomposes and weight is lost as gas and leachate
(as much as 40% of original mass).
As the overburden increases, compaction and settlement occurs. Maximum specific
weight from 1750 to 2150 lb/yd
3
. Eq. 11-30. 90% of the ultimate occurs in the first 5
years.

8. Environmental Quality Monitoring

A. Vadose Zone Monitoring

The vadose zone is from the ground surface or bottom of the landfill until where the
permanent ground water begins. The soil pores are not filled with water.
The pressure of the water within the soil particles is always below atmospheric
pressure, therefore, to remove this moisture, a negative pressure, vacuum, is required.
A suction device or lysimeter is required.
Gases may move laterally in the vadose zone.

B. Ground water Monitoring

Wells Fig. 11-61

C. Air Quality Monitoring

Ambient Air Quality - gases leaking from the landfill into the surrounding air.
Extracted Landfill Gases - looking for trace constituents
Off Gases from Treatment and Processing Facilities

9. Preliminary Design of Landfills (p. 468)

Site Layout (T 11-23), p.469
- access roads permanent and temporary
- land area, 25 years the more the better
- landfilling method, cell/trench, area, canyon
- completed characteristics, 3:1 side slopes, 50-75' height to bench, 3-6% slope of final
cover.
Type of Waste - typically Class III for MSW.
Estimation of Capacity
- Nominal Volume, determined by multiplying the average area between two adjacent
contours by the height of the lift and summing the volume of the successive lifts. The
volume capacity of the landfill must be adjusted for cover material e.g. if the cover is
3:1 and the calculated volume is 100,000 yd
3
, the adjusted nominal volume is
100,000 x 3/4 = 75,000 yd
3
.
- Initially 550 to 1200 lb/yd3 depends upon the waste, the distribution of waste and
operation.
- Impact of cover material. Daily 6"-1'; intermediate several feet; final 3-6'. Waste:soil
ratios range from 4:1 to 10:1. Cells usually are approximate parallelepipeds with
cover material on 3 sides.
- Decomposition and Overburden Height.
Geology and Geohydrology. Core samples are required to yield information on
ground water movement.
Leachate Management - Do NOT produce any in the first place. Trend is towards
composite liners including a geomembrane and clay layer
Aesthetics
- Screening with berms, plantings and other landscaping. Hydorseeding. Buy much more
land than you need.
- Bird control - String monofilm
- Blowing dust, etc. - portable backstops, snow fencing, cover with earth ASAP.
- Vectors - Cover ASAP
Equipment - expensive capital expenditure p.483-485
Example
**Problem 11-17, p.534

10. Landfill Operation (p.485)

Operating Schedules (T11-27) Weekends? Heavy periods?
Filling Plan - Define working acreage, create first cell by working against berm,
continue creating cells in a logical manner by working against previous cells until the
working acreage is covered over which is the completion of the first lift, continue
with subsequent lifts until the design height is attained.
Records - truck count or scales, credit cards
Hazardous waste - spot inspections

11. Closure and Postclosure

Closure - come up to permitted height, fine-tune slopes, seal it off, plant it.
Postclosure - repair surfaces due to erosion, differential settlement; continuing
running gas and leachate facilities, continuing monitoring.

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
11-2, 11-3, 11-8, 11-11, 11-17

HOMEWORK
Read Chapter 11, Disposal of Solid Wastes and Residual Matter, PP. 361-54
Problems, p.531, 11-1, 11-7, 11-16, 11-18 (lift height =10', landfill height=20',
4.1lb/cap.day, pop=80,000, soccer field 200'x300'), 11-25, 11-27, 11-30 and ancillary
problems 11A-11F inclusive.
Lectures 4 and 5, Disposal of Solid Wastes and Residual Matter Page No.12

LECTURES 4 AND 5 ...................................................................................................................................1
DISPOSAL OF SOLID WASTES AND RESIDUAL MATTER ..............................................................1
1. OVERVIEW ..............................................................................................................................................1
2. LANDFILLS - GENERAL .......................................................................................................................2
A. DEFINITIONS (P. 363) ..............................................................................................................................2
B. SITE PREPARATION..................................................................................................................................2
C. PLACEMENT OF WASTES .........................................................................................................................2
D. LANDFILL CLASSIFICATION .....................................................................................................................2
E. LANDFILLING METHODS (P. 375).............................................................................................................3
1.) Excavated Cell/Trench .....................................................................................................................3
2.) Area ..................................................................................................................................................3
3.) Canyon/Depression ..........................................................................................................................3
3. LANDFILL - SITING CONSIDERATIONS ..........................................................................................3
4. LANDFILL GASES ..................................................................................................................................4
A. OVERVIEW..............................................................................................................................................4
B. COMPOSITION AND GENERATION OF GASES(P. 382-385).........................................................................4
C. MOVEMENT OF LANDFILL GAS................................................................................................................5
D. CONTROL OF LANDFILL GASES ...............................................................................................................6
1.) Passive Control (p 403) ...................................................................................................................6
2.) Active ...............................................................................................................................................6
E. MANAGEMENT OF LANDFILL GAS ...........................................................................................................6
5. LEACHATE...............................................................................................................................................6
A. COMPOSITION OF LEACHATE (P. 418)......................................................................................................6
B. WATER BALANCE ...................................................................................................................................6
C. MOVEMENT OF LEACHATE......................................................................................................................7
D. FATE OF CONSTITUENTS OF LEACHATE IN SUBSURFACE MIGRATION......................................................7
E. CONTROL OF LEACHATE..........................................................................................................................8
F. MANAGEMENT OPTIONS..........................................................................................................................8
6. SURFACE WATER MANAGEMENT...................................................................................................8
7. SETTLEMENT OF LANDFILLS (P.547) ..............................................................................................9
8. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY MONITORING.................................................................................9
A. VADOSE ZONE MONITORING...................................................................................................................9
B. GROUND WATER MONITORING................................................................................................................9
C. AIR QUALITY MONITORING.....................................................................................................................9
9. PRELIMINARY DESIGN OF LANDFILLS (P. 468)............................................................................9
10. LANDFILL OPERATION (P.485) ......................................................................................................10
11. CLOSURE AND POSTCLOSURE .....................................................................................................10

Lecture No. 6
Solid Waste Generation and Collection Rates
Chapter 6, p.125

Waste
Generation
at the source
Collection
Transfer and
Transport
Disposal
solid waste

In this lecture:
Importance of waste quantities
Measures and methods used to quantify waste
Waste generation rates
Factors that affect waste generation rates
Types and quantities of recovered materials
Household hazardous wastes
Waste characterization rules
1. Importance of Waste Quantities

Compliance with law such as AB939 which mandates 25% reduction by 1995 and
50% reduction by 2000
Equipment selections.

2. Measures and Methods Used to Assess Quantities

MSW should be measured as a weight as opposed to a volume because the weight
measurements are consistent and reproducible while the volume can vary
considerably attendant to compaction. Ultimately, however, the capacity of a landfill
is a volume consideration.
Units - lb/capita
.
day for residential and commercial, a repeatable measure of
production for industry and agriculture e.g. lb of manure/chicken.
Estimation of Waste Quantities -
- Load-count analysis - A landfill without scales may estimate the vehicular capacity and
the number of vehicles of that capacity.
Example
Given: On a single day you observe the following at a landfill:
10-16 yd
3
compactor trucks
18-3
yd3
pickup trucks hauling loose and dry leaves
56-1 yd
3
private cars
2-45 yd
3
trucks with broken concrete
Find: If there are 3.82 lb/cap.day with 2.7 cap/home and all the waste comes from the town,
estimate the number of homes in the town. What's wrong with the answer?
1. Compute the total weight

a
From T4-1, p70
2. Determine the number of homes
number of residence = 331,270 x x
number of residence = 32,118
3. What's wrong with the answer?
The demolition load, broken concrete may not be representative; calculate the number of houses
with the concrete.
number of residence = (331,270-233,550) x x
number of residence = 9,475 vs. 32,118 with the broken concrete

Item Number of
loads
Avg. Volume
yd
3

Specific
a

Weight
lb/yd
3

Total Weight
lb
col.2x3x4
Compactor
truck
10 16 500 80,000
Pickup trucks
with
leaves
loose and
dry
18 3 100 5,400
private cars 56 1 220 12,320
broken
concrete
2 45 2595 233,550
Total
lb/day
331,270

- Material Balance (eq. 6-1, 6-2, 6-3)
Accumulation = inflow - outflow + generation
= M
in
- M
out
+ r
w

Note: Always write r
w
as positive in the parent equation and make a negative substitution
as required in the final analysis.
example
example
Given: Problem 6-1, p153 Note: Paper is 32% of the waste produced and all of it
goes to the fireplace except magazines.
Find: Materials flow diagram and amount of solid waste disposed of during the
day.
1. Material Flow Diagram

2. Amount of solid waste disposed of during the day.
a. Waste produced = 20lb in the door -7lb food consumed -5lb food stored
Waste produced = 8 lb/day
b. Bottles and Cans recycled = 8lb/day x .20
Bottles and Cans recycled = 1.6lb/day
c. Paper goods = 8lb/day x .32
Paper goods = 2.56lb/day
d. Magazines stored = 2.56lb/day x .05
Magazines stored = .13lb/day
e. Paper good combusted = 2.56lb/day x .20 (20% burned)
Paper good combusted = .51lb/day
f. solid waste disposed of = 8 lb/day - 1.6lb/day -.51lb/day -0.13lb/day
solid waste disposed of = 5.76 lb/day
Statistical Analysis - First determine (p.929) if the data are normally distributed or
skewed by plotting on log normal, probability paper. Arithmetic probability paper is
arithmetic on the ordinate axis, logarithmic probability paper is logarithmic on the
ordinate axis. If the data plots as a straight line on arithmetic paper , it is normal;
departure from a straight line is an indication of skewness. If it is skewed, plot the
data on logarithmic paper; the implication being that the log of the values is normally
distributed which may or may not be the case. If the data is distributed normally,
normal statistics such as mean, standard deviation, variance can be applied.
example
Given: The weekly volume of MSW from the local Von's is: 10, 6, 7, 3, 15,10,18,5 yd
3
.
Find: Mean, standard deviation coefficient of variation p. 921
1. Mean
xbar = x/N = (10+6+7+3+15+10+18+5)/8 = 74/8
xbar = 9.25
2. Standard Deviation
s = Error! =
s = 5.11 Note: Using N in the denominator gives 4.79

3. Coefficient of Variation (relative measure of dispersion, typically 10-60% in solid waste)
CV = 100s/xbar = 100(5.11)/9.25
CV = 55.24
**included in the syllabus package is a sheet of log normal paper
3. Generation and Collection Rates

Most studies prior to 1990 reflect the amount of waste collected as opposed to the
amount of waste generated. The difference may be in recycling, garbage disposal,
composting, fireplaces, donations to the Salvation Army etc. The variation may be
from 4-15%.
One ton/capita
.
year 2000 lb/365days/year = 5.48 lb/capita
.
day. More precisely,
3.82 lb/capita
.
day for residential and commercial and 6.16 lb/capita
.
day total (T6-3,
p138). The total is augmented by hazardous, institutional, construction and
demolition, municipal services wastes and treatment plant sludges. Residential and
commercial is typically 60% of the total.
example
Given: The Simi Valley Landfill services app. 50,000 homes.
Find: What is the weekly output of hazardous waste to the landfill?
Assume: 2.35 capita/residence, T6-3, p138 hazardous waste=.0063lb/capita.day

HW = 50,000 residence x 2.35 capita/residence x .0063lb/capita.day
HW = 740.25 lb/day x 7 days/wk
HW = 5181.75 lbs/wk

Special Wastes (T6-4)
- batteries - 10household batteries/capita.year
- used oil - .80 gal/capita.year

example
Given: A tire recycler has costed out his capital investment and he needs 1000 tires/day, 5
days/week in order to meet his goal of 8% return on investment.
Find: How big of a town does he need?
From T6-4, p139 .80tire/captia.year

1. Tire needed
Tires needed = 1000tires/day x 5days/week
Tires needed = 5000 tires/week
People required = 5000 tires/week x x 52weeks/year
People required = 325,000capita

Rate Variation (T6-6, p141)
- The larger the data base, the less the variation.
- For a residence, peak day factor of 3.0, minimum day factor of .20

example
Given: The projected volume at the transfer station was 325tons/day on St. Patrick's Day which
was identified and projected as a peak day. You subsequently discovered that holidays are, in fact,
not peak days but minimum days.
Find: The normal tonnage
Assume that the transfer station approximates a small community.
From T6-6, for a small community, peak day 2.0, minimum day = .5

Actual tonnage = 325tons/day x 1/2.0(Peak day)
Actual tonnage = 162.5 tons/day
Normal day tonnage = 162.5 tons/day x 1/.5(minimum day)
Normal day tonnage = 325tons/day
Note: The peak would be 650.
4. Factor that Effect Generation Rates

Source Reduction and Recycling. Design with disposal in mind.
Public Attitudes and Legislation. If not reimbursed, the public must be recruited to a
"tree saving" mentality. Legislation includes bottle laws, AB939, green waste pick-
ups.
Geographic and Physical Factors. The bigger the yard and the longer the growing
season, the more the waste. Seasonal, fall leaves, Christmas gifts, spring cleanup.
Kitchen grinders contribute a minimal reduction.
Frequency. More waste is collected if the frequency is increased. Note that more
wastes are not generated.

5. Materials Recovered from MSW (T6-7, p147)

12-16% overall total for the US based on weight.

6. Household Hazardous Wastes

.3% in California
paint, pesticides, batteries
Small amounts but contaminate a potentially salable product.

7. Waste Characterization and Diversion Studies

Identify the sources, characteristics and quantities of generated
The survival of MRF may be dependent on knowing what will actually come into the
facility.

EXAMPLES
6-3

HOMEWORK
Read Chapter 6, Solid Waste Generation and Collection Rates, pp. 125-157
Problems, p.152, 6-2, 6-5, 6-7a, 6-10 and ancillary problems 6A, 6B, 6C and 6D
Lecture No. 6, Solid Waste Generation and Collection Rates, Page No. 7

LECTURE NO. 6...........................................................................................................................................1
SOLID WASTE GENERATION AND COLLECTION RATES..............................................................1
1. IMPORTANCE OF WASTE QUANTITIES..........................................................................................1
2. MEASURES AND METHODS USED TO ASSESS QUANTITIES.....................................................1
3. GENERATION AND COLLECTION RATES ......................................................................................4
4. FACTOR THAT EFFECT GENERATION RATES .............................................................................5
5. MATERIALS RECOVERED FROM MSW (T6-7, P147) ....................................................................5
6. HOUSEHOLD HAZARDOUS WASTES................................................................................................5
7. WASTE CHARACTERIZATION AND DIVERSION STUDIES ........................................................6

Lecture No. 7
Waste Handling and Separation
Storage and Processing at the Source
Chapter 7, p.159
Waste
Generation
at the source
Collection
Transfer and
Transport
Disposal
solid waste

1. Handling and Separation at the Source

Handling refers to activities associated with MSW before they are placed in a
collection container
May also include handling the collection container to and from the collection point
Source recovery is one of the most effective ways to recycle: aluminum cans,
newspaper, plastic soda and milk bottles.

2. Handling
Low rise < stories; medium rise 4-7 stories; high rise > 7 stories
See T7-4, p.172 for typical size and dimensions of containers.
A. Low Rise

Single family detached and attached
Single family detached
- separate recyclables at the MRF, not at the home
- variety of storage containers and mixed waste: plastic bags, 32 gallon galvanized or
plastic, cardboard boxes
-90 gallons containers equipped with wheels, mixed waste

example:
Given: In the town of Prolific, the average family size is 6.7. It has been decided to use a standard
container which will be provided by the town.
Find: Size the container
From T6-3, p.138 3.82lbs/capita.day
From T4-1, p.70 220lbs/yd
3

Residential weekly volume = 6.7capita x 3.82lbs/capita.day x x 7days/week

Residential weekly volume = .814yd
3
x 27ft
3
/yd
3
= 22.0ft3 x 7.48gal/ft
3
= 164.5gallons
Use 2-90gallon containers

B. Low and Medium Rise

Basement storage by residents and moving of the container by maintenance personnel.
Large outdoor containers, located in special areas that are emptied mechanically by
the collection truck.
example
Given: The Wooki Wooki Garden apartments consisting of 50 units with an average of 1.9
persons/unit. The manager has decided to provide one disposal unit for mixed waste and a single
unit for all recycled material. Use 2lbs/capita.day,total waste.
Find: Size the two containers for weekly pickup. (Quick, first cut estimate)

Total weight = 2lbs/capita.day x 1.9 persons/unit x 50 units x 7days/wk
Total weight = 1330lbs/week

T6-7, p.147 %recovered for recycling 12-16% by weight

Total weight of recycled mat'l = 1330lbs/week x .16(use max to give largest recycle container)
Total weight of recycled mat'l = 213 lbs/week

Total weight of waste = 1330lbs/week x (1-.12)(use min to give largest waste container)
Total weight of waste = 1170 lbs/week

Volume of recycle container = 213lbs/week x
is a guess from T4-1, p.70 based on plastics at 110 and aluminum at 270 and glass at 330. A more
detailed analysis would not be difficult. In any case, the best information may be forthcoming
from actual operating data.
Volume of recycle container = 1.42 yards

Any container larger than this number will do the
trick. Since there should not be putrescible in the recycling bin, a larger container with more
infrequent collections e.g. may be suitable.

Volume of waste container = 1170 lbs/week x
Volume of waste container = 5.3 yd
3
/week

C. High Rise Apartments

Porters pick up the waste at the apartment door.
Wastes are taken to the SW area by tenants
Chutes on each floor (12-36")
Use
1-2lbs/tenant.day
Vacuum transport systems have been used most notably at Disney World.

D. Commercial and Industrial Facilities

Commercial - removed from work area by wheeled containers or blanket wrapped
and transported via the service area to a disposal/processing area. Compaction would
not be unusual.

Industrial area - May be more susceptible to the profit motive e.g. can order
employees to recycle cans.

3. Storage of SW at the Source

A. Effects of Storage

Putrefaction - Microbial decomposition via bacteria and fungi leading to vermin and
odors.
Adsorption of Fluids - If more than a week, the water will become equally distributed,
primarily moisture from food and garden material moving into the paper.
Contamination - A small volume of paint had great potential to contaminate a great
deal of plastic, an argument for source separation of recyclables.

B. Types of Storage Containers (T7-4, p.172)

For residential containers, manually collected, the max. weight should be 40-65lbs as
not injure the collector.
32 gallons galvanized or plastic is the most common.
Temporary and disposable containers such as cardboard boxes, plastic bags and paper
bags are common. A problem with these is that animals are attracted by the food and
tear them open and spread the material around.
Low rise - trend towards 1 man collection crews with vehicles with mechanical,
articulated arms and 90 gallon containers, (75-120)
Low and medium rise - Demsey dumsters, portable or not, galvanized or plastic
High rise - more proned to have processing equipment: compaction, shredding, baling
and in the old days incineration.
Container Locations: side or rear of house, alleys, common location identified for that
purpose.
Public health and aesthetics - Potential for odors and vermin. Randy and his
maggots....
4. Processing at Dwellings

Insinkeration of food - No significant decrease in the weight or volume of the MSW,
see problem 6-4.
Separation - very effective if you can engender meaningful participation.
Compaction - individual units under the counter, collection and processing by large
units. Potentially counterproductive if the wastes are to sorted at a MRF; also,
compaction may foster contamination.
5. Composting

The biological conversion of the biodegradable organic fraction of the MSW resulting
in a volume reduction and producing a useful by-product
Isolate a 3ft square area with chicken wire and dump the yard wastes. Food wastes
may be stirred into the mix if odor and vermin problems can be obviated.
Water and turn occasionally, once/week. Perhaps ready to use after 1 year, put in at
top, take out at bottom.
Produces a humus-like material which is a soil conditioner, not a fertilizer.

HOMEWORK
Read Chapter 7, Waste Handling and Separation, Storage, and Processing at the Source,
p.159-191
Problems, p.191, 7-5, 7-6 and ancillary problems 7A, 7B and 7C
Lecture No. 7, Waste Handling and Separation, Storage and Processing at the
Source, Page No. 5

LECTURE NO. 7...........................................................................................................................................1
WASTE HANDLING AND SEPARATION ...............................................................................................1
STORAGE AND PROCESSING AT THE SOURCE................................................................................1
.........................................................................................................................................................................1
1. HANDLING AND SEPARATION AT THE SOURCE.........................................................................1
2. HANDLING ..............................................................................................................................................1
A. LOW RISE................................................................................................................................................1
B. LOW AND MEDIUM RISE..........................................................................................................................2
C. HIGH RISE APARTMENTS.........................................................................................................................2
D. COMMERCIAL AND INDUSTRIAL FACILITIES ............................................................................................3
3. STORAGE OF SW AT THE SOURCE...................................................................................................3
A. EFFECTS OF STORAGE .............................................................................................................................3
B. TYPES OF STORAGE CONTAINERS (T7-4, P.172)......................................................................................3
4. PROCESSING AT DWELLINGS ...........................................................................................................3
5. COMPOSTING.........................................................................................................................................4

Lecture No. 8
Collection of Solid Waste
Chapter 8, p.193

Waste
Generation
at the source
Collection
Transfer and
Transport
Disposal
solid waste

Issues in this lecture:
Types of services
Types of collection systems
Detailed analysis of collection systems
Setting up collection routes
1. Waste Collection

A. General

Major cost element of solid waste disposal - typically 50-70% of the total and
therefore, demands major attention especially with final disposal getting so much
press.
Collection includes:
- picking up MSW from sources
- hauling to the emptying location
- emptying of the truck or container

B. Collection of Commingled Wastes, Low Rise, Detached: (T8-1, p.195)

The waste is commingled or heaped together as opposed to source separation e.g.
picking out class, cardboard
Collection services:
- curb - (manual or mechanical) most common, homeowner moves the container back
and forth between the curb from the storage location. Larger 90 gallon containers
require placement in the street, perhaps at a precise angle in cul-de-sacs.
- alley - Narrow utility thoroughfare in the rear of residences; not uncommon in older
communities, Claremont, Pomona.
- backyard carry - collectors retrieve the container from the storage location, empty it
and return the container to the storage location.
Manual methods of collection:
- direct lifting and carrying
- rim roll
- small lifting devices
- satellite vehicles, Cushmans

C. Collection of Commingled Wastes, Others.

Low and medium rise apartments, high rise apartments, commercial industrial
facilities. Smaller containers handled by maintenance personal for curb side
collection, larger containers done mechanically.
Much collection is done at night and very early morning to avoid the traffic.

D. Collection of Waste at the Source

The generator separates the waste as opposed to commingled wastes.
Methods include:
- Curbside collection using standard or specially designed vehicles.
- Standard vehicles can be used to pick up just newspaper or just can on some kind of
appropriate time cycle; perhaps every other week or the third Thursday of the month
for glass.
- Specially designed vehicles include: (photos p.200, T8-2)
- closed body recycling trucks
- recycling trailers
- modified flatbed trucks
- open-bin recycling trucks
- compartmentalized trailers

Example
Given: You are a community activist and believe in recycling. It has been decided to make two
categories: the first for paper and cardboard and the second for everything else. You think that you
can get 50% of the 458 homes to participate. You have actually counted the residents and there
are 1338 of them. You have made a mini-survey of the paper wastes such as wrappers, packaging
and determined that newspapers are about 1/3 of the total paper; the rest you hope will be
separated to the tune of 75%.
Find: The big meeting is Tuesday night and the neighbors want some hard numbers on how you are
going to accomplish the recycling.
1. Computation table to calculate volumes.

2. Determine the relative volumes
newspaper + cardboard = .0593 + .0565
newspaper + cardboard = .1158yd3
others, plastics, glass, tin cans, aluminum = .0520+.0206+.0287+.0148
others, plastics, glass, tin cans, aluminum = .1161
Note: .1158+.1161=.2319,OK

The relative volume is useful for calculating the relative size of the bins.
.1158/.2319=.50
.1161/.2319=.50
Component Total Solid
Wastes,
lb
(T3-7 ,p.52)
Waste
Materials
Separated,
lb
(col. 2x75%)
Specific
Weight,
lb/yd
3
(T4-1, p.70)

Volume,
yd
3

(col. 3/4)
Organic
Food wastes 8.0 not-recycled 490
Paper 35.8x1/3 8.9 150 .0593
Cardboard 6.4 4.8 85 .0565
Plastics 6.9 5.2 110 .0520
Textiles 1.8 not-recycled 110
Rubber 0.4 not-recycled 220
Leather 0.4 not-recycled 270
Garden 17.3 not-recycled 170
Wood 1.8 not-recycled 400

Inorganic
Glass 9.1 6.8 330 .0206
Tin cans 5.8 4.3 150 .0287
Aluminum .6 .4 270 .0148
Other metal 3.0 not-recycled 540
Dirt Ashes,
etc.
2.7 not-recycled 810

In this case, the split is 50/50 which is ideal. The meaning is the collection containers would
be of equal size.

3. Determine a pickup scenario

Assume: 3.82 lb/cap.day, T6-3,p.138
1338 residents x 3.82 lb/cap.day x .50(participation rate) = 2556lbs/day
vol. of news and cb = 2556lbs/day x .1158yd
3
/100lbs
vol. of news and cb = 2.96yd
3
/day
vol. of others = 2556lbs/day x .1161yd3/100lbs
vol. of others = 2.97yd
3
/day

Possibilities:
You are getting about 3x7days/week=21 yards/week
1. 2-25 yard trucks that each operate the route: one trip for each truck, once/week
2. 2-bifurcated trucks that collect both materials at one time, the route is traveled once/week.

4. The next step should be of primary interest: Cost Analysis
What are the revenues earned:
- Earnings from recycled materials
- Costs avoided by not paying for the materials being landfilled

vs.
Costs
- Equipment
- Labor
Ancillary issues
- Meeting AB939
- Do the right thing because you believe it.

2. Types of Collection Systems(T8-3, p.205)

The major dichotomy is between HCS and SCS. In HCS the container is carried to
and from the disposal area. With SCS, the container is emptied into a truck and the
truck travels to and from the disposal area.

A. Hauled Container Systems

The container is sited at a location. In accordance with some cycle, the container is
picked up and hauled off to the disposal area where the container is emptied and
returned to the original location. The truck had no container, per se; the container is
carried by the truck. A variation is start with an empty container.
Advantages:
- Useful when the generation rate is high and the containers are large.
- May eliminate spillage associated with multiple smaller containers.
- Flexible. Need more capacity, use a larger container.
Disadvantage:
- If the containers are not filled, low utilization rate.

Types:
- Hoist truck - similar to an AAA emergency truck, but dumsters are picked up or hoisted
instead of cars, smaller volumes, bulky items.
- Tilt-frame - assembly on truck allows sliding of large containers on and off the truck.
- Trash-trailer The slider assembly is not part of the truck, but part of the trailer.
Example
Given: A new sub-division with a single, central park serves about 500 homes. The average
occupancy is 2.8 cap/residence.
Find: The director of public works wants to know if he can service the park, once per week
collection with a single hoist truck.

T6-3, p.138: "Parks and recreational areas".12lbs/cap.day
T4-1, p.70: assume rubbish, 220 lbs/yd
3

T8-3, p.205: 6-12yd
3
capacity for a hoist truck

1. weight of park material
weight = 500 residences x 2.8 cap /residence x .12lbs/cap.day x 7 days/week
weight = 1176 lbs/week

2. Volume of park material
volume = 1176 lbs/week / 220 lbs/yd
3

volume = 5.3 lbs/yd
3
vs. 6-12 yd
3
capacity
Therefore, a hoist system can be used.

B. Stationary Container System

The waste container remains in the vicinity of where the waste is generated. The
waste is unloaded into a bigger truck. A large container is an integral part of the truck.
When fully loaded from multiple waste containers, the truck travels to and from the
landfill as opposed to the waste container.
Types:
- Manually loaded. Small containers. Residential pickup.
- Mechanically loaded. Larger containers. Wheeled residential pickup and commercial
pickup
- Almost all contain internal compaction equipment
The major advantage is that the vehicle does not travel to the disposal area until it is
full yielding higher utilization rates.
The major disadvantages include:
- The system is not flexible in terms of picking up bulky goods.
- Wastes e.g. demolition, that make damage the relatively delicate mechanisms.
- Large volume generations may not have room for storing large containers
3. Analysis of Collection Systems (Fig. 8-14, p.211)

A. Definition of Terms

1.) Pickup (P
hcs or scs
)

P
hcs
: The time spent:
- driving to the next container after an empty container has been deposited.
- the time spent pickup the loaded container.
- the time required to redeposit the container after it has been emptied.
P
scs
: Refers to the time spent loading the vehicle, beginning with the stop to load the
first container and ending when the last container has been loaded.

2.) Haul (h)

Does not include actually picking up the loaded container or redepositing the empty
container nor the time spent at the location where the waste is unloaded.
HCS- The time required to reach the location where the waste will be emptied, starting
when the container has been loaded on the truck and continuing through unloading until
the truck arrives at the location where the empty container is to be redeposited.
SCS - The time required to reach the location where the full vehicle will be emptied and
continuing until the truck arrives at the location where the first container will be emptied
for the next route.

3.) At-Site (s)(T8-5, p.215)

The time spent at the site (landfill, MRF, transfer station) where the system is
unloaded including waiting time.

4.) Off-Route (W)

Non-productive activities
- Necessary - Check in, check out, meeting, breaks.
- Unnecessary - Personal errands, extended coffee breaks
Typically 15%

B. Hauled Container System

Equations (p.213)

T
hcs
= (P
hcs
+ s + h)
The time required for a trip is the sum of the pickup time, the time on site and the
haul time. The haul time may be expressed as:
h = a + bx (Fig. 8-16, p.214)
and is essentially a function of the distance traveled. The pickup time may be expressed
as follows:
P
hcs
= pc + uc + dbc (Fig. 8-16, p.214)
In plain English, the pickup time is the sum required to pickup the container, to
unload the container and drive between containers (p+u+d).

example
**Problem 8-12, p.240

C. Stationary Container System

Equations (p.218)
T
scs
= (P
scs
+ s + h)

P
scs
= C
t
(uc) + (n
p
-1)(dbc)
The pickup time depends upon the number of containers multiplied by the unit
loading time plus the number of locations times the driving time between the locations.
example
Given: A stationary container system (mechanically loaded), 3.5 collection
trips/wk, 8hrs/day, 3.22 h/trip (pick up time), at site time .1h/trip, round trip =
10miles, a=.018 h/trip. b= .020h/trip, productive time = 85%
Note: Even though a partial trip (3.5 collection trips), a full trip (4) will have to be
made to the disposal area.
Find: Time required per week

days/week =

T
w
= =

T
w
= 1.84 days/week
**Problem 8-10, p.239

D. Adjusting the Basic Equations

Example
Given: A stationary container system costs $.037/ton.minute. A transfer station costs
$.023/ton.minute + $2.03/ton.
Find: The round trip haul trip at which a transfer station becomes economical.

1. Analytical
.037X = .023X + 2.03
X = 145 minutes, time must be > 145 minutes

2. Graphical

SC
TS
Time (minutes)
Cost
($/ton)
145 minutes


4. Collection Routes

A. General

Use a heuristic (common sense), trial and error approach consistent with the
philosophy of collecting the most waste with least resources in the context of
constraints such as equipment breakdowns, holidays and vacations, good labor
practices and the following guidelines:
- Crew size and vehicles must be known and coordinated.
- Routes should begin and end near arteries
- Topographic and physical boundaries should be route boundaries.
- Start at the top of a hill and work downward.
- Last collection point should be near disposal site.
- Traffic problems should be dealt with early in the morning.
- Extremely large load should be dealt with early in the morning.

B. Layout of Collection Routes

Location maps showing data concerning the sources including location, collection
frequency, number of containers
Data analysis, try to balance the routes in accordance with pickups and time.
Preliminary layout of routes, start at the depot and do a route. An idea of truck
capacity vs. loads is in order.
Fine tune the preliminary design.

Example

** Problem 8-19, p.242

EXAMPLE PROBLEMS
8-12, 8-11, 8-6, 8-19

HOMEWORK
Read Chapter 8, Collection of Solid Waste, pp. 193-245
Problems, p.238 8-4a., 8-7, 8-8, 8-10, 8-16
Lecture No. 8, Collection of Solid Waste, Page No. 10

LECTURE NO. 8...........................................................................................................................................1
COLLECTION OF SOLID WASTE...........................................................................................................1
.........................................................................................................................................................................1
1. WASTE COLLECTION ..........................................................................................................................1
A. GENERAL ................................................................................................................................................1
B. COLLECTION OF COMMINGLED WASTES, LOW RISE, DETACHED: (T8-1, P.195)......................................2
C. COLLECTION OF COMMINGLED WASTES, OTHERS...................................................................................2
D. COLLECTION OF WASTE AT THE SOURCE ................................................................................................2
2. TYPES OF COLLECTION SYSTEMS(T8-3, P.205) ............................................................................4
A. HAULED CONTAINER SYSTEMS ..............................................................................................................4
B. STATIONARY CONTAINER SYSTEM..........................................................................................................5
3. ANALYSIS OF COLLECTION SYSTEMS (FIG. 8-14, P.211)............................................................5
A. DEFINITION OF TERMS ............................................................................................................................5
1.) Pickup (Phcs or scs) .........................................................................................................................5
2.) Haul (h) ............................................................................................................................................6
3.) At-Site (s)(T8-5, p.215) .....................................................................................................................6
4.) Off-Route (W)....................................................................................................................................6
B. HAULED CONTAINER SYSTEM.................................................................................................................6
C. STATIONARY CONTAINER SYSTEM..........................................................................................................7
D. ADJUSTING THE BASIC EQUATIONS.........................................................................................................7
4. COLLECTION ROUTES.........................................................................................................................8
A. GENERAL ................................................................................................................................................8
B. LAYOUT OF COLLECTION ROUTES...........................................................................................................8

Lecture No. 9
Separation and Processing and Transformation of Solid Waste
Chapter 9, p. 247
Waste
Generation
at the source
Collection
Transfer and
Transport
Disposal
solid waste

Issues in this lecture:
Recovery of separated materials.
Separation and processing of solid waste components
Transformation processes

1. General

Methods used to recover source separated material:
- Curbside collection
- Homeowner delivery to drop-off centers
Further separation of source separated material as well as separation of commingled
waste
- MRF's Material Recovery Facilities
- MR/TFs Material Recovery/Transfer Facilities, a facility of the future which may
include:
-drop-off center
-materials separation facility
- composting
- bioconversion
- production of refuse derived fuel (DRF)
- transfer and transport facility

2. Reuse and Recycling Opportunities

A. Opportunities for reuse include: (T9-1, p.249)(T9-2)

Direct reuse as a raw material, 55 gal. drums, furniture, bicycles. Thrift shops.
Raw material for re manufacturing. Must meet material specifications, e.g.
- glass: color, no label or metal, degree of cleanliness
- plastics: type (PETE/1, HDPE/2 etc.) moisture content
Feed stock for the production of compost and other processes. If used as an intermediate
cover the compost can be fairly contaminated. However, compost for sale must be
free of contaminants.
Fuel Source: (perhaps the greatest value of MSW)
- Direct burn of the organic fraction. Dirt, ashes, metal, refrigerators will not burn and
perhaps other constituents such as plastics and tires should not be burned.
- Converting MSW to fuel.
Land reclamation. Enormous opportunity to reclaim land such as strip-mines or areas
below sea level as in the Netherlands, or create new green areas such as golf courses,
ball fields, equestrian centers.

B. Drop-off, Buy-back Centers

Drop-off centers may be a wooden bin for newspapers to a thrift shop. Participation
can be low because the material must be stored by the homeowner and there is not an
economic incentive. Convenience, next to a supermarket, may be critical.
Buy-back centers may be a vending type machine in front of Lucky's to a large
commercial venture, such as the Holt Boulevard operation.

3. Unit Operations for Separation and Processing (T9-3, p.256)

A. Purpose

Modify the physical characteristics to facilitate removal of desired component.
Remove specific components or contaminants.
Prepare the material for subsequent uses.

B. Size Reduction

Size reduction is the process by which as collected materials are mechanically
reduced in size.
Object is to obtain a uniform final product that is reduced in size potentially reducing
storage and shipping course. Size reduction does not necessarily mean volume
reduction. Shredded paper occupies more space than the parent stock.
Shredders include hammer mill, flail mill and shear shredder and usually involve
metal parts revolving against one another.
Glass crushers.
Wood grinders include chippers, such as local tree cutters use, to reduce the branches
to chips and tub grinders. Once the wood is broken up, the finer pieces can be used as
raw material for composting and the larger pieces can be used as a fuel.

C. Screening

Screening is a unit operation used to separate mixtures of materials of different sizes
into two or more size fractions by means of screen surfaces.
Object is to:
- Remove oversized material
- Remove undersized material
- Separate into light (combustible, paper) and heavy (non-combustible, glass) fractions.
- Screening devices include: (Fig. 9-8, p. 260)
- Vibrating screens
- Rotary screens
- Disc screens

D. Other Processes

- Density Separation (Air Classification) is the unit process used to separate light
materials such as paper and plastic from heavy materials such as metals based on weight
difference in the air stream. In solid waste the light fraction is typically organic while the
heavy fraction is typically inorganic. Used to separate glass from plastic in a commingled
situation.
- Magnetic Separation is the operation by which ferrous metals are separated from the
waste stream utilizing magnetic principals. Used to separate tin cans from aluminum in a
commingled situation.
- Densification (compaction) is a unit operation used to increase the density of the
material so that it can be stored and transported more cheaply and as a means of preparing
densified refuse-derived fuels (dRDR) and include balers and can crushers.

4. Facilities for Handling, Moving and Storing MSW

Conveyors (Fig. 9-14, p.265). Transfer wastes from one location to another and
include hinge, belt drag and pneumatic. Conveyors are used in the manual sorting of
MSW. Belt is 4' wide and move at 15-90 ft./min. with a thickness of waste of 6".

Example
Given: A recycling operation of commingled wastes.
Find: The Chief of Public Works of Pomona wants to know how many sorters, jobs, will be needed
on the sorting conveyor line. You know the population is 120,000.
From T6-3, p.138 3.82 lb./capita.day
Weekly tonnage = 120,000 residents x 3.82 lb./capita.day x days/week x 1 ton/2000 lb.
Weekly tonnage = 16,044 tons/week
From T9-4, p.268 2.5 ton/person.hour, Assume a work week of 40 hours
Persons required = 16,044 tons/week x x 1 week/40 hours
Persons required = 160 people not including augmentation because of sickness, vacation, holidays,
absenteeism etc. An analysis of the economic advantages of the recycling operation seems in
order.

Movable Equipment - front end loaders, fork lifts
Weighing facilities
Storage facilities

5. Development and Implementation of MRF's

A. Engineering Considerations

Function of MRF. Depends on role of MRF, type of materials, how the material will
be delivered and how it will be presented to the buyer.
Selection of materials to be separated. Depends on the program set up in the
community, e.g. commingled, 3 recycle containers and 1 for waste.
Material specifications.
Flow diagrams(Fig. 9-20, p. 276). Would consider:
- Characteristics of the waste material to be processed.
- Material specifications.
- Available equipment.
- Example: Refrigerators must be removed, plastic bags must be burst open, brown bags
are moved from the paper to the cardboard section where they command a higher
price. Paper may be baled which weigh 1400 lb. and are 30x40x60 inches.
Example
**Problem 9-6, p. 320
Estimate Quantities and Loading rates. Mass balance. Usually expressed in tons/hour.
Based on 1820 operating hours year.

Loading rate, ton/h =

Layout and design. Would consider:
- Waste deliveries, ingress.
- Material delivery rates.
- Loading rates including storage for peak times.
- Material flow and handling patterns
- Performance criteria for equipment selection
Equipment
Environmental controls
Aesthetics

B. Planning and Design Process for MRF's

Feasibility analysis. Technical and economic merits.
- The coordination of the MRF into the overall IWM (integrate waste management) plan.
- What kind of MRF and what kind of materials will it process.
- Economics, capital and operating costs. A sensitivity analysis of the effects of
fluctuating prices is particularly important.
- Ownership and Operation. Public, private, combination.
Preliminary design.
Final design.

C. Issues for MRFs

Siting. Remote locations, as much buffer as possible, NIMBY inevitable.
Environmental issues. Traffic, noise, dust, odor, vector control, airborne litter, looks
terrible.
Public health and safety. General public and employees. For the employees,
protective clothing, puncture-proof gloves, air filters, showers, perhaps a radio.
Economics. Sensitive to market prices. Must be environmentally correct or be shut
down.
6. Combustion

A. General

Object:
- Reduce the volume (85-95% reduction) and weight of wastes.
- Recover conversion products and energy.
Major concerns:
- Air pollution.
- Siting, NIMBY.

B. Description of Combustion Process (Fig. 9-31, p. 293)

- Unload into a storage pit, usually a 2 day volume. The tipping area should minimize
unloading waiting time with reason.
- An overhead crane drops material into a charging chute which directs the wastes to the
furnace. The operator tries to get an even mix and remove non-combustible items such as
mattresses or engine blocks.
- The waste falls on grates and is mass fired. Air is typically introduced.
- Gases and small particles rise to the combustion chamber and burn at 1600F.
- Heat is recovered from the gases using water-filled tubes in the combustion chamber
and a boiler that produces steam which is converted to electricity in a generator.
- Air pollution is controlled including NOx, SO2 and particulates.
- Clean gases are discharged to the stack.
- Ash and unburned material are quenched (cooled with water). The water and residue
must be properly disposed of. See p.641 for an excellent discussion of air pollution
systems.

C. Types of Combustors

Mass fired. Use unseparated, commingled MSW. Predominate in US, 68%. Pick out
the bicycles and refrigerators, burn the rest. The energy content is probably extremely
variable.
RDF (Refuse Derived Fuel) fired. 23%. Produced from the organic fraction and can
be made with consistency to meet energy, moisture, ash content specifications. Forms
include: shredded, fluff, pellets or cubes. Also, since metals, plastics etc. are not
burned, air emissions are cleaner.

D. Volume Reduction (T9-8, p.299)

Typically 90% volume reduction of the materials that were combusted. Demolition
wastes, white goods, cars etc. were never considered.
Always a residue and ash left over after combustion consisting of glass, tin cans, iron
and steel.

E. Issues With Combustion Facilities

Siting. As with MRF's, a remote location with plenty of buffer zone.
Air Emissions. May exceed the cost of the combustion facilities. Most pressing issue
in the LA area. Important consideration in the decision between mass-fired and RDF
systems.
Disposal of residues, bottom ash, fly ash, scrubber product. Typically disposed of in
land fill.
Liquid Emissions. Sources: ash removal, wet scrubbers.
Economics. Standardized life cycle costing.

F. Example Problem

**Problem 9-16, p. 321
7. Composting

A. General

The organic fraction of MSW (less plastic, rubber and leather) is converted into an
earthy, humus-like, material by the action of bacteria and other microbes.

Proteins
Amino acids
Lipids
Carbos + O2 +Nutrients+MOs
Cellulose
Lignin
Ash
Compost + New Cells + Dead Cells +
CO2 + H20 + NO3 + SO4 +heat

Objectives:
- Convert the MSW into a biologically stable material which is reduced in volume.
- Destroy unwanted biologicals: pathogens, weeds, insect eggs.
- Retain the maximum nutrient (N, K, pH).
- To produce a valuable, soil amendment product. Not a fertilizer. Lousy C:N ratio.

B. Process Description

Howard et al in India in 1930.
Three basic steps:
- Preprocessing MSW
- Segregating degradable matter, removing engine blocks, tin cans.
- moisture content.
- fertilizer content perhaps by adding sewer sludge
- Decomposition
- windrow
- static pile
- in-vessel
- Preparation for market.
- grinding
- screening
- blending
- additives
- bagging

C. Design and Control

- Particle size
- Seeding, mixing and turning
- Oxygen requirement (aerobic process)
- Moisture content
- C:N ratio

D. Composting Techniques

Agitated and Static. With agitated, the material is turned; with static, air is blown
through the material.
Windrow composting.
- Most common agitated method.
- The material to be composted is shredded into 1-3" pieces and the moisture is adjusted
between 50-60%.
-The material is formed into triangular shapes called windrows which may be 6-7' high
and 1`4-16' at the base.
- The windrows are tuned twice a week to maintain aerobic decomposition and the
temperature is maintained at 131F (55C).
- Takes 3-4 weeks and cured for an additional 3-4 weeks without turning.
Aerated Static Pile (Fig. 9-40, p. 307) (also Beltville or ARS process)
- MSW is placeed on top of exhaust piping in mounds 7'-8' high.
- Each pile has its own blower to deliver air, oxygen.
- 3-4 weeks of processing with an equal period for curing.
In-Vessel. Inside an enclosed vessel. Proprietary.(Fig. 9-41, p. 309)
- Plug flow and dynamic systems.
- Takes 1-2 weeks and 4-12 weeks of curing.

E. What Can Be Composted (Applications)

Yard wastes T9-9, T9-10 and T9-11, p. 310. Ranges from minimal which may take 3
years to high level in container which can be done in several weeks.
MSW (organic fraction). Metals or household hazardous waste can easily contaminate
the compost. If a high quality product is desired, source separation is a must.
MSW (commingled, partially processed). Not suitable as a gardener's compost; use as
an intermediate cover if allowed.
MSW (with sewer sludge). May avoid sludge dewatering. Increases the nutrient and
moisture contents of the mix; may also contain heavy metals. A 2:1, MSW: sludge is
recommended as a starting point.

F. Issues With Composting Facilities

Odors. Usually caused by:
- Low C:N ratios
- Poor temperature control
- Excessive moisture
- Poor mixing
- Can be controlled with various towers and facilities and odor-masking agents and
enzymes.
Pathogens. Usually destroyed by normal composting parameters of 55C for 15-20
days
Heavy metals. Particles are created when the waste is shredded and these particles
may become attached to the lighter fractions.
Definition of acceptable compost

G. Example Problem

**Problem 9-18, p. 322
8. Impact of Source Reduction and Recycling on Combustion and
Composting

see example 9-4, p. 318

EXAMPLES
9-6, 9-16, 9-18

HOMEWORK
Read Chapter 9, Separation and Processing and Transformation of Solid Waste, PP. 247-
323
Problems, p. 320, 9-2, 9-8, 9-13, 9-17, 9-20

Lecture No. 9: Separation and Processing and Transformation of Solid Waste, Page
No. 11

LECTURE NO. 9...........................................................................................................................................1
SEPARATION AND PROCESSING AND TRANSFORMATION OF SOLID WASTE ......................1
1. GENERAL.................................................................................................................................................1
2. REUSE AND RECYCLING OPPORTUNITIES ...................................................................................2
A. OPPORTUNITIES FOR REUSE INCLUDE: (T9-1, P.249)(T9-2) ....................................................................2
B. DROP-OFF, BUY-BACK CENTERS ............................................................................................................2
3. UNIT OPERATIONS FOR SEPARATION AND PROCESSING (T9-3, P.256) ................................2
A. PURPOSE ................................................................................................................................................2
B. SIZE REDUCTION ....................................................................................................................................2
C. SCREENING.............................................................................................................................................3
D. OTHER PROCESSES.................................................................................................................................3
4. FACILITIES FOR HANDLING, MOVING AND STORING MSW...................................................3
5. DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION OF MRF'S .................................................................4
A. ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS ............................................................................................................4
B. PLANNING AND DESIGN PROCESS FOR MRF'S ........................................................................................5
C. ISSUES FOR MRFS ..................................................................................................................................5
6. COMBUSTION.........................................................................................................................................5
A. GENERAL ...............................................................................................................................................5
B. DESCRIPTION OF COMBUSTION PROCESS (FIG. 9-31, P. 293) ..................................................................5
C. TYPES OF COMBUSTORS.........................................................................................................................6
D. VOLUME REDUCTION (T9-8, P.299) .......................................................................................................6
E. ISSUES WITH COMBUSTION FACILITIES...................................................................................................6
F. EXAMPLE PROBLEM................................................................................................................................6
7. COMPOSTING.........................................................................................................................................6
A. GENERAL ...............................................................................................................................................6
B. PROCESS DESCRIPTION...........................................................................................................................7
C. DESIGN AND CONTROL...........................................................................................................................7
D. COMPOSTING TECHNIQUES ....................................................................................................................7
E. WHAT CAN BE COMPOSTED (APPLICATIONS).........................................................................................8
F. ISSUES WITH COMPOSTING FACILITIES ...................................................................................................8
G. EXAMPLE PROBLEM...............................................................................................................................9
8. IMPACT OF SOURCE REDUCTION AND RECYCLING ON COMBUSTION AND
COMPOSTING.............................................................................................................................................9

Lecture No. 10
Transfer and Transport
Chapter 10, p.325

Waste
Generation
at the source
Collection
Transfer and
Transport
Disposal
solid waste

1. Need for Transfer Operations

A. General

Used when:
- Direct hauling to the processing center or disposal site is no long economically feasible.
- When the disposal site or processing center is in a remote location and cannot be
reached directly by highway.
Integral part of MRFs.
Becoming popular AT landfills for individuals and other non-commercial haulers.

B. Excessive Haul Distances

Originally horse drawn smaller carts transferred their waste to larger vehicles.
The internal combustion engine and cheap fuel fostered direct haul to dumps.
Considering NIMBY and the economy of scale of larger sites, the current trend is to
mega-facilities in remote locations once again necessitating transfer stations.
Decision between transfer and direct haul is usually an economic one.

**Problem 10-2, p.357

2. Types of Transfer Stations (Fig.10-1, p.329)

Three types: direct-load, storage-load, combined direct-load and discharge load.

A. Direct-Load Transfer System

The wastes in the collection vehicles are emptied directly into:
- the vehicle that will transport the wastes to the final disposal side
- into facilities to compact the wastes into transport vehicles or
- into waste bales.
Surge - volume of waste that can be stored temporarily on the loading platform
Large capacity - Direct from collection to transport vehicle typically employing a two
level operation. Compaction and moving the waste within the transfer vehicle is using
done by some kind of back hoe with clamshell tip stationed on the top ramp. An
alternative is to direct load into a compactor which in turn moves the waste directly
into the haul trailer.
Medium and small capacity - Generally small with less equipment and concrete to the
point where Demsey Dumsters are placed on a patch of ground. Alternately, a dual
level system can be made by raising the dumpers or lowering the dumsters, such that
the waste is thrown down into the containers. Individuals seem to like this system.
Example
**Problem 10-5, p.358

B. Storage-Load Transfer System
Wastes are dumped into a pit or unloading area as opposed to the transfer vehicle. The
pit is typically a larger area and thus facilitates unloading of collection vehicles and
shortens waiting time. Auxiliary equipment such as payloaders move the material
from the storage area into the transfer vehicle. The storage time is typically 1-3 days.
Large capacity - (Fig. 10-12,13, p.338) San Francisco model. A large pit at a lower
level is surrounded by unloading collection vehicles. Two bull dozers break up the
wastes and push the wastes into hoppers which discharge into the transfer vehicles.

C. Combined Direct-Load and Discharge Load Transfer Stations.
Usually a multipurpose facility: perhaps a transfer station and a MRF.
3. Transport Means and Methods
A. Motor Vehicle Transport (T10-1,2, p.346)

Used where roads are available and include:
- trailers
- semi-trailers
- compactors
Vehicles should satisfy the following requirements:
- minimum cost
- wastes must be covered during haul operations
- must be designed for highway travel
- do not exceed allowable weight limits
- unloading must be simple and dependable
Open top semi-trailers are popular. A recent innovation is the drop-bottom trailer in
which the bottom of the center portion of the trailer is lowered which yields additional
capacity without increasing the length.
Maximum volume, axle weight, number of vehicles and outside dimensions are a
consequence of state regulations.
Unloading methods:
- self-emptying (Fig. 10-19, p.347)
- hydraulic dump beds
- powered internal diaphragms, most common
- moving floors,
- auxiliary equipment
- pull-off type - wastes are pulled out of the truck by either a movable bulkhead or
wire cables placed forward (nearer the cab) of the truck.
- hydraulically operated tipping ramps.
- The advantage of self-emptying units is the speed because no additional equipment or
workers are required. The advantages of auxiliary units is lower capital costs and the
relatively simple and dependable methods used.
Example
Given: Pahrump, Nevada, pop. 18,300, has decided to transfer its wastes via truck tractor-
semitrailer combinations using no compaction and monoque construction. Loading, a round-trip
and unloading to the disposal area takes 3.6 hours.
Find: They want to know how many units they will have to buy.

T6-3, p.138 3.82 lb/cap.day, Note that only residential and commercial have been included. The
disposition of the other categories is a matter of discussion which must be resolved before capital
facilities are committed to.
T10-2, p.347 46,000lbs/truckload
1. Tonnage
Tonnage = 18,000 cap x 3.82 lb/cap.day x 7 days/week
Tonnage = 481,320 lbs/week

2. Truck Capacity
Weekly truck capacity = 46,000 lbs/truck x 40hours/week x 1trip/3.6hours
Weekly truck capacity = 511,111lbs/truck.week

3. Number of trucks
Number of trucks =
Number of trucks = .94 trucks
It would be probably be more reliable to use a larger fleet of smaller trucks. This method would
not only provide backup in case of breakdown, accident, etc. but would allow once truck to be
loaded while the other(s) were on the road.

B. Rail Transport

Seattle to Columbia Ridge model. A distance of 300 miles in which 25-28 tons are
compacted into a 40' shipping container.
Probably the wave of the future for LA.
Interesting modifications possible:
- Special fork lifts to load the containers.
- rail cars also equipped with set down tires which will allow road transport.

C. Water Transport

Barges, scows and special boats have been around a long time.
Ocean disposal is no longer legally practiced.
Can not be moved during high seas.

D. Pneumatic, Hydraulic etc.

Largest pneumatic system at Disney World in Florida. May be suitable for high
density areas feeding a central collection point. Complex control valves and isolation
equipment. Difficult to imagine a half eaten ice cream bar being moved along. Easy
to imagine health and odor problems.
Hydraulic system - Macerate the waste and pipe it to a remote location. Potential for
great economies except scarcity of water in LA. Ocean water? Must the transport
water be treated?
4. Transfer Station Design Requirements

Type - The key element is will the waste be merely taken from one truck to another or
will waste recovery operations such as recycling, composting, diversion be
incorporated into the design.
Capacity - Waiting time for unloading vehicles vs. capital costs of a larger facilities.
Equipment - rubber tired or tracked to push the waste around, scales.

5. Location of Transfer Stations

Near as possible to the center of the service area.
Near highways, close access avoid houses.
Minimum public environmental objections
Economical construction and operation.

Example
**Problem 10-13, p.359

EXAMPLES
10-2, 10-5, 10-13

HOMEWORK
Read Chapter 10, Transfer and Transport, pp. 325-360
Problems, p. 357, 10-1, 10-4, 10-6, 10-12
Lecture No. 10, Transfer and Transport, Page No. 6

LECTURE NO. 10.........................................................................................................................................1
TRANSFER AND TRANSPORT.................................................................................................................1
1. NEED FOR TRANSFER OPERATIONS...............................................................................................1
A. GENERAL ................................................................................................................................................1
B. EXCESSIVE HAUL DISTANCES .................................................................................................................1
2. TYPES OF TRANSFER STATIONS (FIG.10-1, P.329)........................................................................2
A. DIRECT-LOAD TRANSFER SYSTEM..........................................................................................................2
B. STORAGE-LOAD TRANSFER SYSTEM.......................................................................................................2
C. COMBINED DIRECT-LOAD AND DISCHARGE LOAD TRANSFER STATIONS. ...............................................2
3. TRANSPORT MEANS AND METHODS ..............................................................................................2
A. MOTOR VEHICLE TRANSPORT (T10-1,2, P.346)......................................................................................2
B. RAIL TRANSPORT ....................................................................................................................................3
C. WATER TRANSPORT................................................................................................................................4
D. PNEUMATIC, HYDRAULIC ETC. ................................................................................................................4
4. TRANSFER STATION DESIGN REQUIREMENTS...........................................................................4
5. LOCATION OF TRANSFER STATIONS..............................................................................................4

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