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Homogeneous
Semiconductors
1 d 2E
EK = ( K − K 1 )2
2 dK 2
h 2 ( K − K1 )
2
=
2m*
An external electric field is applied across a bar of semiconductor. (a) The physical picture; (b) the energy
band diagram. Electrons in the conduction band are accelerated to the right; they travel at constant energy
between collisions.
Figure 2.2
dEC
F =− = − qξ
dx
brings idea of band bending or
the slope in the conduction band edge
The E-K diagrams for three common semiconductors. The crystallographic direction is shown on the K axis.
The slope of the E-K curve must be zero at the Brillouin zone edge, unless multiple bands coincide there.
Figure 2.3
conduction band
2π
minimum at K ≈ 0.85
a
the curvature is different in
different directions.
m||* = 0.92mo , m⊥* = 0.197 mo
2-3
m* = weighted sum of m||* and m⊥*
In conductivity calculations, use
conductivity effective mass mce*
In electron concentration calculations,
*
use density of states effective mass mdse
Table 2.1 Effective masses for electrons near the bottom of the conduction
band in units of the rest mass of the free electron
Material mlh* *
mhh *
msh Δ, eV
*
mch *
mdsh
Si 0.16 0.48 0.24 0.044 0.36 1.15
Intrinsic semiconductors
no = po = ni
o indicates concentration at equalibrium.
i indicates equalibrium concentration at equalibrium.
Donors in a silicon crystal: (a) bond diagram of the crystal; (b) energy band diagram of silicon doped with one
phosphorus (donor) atom.
Figure 2.6
2-6
(a) The discrete energy states in a single phosphorus ion. (b) The energy band diagram for a semiconductor
crystal containing a donor atom. For the discrete atom, an electron must have an energy equal to Evac or
higher to escape the influence of the nucleus. In the semiconductor, the electron must have an energy of EC
or greater to escape the influence of the donor ion. (c) Energy diagram for a donor in GaAs.
Figure 2.7
mce* q 4
En = EC −
2(4πε ) n 2 h 2
2
(
13.6 mce* / mo q 4
= EC − 2
)
eV
n (ε / ε o )2
4πεn 2 h 2 ε / εo 2
rn = * 2
= 0 .053 *
n nm
mce q mce / mo
(
13.6 mce* / mo q 4
= EC − 2
)
eV
2(ε / ε o )
2
n
4πεn 2 h 2 ε / εo 2
rn = * 2
= 0.053 * n nm
mce q mce / mo
Si doped with phosphor. The lattice constant is 0.543 nm. The measured donor level is 0.045 eV.
*
13.6 mch
En = EC − 2
/ mo q 4(eV
)
n (ε / ε o )2
ε / εo
rn = 0.053 *
2
n nm
m / mo
ch
States in the valence band on the E-K diagram. (a) All states are full; (b) one state is empty (hole), meaning
there 2-9
is an electron with no opposing electron at the same energy but opposite K vector and opposite velocity.
Figure 2.9
Hole current
J = + qp < vh >
To determine the current-voltage relation, we have to know the
distribution of electrons (and holes) with energy.
n(E ) = S (E ) f (E )
1
f (E ) = (E − E f )/ kT
1+ e
The Fermi-Dirac distribution function gives the probability of occupancy of an energy state E if the state
exists.2-12
Figure 2.12
( )
f (E ) = e
− E − E f / kT
Boltzmann statistics
1
Fermi Dirac statistics f (E ) = (E − E f )/ kT
1+ e
(E − E f )/ kT (
− E −E )/ kT
If e ≥ 10, then e f
≤ 0.1,
1 1
(E − E f )/ kT ≥ 1 + 10 = 0.09009
1+ e
− (E − E f )/ kT 1
e ≈ (E − E f )/ kT within 10% error
1+ e
E − E f > kT ln (10 ) = 2.3kT
p(E ) = S (E )[1 − f (E )] = S (E ) f p (E )
The total number of holes in the valence band
3/ 2
1 ⎛ 2m *
⎞ [( ) ]
p(E )dE =
EV EV
po = ∫ ∫
− E f − E / kT
⎜⎜ dsh
⎟⎟ EV − E e dE
bottom 2π ⎝ h
2 2
⎠ −∞
[( ) ]
− EC − E f / kT
no = N C e
where the effective density of states in the conduction band
3/ 2 3/ 2 3/ 2
⎛ m kT ⎞
* ⎛ 9.11× 10 kg 1.38 × 10 ⋅ 300 J ⎞
−31 − 23
⎛ mdse
*
⎞ ⎛ T ⎞
3/ 2
N C = 2⎜⎜ ⎟
dse
= 2⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
⎝ 2πh ⎠ ⎜
⎝ (
2(3.14 ) 1.06 × 10 J ⋅ s
−34 2 ⎟
⎠ ) ⎝ mo ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠
3/ 2 3/ 2
19 ⎛ mdse ⎞
*
⎛ T ⎞
= 2.47 × 10 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ cm -3
⎝ mo ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠
[( ) ]
− E f − EV / kT
po = NV e
where the effective density of states in the valence band
3/ 2 3/ 2 3/ 2
⎛ mdsh kT ⎞ 19 ⎛ mdsh ⎞
* *
⎛ T ⎞
⎜
NV = 2⎜ ⎟
2 ⎟
= 2.47 ×10 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ cm -3
⎝ 2πh ⎠ ⎝ mo ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠
no po = N C NV e ( EC − EV )/ kT = N C NV e
− E g / kT
= ni2
Law of mass action
Example 2.4 Find the energy by which Ei is offset from midgap for
Si at room temperature.
3 ⎛ 1.15 ⎞
Ei − Emidgap = kT ln⎜ ⎟ = 0.75 ⋅ 0.026 ⋅ 0.0536 = 0.00104
4 ⎝ 1.09 ⎠
The electron concentration for semiconductor
[( ) ] [( ) ] (E f − Ei )/ kT
= ni e ( EC − Ei )/ kT ⋅ e
− EC − E f / kT − EC − E f / kT
no = N C e = ni e
The effect of rasing the Fermi level from the midgap
⎛n ⎞
E f − Ei = kT ln⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟
⎝ ni ⎠
2-14
Eample 2.5 Find the electron and hole concentrations in GaAs doped
with NA=1016cm-3, and locate the Fermi level. Eg = 1.43 eV.
3/ 2 3/ 2
⎛m *
⎞ ⎛ T ⎞
N C = 2.47 ×1019 ⎜⎜ dse
⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ cm −3 = 2.47 ×1019 ⋅ (0.017 )(1) = 4.3 ×1017 cm −3
⎝ mo ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠
3/ 2 3/ 2
19 ⎛ mdsh ⎞
*
⎛ T ⎞
NV = 2.47 × 10 ⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ ⎜ ⎟ cm −3 = 2.47 × 1019 ⋅ (0.33)(1) = 8.2 × 1018 cm −3
⎝ mo ⎠ ⎝ 300 ⎠
(
− E g / 2 kT )
ni = N C NV e = 1.87 × 1018 ⋅1.14 × 10 −12 = 2.14 × 10 6 cm −3
( )
− E f − EV / kT
po ≈ N A = 1× 1016 cm −3 = NV e
⎛ p ⎞ ⎛ 1016 ⎞
The Fermi level is E f − EV = − kT ln⎜⎜ o ⎟⎟ = −0.026 ln⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0.17eV
18 ⎟
⎝ NV ⎠ ⎝ 8.2 × 10 ⎠
no =
ni2
=
(
2.14 × 106 )
2
= 4.6 ×10 − 4 cm −3
po 1016
Energy band diagram for the p-type GaAs of Example 2.5.
Figure 2.15
⎛ po ⎞ ⎛ 1016 ⎞
The Fermi level is E f − EV = − kT ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −0.026 ln⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0.17eV
18 ⎟
⎝ NV ⎠ ⎝ 8.2 × 10 ⎠
2-15
Example 2.6 A simple silicon is doped with a background concentration of NA
= 4 x 1016cm-3. then 1017 cm-3 donors are added. Find the room temperature
concentrations of electrons and holes in the orginal and final materials and draw
the energy diagram for each.
no =
ni
2
=
(
1.06 × 1010 )
2
= 2.81× 103 cm −3
po 4 × 1016
For n - type material
no = N D − N A = 1017 − 4 × 1016 = 6 × 1016 cm −3
⎛ ND ⎞ ⎛ 6 × 1016 ⎞
EC − E f = − kT ln⎜⎜ ⎟⎟ = −0.026 ln⎜⎜ ⎟ = 0.16eV
3/ 2 ⎟
⎝ 2.47 × 10 (1.09) ⎠
19
⎝ NC ⎠
po =
(
ni2 1.06 ×1010
=
)
2
= 1.9 ×103 cm −3
no 6 ×1016
The energy band diagrams for Example 2.6: (a) uncompensated p-type material; (b) compensating donors are
added to make the material net n type.
Figure 2.16
2-16
The electron distribution function n(E) as a function of energy (energy on the vertical axis).
Figure2-17
2.17 n(E ) = S (E ) f (E )
3/ 2 3/ 2
1 ⎛ 2mdse*
⎞ 1 ⎛ 2mdse*
⎞
S (E ) = ⎜ ⎟ E − EC = ⎜ ⎟ EK
2π 2 ⎜⎝ h 2 ⎟⎠ 2π 2 ⎜⎝ h 2 ⎟⎠
( ) ( ) ( )
f (E ) = e
− E − E f / kT − E − EC + EC − E f / kT − E K + EC − E f / kT
=e =e
3/ 2
1 ⎛ 2mdse*
⎞ − (EC − E f )/ kT
n(E ) = ⎜
2 ⎜
⎟
2 ⎟
e E K e − EK / kT
2π ⎝ h ⎠
dn( EK ) ⎡ ⎛ 1 ⎞ ⎛⎜ 1 ⎞⎟⎤ − EK / kT
= 0 = C ⎢ EK ⎜ − ⎟+⎜ ⎥e
dEK ⎢⎣ ⎝ kT ⎠ ⎝ 2 EK ⎠⎥⎦ ⎟
⎛1 ⎞
n(EK ) peak = n⎜ kT ⎟
⎝2 ⎠
Average kinetic energy of the conduction electrons
∞
∫ EK n(EK )dEK 3
< EK >= 0
∞
= kT
∫ n(E )dE
0
K K
2
2-18
Plot of electron concentration n0 as a function of temperature in n-type silicon for four values of net doping.
Also indicated is the temperature dependence of ni.
Figure 2.19
2-19
Normalized plot of n0/ND as a function of temperature. This plot is for ND = 1016 cm−3.
Figure 2.20
2-20
Under high doping concentrations, the formerly discrete donor levels smear into a band, effectively narrowing
gap by an amount ΔEg.
2-21
the band
Figure 2.21
ΔE g = ECo − EC
= E go − E g ( N D )
The states for the higher donor levels can overlap if the doping concentration is high enough (dopant atoms
close enough together).
Figure 2.22
2-22
Reduction of room-temperature band gap ΔEg as a function of donor density in phosphorus-doped silicon.
Figure 2.23
[(
ΔE g = 4.372 ×10 −11
ND ) + (1.272 ×10
0.5 −4 −6
ND )
− 0.25 −4
] eV
band gap narrowing small for N D << 1018
( )
− ECo − E f / kT
no = N C e
Otherwise,
( )
− ECo − ΔE g − E f / kT
no = N C e
2-23
Plot of energy band diagram of a degenerate semiconductor. The intrinsic energy gap Eg0, the actual energy
gap Eg, and the apparent band gap E*g are indicated.
band 2-24
Figure 2.24
In the case of Fermi energy level crossing into the conduction band
due to heavy doping, the energy need for electrons to be conducting
is apparent band gap E*g because below the Fermi energy level the
states are filled with other electrons already.
ΔE = E go − E
*
g
*
g
Carrier concentrations in degenerate semiconductors
no po = ni2 = N C NV e − Ego / kT nondegerate
Curve fitting
⎛ ND ⎞
ΔE g* ( N D ) = 18.6 ln⎜ ⎟ meV n - type for N > 1017
cm −3
⎝ 7 ×10 ⎠
17 D
⎡ ⎡ ⎤
2 ⎤
⎛ ⎞ ⎛ ⎞
ΔE g ( N D ) = 9 ⎢ln⎜ 17 ⎟ + ⎢ln⎜ 17 ⎟⎥ + 0.5 ⎥ meV
N N
* A A
p - type for N A > 1017 cm −3
⎢ ⎝ 10 ⎠ ⎣ ⎝ 10 ⎠⎦ ⎥
⎣ ⎦
2-25
Figure 2P.1
2-26
Figure 2P.2
2-27
Figure 2P.3
2-28
Figure 2P.4
2-29
Figure 2P.5
2-30