Steven G. Yao (2002).

Translation and the Languages of Modernism: Gender, Politics,

Language. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Reviewed by: Probal a!g"#ta$ %niver!ity o& 'yderabad.
Steven Yao(! arg"ment in t)e book "nder review i! t)at *nglo#)one moderni!m$ in it!
con!tit"tive move!$ e!tabli!)ed di!tinctively literary tran!lation a! a critical and creative
enter#ri!e w)o!e #olitic! recon&ig"re! not only nation b"t gender a! well$ a&&ecting even t)e
gendered #o!ition o& canonical literary #rod"ction it!el&. 'e &orm"late! )i! arg"ment in relation to
!#eci&ic tran!lation! by Po"nd$ '..$ Yeat!$ +owell$ t)e ,"ko&!ky!$ adding -oyce to make t)e
#oint t)at Finnegans Wake i! a ca!e o& tran!lating &rom .ngli!) into a ling"i!tic )eteroto#ia. /)e
&act t)at Yao read! 0)ine!e and i! able to comment on t)e Po"nd cor#"! &rom t)at #oint o& view
give! )i! Po"nd c)a#ter! a #artic"lar$ #)ilological ty#e o& a"t)ority. 'e "!e! t)i! a"t)ority$
)owever$ to "ndermine t)e conventional belie& t)at te1t"al acc"racy c)ecking gro"nded in
knowledge o& t)e relevant lang"age! )a! a cr"cial role to #lay in eval"ating literary tran!lation!.
2y &raming )i! Po"nd c)a#ter! in a larger arg"ment$ )e &"rt)er "nder#lay! t)e !#eci&ic #oint! )e
make! t)at de#end on )i! knowledge o& 0)ine!e.
Yao(! main #oint i! t)at a literary tran!lation i! a te1t"al #rod"ction activity t)at take! #lace
!#eci&ically in t)e target lang"age c"lt"re and m"!t be read #rimarily in relation to t)at !ite. 'e
de&end! t)e rig)t o& literary tran!lator! to de#loy t)eir tran!lation a! an intervention in t)eir time
and #lace and to do to t)e te1t w)atever i! nece!!ary to accom#li!) t)i!. 3n )i! view$ t)i! make! it
a##ro#riate &or t)em to ignore !trict"re! emanating &rom #)ilologically minded #"ri!t! w)o!e
conce#tion o& #ro#er literary #rod"ction in t)e target lang"age i! alway! a co"#le o& generation!
o"t o& date and w)o are t)ere&ore !eldom com#etent to comment. 3t &ollow! t)at literary
tran!lator! need not regard t)e !o"rce lang"age te1t a! t)eir !tarting #oint4 t)ey can and o&ten
m"!t "!e a ro"g) initial rendering into t)e target lang"age$ in!tead$ a! t)e ba!i! t)at t)ey !)all
rework. Given t)i! rea!oning$ it &ollow! &"rt)er t)at a literary tran!lator(! re#ertory need not
incl"de a !o"nd knowledge$ or even any knowledge at all$ o& t)e !o"rce lang"age.
/o be !"re$ Yao i! not celebrating ignorance #er !e. 'e !ee! t)e moderni!t di!engagement o&
literary tran!lation &rom #)ilological e1actit"de a! a nece!!ary &ir!t !te# toward! t)e more
a##ro#riate model o& tran!lation by two #er!on! re#re!enting t)e two c"lt"re! and ade5"ately
ac5"ainted wit) eac) ot)er(! lang"age!. 'owever$ )i! concentration on t)e i!!"e o& lang"age$
#reci!ely beca"!e )e wi!)e! to o#en "# t)e di!c"!!ion$ lead! )im to !ide!te# t)e 5"e!tion o&
w)et)er it i! al!o legitimate &or a literary tran!lator to ignore not 6"!t t)e lang"age b"t t)e )i!tory
and milie" o& t)e !o"rce c"lt"re. /)i! omi!!ion i! related to t)e &act t)at )e &oc"!e! on )ow Yeat!
or Po"nd$ tran!lating &rom *ncient Greek or +atin or Mediaeval 0)ine!e$ deal wit) t)e critici!m
t)ey &ace &rom 2riti!) cla!!ici!t! or Sinologi!t! (eit)er *nglo#)one or writing &or t)e bene&it o& an
*nglo#)one reader!)i#). 3& Raymond *ron )ad tran!lated Yevt"!)enko into 7renc)$ and i&
Yevt"!)enko or ot)er R"!!ian! )ad criti5"ed t)e !#eci&ic! o& !"c) a tran!lation$ t)e di!c"!!ion
t)at Yao !eem! to wi!) to initiate wo"ld incl"de looking at )ow !omeone &rom t)e tran!lated time
and !#ace talk! back. /)e &act t)at Yao c)oo!e! e1am#le! vitiated by t)i! a!ymmetry make! one
wonder w)y )e doe! not re&lect on t)e con!e5"ence! o& t)i! c)oice$ and on w)at t)e i!!"e! look
like w)en t)e range o& e1am#le! i! e1#anded.
/o #"t t)e matter di&&erently$ doe! Yao in &act !"cceed in &raming t)e Po"nd material in a larger
interrogation by #lacing it in t)e com#any o& Yeat!$ '..$ -oyce and !o on8 3t !eem! to me t)at in
&act )i! 5"e!t &or ot)er and contem#orary e1am#le! o& a Po"ndlike move end! "# di!!i#ating and
di&&"!ing )i! 5"e!tion. 9ne doe! not make better !en!e o& Gand)i by con!idering )i! #arent! and
)i! brot)er! a! #otential #olitical &ig"re!.
Yao c)oo!e! to #lace Po"nd in '..(! com#any (t)ey were once engaged) or in t)at o& Yeat!
(Po"nd )ad been )i! !ecretary) wit)o"t interrogating *nglo#)one Moderni!m at a level t)at
c)art! it! inter!ection wit) 7rance. 'e al!o c)oo!e! to bracket t)e activity o& tran!lating &rom
Mediaeval 0)ine!e to .ngli!) wit) t)at o& tran!lating &rom +atin and *ncient Greek wit)o"t
a!king w)at i! involved in t)e *nglo#)one a!!e!!ment o& 0)ine!e civili:ation a! a ;cla!!ical< !ite
in !ome rigoro"! !en!e.
/)e!e c)oice! bl"nt t)e in!tr"ment! t)at any a"t)or !eeking to advance o"r "nder!tanding wo"ld
need to "!e. Yao(! book i! too #olite to t)e *nglo#)one reader!)i# and #"bli!)er!)i#$ to t)e #oint
o& allowing t)em to circ"m!cribe w)at co"nt! a! eno"nceable in )i! di!co"r!e. /)e ab!ence o&
any re&erence to modern te1t! in 0)ine!e (it i! not #o!!ible t)at !c)olar! in 0)ina$ writing abo"t
literary i!!"e! in 0)ine!e #eriodical!$ )ave )ad not)ing relevant to !ay abo"t Po"nd(! work) i!
one inde1 o& t)i! e1ce!!ive #olitene!!. *not)er i! )i! deci!ion to e!c)ew coordinate! drawn &rom
any contem#orary or ot)er body o& literary t)eory t)at mig)t )el# #lace )i! !en!e=making
enter#ri!e in t)e &ramework o& a larger and contin"o"! labo"r o& literary t)eoretical !cr"tiny. *
t)ird inde1 i! t)e ab!ence o& t)e t)eme o& *merican c"lt"re and literat"re a! a matri1 o& literary
#ractice and rece#tion w)o!e #re!ence !)a#e! Yao(! rece#tion o& t)e material )e )a! reworked
wit) !"c) rigo"r and care$ b"t !)a#e! it in way! t)at go "nnoticed in a !t"dy t)at !train! !o )ard to
notice !o m"c) el!e.
/)ere i! a c"lt"ral !"bte1t to t)i!$ given t)e re#"tation o& .a!t *!ia a! a traditional n"rt"ring
gro"nd &or t)e )ig)e!t level! o& #olitene!! in all civili:ation!. 'owever$ t)e #roblem in t)i! ca!e i!
t)at t)ere i! a !el&=de&eating element to t)i! #artic"lar e1erci!e. Yao a! a critic i! #racti!ing a
certain ty#e o& cro!!=bo"ndary tran!mi!!ion o& te1t"al material clo!e eno"g) to tran!lation to
make )i! own idea! a##licable. Yo" wo"ld e1#ect )im to tran!mit into a recogni:ably
contem#orary and t)ere&ore t)eory=laden !#ace. 2"t t)i! e1#ectation i! not met. Practi!ing t)e
conventionalne!! t)at t)e #rotagoni!t! in )i! narrative o##o!e and !"##o!edly overcome$ )i!
e1#o!ition it!el& )"g! clo!ely$ and e1cl"!ively$ t)e gro"nd on w)ic) )i! *nglo#)one Moderni!t!
walked.
9ne mig)t$ )owever$ wi!) to de&end t)e!e deci!ion! by Yao$ met)odologically$ along t)e
&ollowing line!. 'i! #ro6ect i! to en!"re t)at t)e canonical met)od! o& eval"ation in t)e
*nglo#)one academy are revi!ed !#eci&ically on t)e matter o& ranking original writing relative to
tran!lation in t)e con!tit"tive move! o& moderni!t #ractice and it! !tandard inter#retation! a!
&actor! !)a#ing w)at critic! today can do wit) t)e te1t"al cor#"! o& moderni!m. 3n order to
accom#li!) t)i!$ Yao need! to leave nearly everyt)ing intact !o t)at )i! intended reader! are
&orced to concede t)at even i& ot)er &actor! are )eld con!tant )i! #oint abo"t t)e con!tit"tive
im#ortance o& tran!lation doe! !tand$ wit)in t)e &ramework o& *nglo#)one Moderni!m it!el&. 3&
we con!tr"e Yao(! intervention in t)i! &a!)ion$ it become! #o!!ible to retrieve a viable #oint by
conte1t"ali:ing it vi!=>=vi! )ig)ly !#eci&ic interloc"tor! and #erloc"tionary tra6ectorie!. 'owever$
!"c) retrieval i! )ardly a !traig)t&orward or ro"tine 6ob. ?e need to reo#en )i! 5"e!tion! at
!everal #oint! and e1tend )i! in5"iry.
Po"nd(! e!#o"!al o& a certain 0on&"ciani!m i! an invocation o& )i!tory t)at co"nter#oint! t)e
re!i!tance to )i!toricity t)at con!tit"tively c)aracteri:e! t)e brave and &ree land o& mani&e!t
de!tiny. 9ne cannot "!e&"lly read t)i! invocation in i!olation &rom t)e co"nter#oint role it i!
!tr"ct"rally com#elled to #lay in an *merican mind. * literary com#arati!t mig)t wit) #ro&it
&oc"! on 0ordwainer Smit)(! (@ABCa$ @ABCb$ @ABD$ @ABA) !cience &iction to e1#lore t)e matter in
greater de#t). Science &iction in general i! a domain w)ere *merican narrative talent )a!
ac)ieved !erio"! #eak! t)at re&lect t)e !en!e t)at living a! an *merican i! a #ermanent
e1#eriment.
0)oo!ing 0ordwainer Smit) a! an e1am#le in t)i! conte1t i! #ertinent in at lea!t t)ree way!. 7ir!t$
)e wa! an *merican w)o grew "# in 0)ina. Second$ Smit)(! &iction draw! not 6"!t on t)e
0on&"cian tradition b"t on t)e twentiet) cent"ry e1#erience o& co#ing wit) "n!ettlement. /)ird$
)i! work too re#re!ent! ma6or e1#loration! in t)e recon&ig"ration o& gender "nder t)e
circ"m!tance! o& a total e1#eriment$ e1#loration! clearly contin"ed in t)e widely known more
recent work o& onna 'araway and 9ctavia 2"tler$ w)ic) )owever lack! Smit)(! 0)ine!e
backgro"nd. ?)at i! !triking abo"t t)e Smit) cor#"! in t)e conte1t o& com#arative in5"iry wit)
Po"nd in mind i! t)e cyclical narrative$ combining intracyclic )i!toricity wit) t)eme! o& cro!!=
cyclic renewal rooted in #erennial #rinci#le! o& a broadly 0on&"cian ty#e.
*t t)e level o& w)at t)e narrative )old! "# &or o"r direct in!#ection$ Smit)(! #erennial #rinci#le!
and Po"nd(! rat)er di&&erent take on 0on&"ci"! bot) a##ear at &ir!t bl"!) to belong to t)e
#ret)eoretical genre o& an a)i!torical 5"e!t &or )"man "niver!al!. 2"t t)ing! are !eldom t)at
!im#le. Smit)(! and Po"nd(! invocation! o& t)e #erennial are imbricated in very di&&erent
)i!torie!. /)ey re&lect contra!ting !tance! toward! t)e !econd world war$ toward! t)e "!e o&
)eroic and anti)eroic &ig"re! a! narrative device!$ toward! t)e gender inter#ellation! t)at drive
&ictional con!tr"ction$ and toward! t)e larger "to#ian #ro6ect o& con!tr"cting a real #olitical ba!i!
&or an intelligible$ i& cyclical$ &"t"re. 0on!e5"ently$ !omebody w)o doe! "ndertake a com#ari!on
o& t)e two cor#ora will be &orced to a!k in 6"!t w)at way! t)e imaginary o& !cience &iction and t)e
#o!t"lated !erio"!ne!! o& Moderni!m make contra!ting "!e o& !trikingly !imilar material! in a
#ro6ect o& a broadly "to#ian !ort.
/)e o#erative word! o& co"r!e are Serio"!ne!! and 3maginary. 2ot) Po"nd and Smit) make
evident "!e o& certain !"bgenre! o& t)e *merican willingne!! to #lay aro"nd wit) w)at traditional
c"lt"re! )old in reverence4 t)ey bot) di!#lay on t)eir lintel t)e .mer!onian declaration ;?)im<.
2"t t)ey are circ"m!cribed by generically di&&erent com#"l!ion!.
Po"nd(! Moderni!m in)erit! a certain !erio"!ne!! &rom t)e liberal )"mani!t #ro6ect t)ro"g)
w)ic) t)e 2riti!) im#erial mantle$ #roblematically at a level "ne1amined in Yao$ enter! all
*nglo#)one moderni!t #ro6ect!. Smit) #o!t"late! a remote and m"c) #alim#!e!ted &"t"re w)ere
t)e !)eer !"cce!!ion o& &ormat! o& glory )a! com#elled a di!tancing &rom t)e categorie! o& t)e
cla!!ical !tate$ and w)ere t)e management o& e1tremely varied #"r!"it! o& )a##ine!! )a! reac)ed
t)e #oint w)ere t)o!e w)o e1erci!e a managerial )old over event! reali:e t)at t)ey cannot #o!!e!!
#ower. 'owever$ bot) o& t)e!e interrogation! a!!"me an overall *mericani:ation o& global )i!tory
a! a de&a"lt.
3t i! t)i! !)ared #o!t"late t)at will become t)e &oc"! i& com#arative work i! "ndertaken. 7or
Po"nd(! &ormali:ation o& !erio"!ne!! and Smit)(! &ormali:ation o& &anta!y "n#ack !ome o& t)e
!ame mode! o& work and #lay a! t)ey &ormali:e generic o##o!ite! and t)ereby !"btend a !)ared
genological !tage (in t)e !en!e o& genology a! t)e &ormal t)eory o& genre!). 3t may be "nnece!!ary
to add t)at a !t"dy t)at 6"1ta#o!e! Smit) wit) Po"nd will need to do b"!ine!! wit) Smit)(! &ellow
!cience &ictioni!t! and wit) Po"nd(! comrade! in moderni!m$ and will )ave to di!aggregate and
rea!!emble t)em in way! t)at t)e ea!y generic labelling! do not enco"rage. Now t)at tool! &rom
t)e #olitic! o& gender and race )ave &orced a re#o!itioning vi!=>=vi! t)e once a1iomatic
"n!erio"!ne!! o& !cience &iction$ t)i! i! #er)a#! obvio"! to many reader!.
?)at i! le!! obvio"! i! t)e tran!lationlike #lace o& !cience &iction in t)e literary critic(! imaginary.
/)e !cience &iction writer -.G. 2allard )a! !"gge!ted (t)e!e word! are not 2allard(! own$ b"t
mediated by 2"rge!! @ABD: vii) t)at ;t)e kind o& limitation t)at mo!t contem#orary &iction acce#t!
i! immoral$ a !)ame&"l con!e5"ence o& t)e ri!e o& t)e bo"rgeoi! novel. +ang"age e1i!t! le!! to
record t)e act"al t)an to liberate t)e imagination.< +iterary critici!m )a! only recently beg"n to
view !cience &iction a! a valid creative enter#ri!e. 3& we are to e1tend Yao(! arg"ment to t)e #oint
o& rendering it! logic vi!ible$ we m"!t a!k i& t)e reranking o& !cience &iction in relation to
conventional &iction i! in any way cognate to t)e reranking )e advocate! between tran!lation and
original writing. Yao wo"ld )ave "! !to# regarding tran!lation a! !econdary and on t)e contrary
give #riority to it a! a con!tit"tive !trand in literary #rod"ction. ?)ere doe! t)e reranking o&
!cience &iction !tand on !"c) a road ma#8
?)ere we !tand on t)i! matter )a! everyt)ing to do wit) )ow *merican we t)ink t)e global
&"t"re i!. ?)ere 'eidegger and &ollowing )im errida #o!ed t)e i!!"e o& an "navoidable
."ro#eani:ation o& t)e #lanet (;all t)o"g)t m"!t #a!! t)ro"g) t)e Greek element<) at t)e moment
o& Niet:!c)e(! ;la!t man<$ o"r #eriod )a! been com#elled to re&orm"late t)i! a! an
*mericani:ation #roce!! t)at ot)er &orce! can only )o#e to modi&y or in&lect$ never act"ally
rever!e or #revent.
/)e term ;liberal )"mani!m< in literary t)eory$ e!#ecially in t)e conte1t o& tran!lation !t"die!$
become! "ninter#retable i& it! "!er! do not artic"late it in relation to ne"trality wit) re!#ect to
national identitie! and )eritage!. *nglo#)one *merica )a! #rovided an e1#licit !et o& image! o&
w)at ne"trality can come to mean$ a !#eci&ic anti=)i!torical economy t)at down!i:e! national
narrative! into little !torie! &itting limited attention !#an!$ an economy t)at claim! t)ereby to
overcome t)e )ang="#! o& nation! and to em#ower t)e &ree individ"al. /)i! &ormally ne"tral
world i! t)e de&a"lt "to#ia im#lied by *nglo#)one literary critici!m(! vector!$ incl"ding a
com#arative literat"re and tran!lation !t"die! enter#ri!e &oc"!ed on tran!lation! into .ngli!) alone
and de#loying critical a##arat"!e! in .ngli!) a! t)e !ole medi"m o& critical di!co"r!e. 3& we are to
c)ange t)i! de&a"lt$ we )ave to work to c)ange it. *! Mao ,edong once wrote$ ;3& yo" don(t
!wee# it away$ d"!t doe!n(t move away on it! own.<
3t i! mo!t rea!onable &or "! to make t)e c)oice o& trying to read Yao a! working toward!
artic"lating a non=*merican de&a"lt "to#ia and a corre!#ondingly non=&ormali!tic literary critical
met)odology. 'owever$ )e i! doing t)i! wit)in a di!connected or ab!tract !"benter#ri!e t)at doe!
not$ a! it !tand!$ b"ild bridge! wit) it! co"nter#art! el!ew)ere. *! we take "# and "!e )i! work$
we will need to make it concrete by doing !"c) bridge=b"ilding o"r!elve!$ a! i! o&ten t)e ca!e
wit) "!e&"l idea!. 9riginator! are !eldom in a #o!ition to #rovide t)e contin"ity &actor! t)at many
"!er! need.
3n t)i! !en!e o& t)e term! ab!tract and concrete$ *merica i! em#)atically an ab!tract "to#ia. 3t!
economy #lay! o"t an ae!t)etic! o& #eak!. 3t i! a co"ntry w)ere #eo#le are ta"g)t &rom day one to
c)eer &or t)e &a!te!t r"nner in t)e world or t)e bigge!t b"ilding in t)e world or vario"! ot)er
ma1ima$ to e1aggerate n"mber! (;t)e driver in t)e car t)at i! !lowing "! down m"!t be 2A0 year!
old<)$ to b"y t)e be!t brain! &rom everyw)ere$ and !o on.
/)i! )y#erbolic mode o& !#eec) and living doe! not bore a tri"m#)ali!t mind. *merica i!
de!igned a! a centre &rom w)ic) a #lanetary tri"m#) will !#read to a! m"c) o& t)e co!mo! a! t)i!
&ervo"r can #o#"late. /)e ba!i! o& *merican anti=)i!toricity i! t)e &ervent rooting &or t)i! active
&"t"re$ an activity t)at )a! !et it! coordinate! in term! o& #"tting all )"man ac)ievement! toget)er
in one #lace and deliberately &orgetting t)eir irrelevant root!.
/)i! &orgetting i! &orged in t)e )edonic cr"cible o& #lay and c)ildi!)ne!!. *merican irreverence i!
a rea&&irmation o& t)e &act t)at in &or!aking t)e old world every tr"e believer )a! !aid goodbye to
&orce! t)at t)o"g)t t)ey owned )im (and t)at now know t)ey )ave anot)er t)ink coming). /)e
economic migration! o& later cent"rie! may not )ave mimicked t)e #!yc)ological content o& w)at
t)e early !eventeent) cent"ry #ilgrim! aboard t)e May&lower t)o"g)t t)ey were doing. 2"t t)eir
narrative! a! immigrant! 6oining t)e *merican &ormation took on t)e !ame &ormat o& abandoning
old$ rooted$ et)nic$ )i!torical )o#e! and &orging toget)er new$ !c)eme=&oc"!ed$ et)nicity=
de!#eci&ying$ )i!tory=cancelling e1#ectation!$ t)e !ame &ormat o& "!ing a "niver!al economy to
de!troy #artic"lari!tic )i!torie!. /)at &ormat in)erit! t)e religio"! )i!tory o& t)e .ngli!)=!#eaking
w)ite !ettler!. *merican #lay&"l irreverence i! !tee#ed in$ and indelibly angry wit)$ t)e old
reverence!. /)e wow and yay adoration o& !ec"lar bigge!t! and &a!te!t! and talle!t! i! a di!#laced
ver!ion o& t)e &orm! o& co"nterwor!)i# t)at t)e early w)ite !ettler! )ad #itted again!t t)e religio"!
belie&! o& t)eir vario"! #er!ec"tor! in ."ro#e.
3t i! di!t"rbing to !ee t)at many #eo#le today b"ying into t)e notion o& an .ngli!)=lang"aged
globality or even !ome o& t)eir o##onent! w)o criti5"e w)at t)ey call *merican im#eriali!m in
Mar1i!t term! (b"t con!enting to "!e .ngli!) a! t)eir lang"age o& critical re&erence) &ail to notice
t)e c)aracter o& t)e bea!t t)at t)ey love or )ate. 7or even an ;o##onent<$ i& !)e !wear! by
!c)olarly or moral e1cellence a! !)e inveig)! again!t t)e *merican em#ire$ may get locked into
t)e !ame coordinate !y!tem o& !eeking to b"ild coalition! o& t)e e1cellent$ and t)"! committed to
con!tr"cting !im#ly anot)er *merica re#o#"lated by )er own &riend!. 3& one imagine! a "to#ia
wit) t)e !ame geometry$ it doe! not matter w)ic) &ace! &le!) o"t t)e dot! on one(! diagram: i& yo"
let yo"r adver!ary dictate yo"r &ormat$ yo" lo!e t)e dee#er war t)at )a! to do wit) c)oo!ing t)e
kind! o& c)allenge yo" wi!) to acce#t.
3t i! now #o!!ible to t"rn to Yao &or aid. 3 &ind in t)e #art o& )i! work t)at look! at t)e gendered
location o& literary !el&=&a!)ioning a direct co"nter#art to t)e !"b!tantivi!t take on )i!tory$
rationality$ and conce#t"al #ar!imony in t)eorie! and #ractice!. S#ace #revent! me &rom
re)ear!ing )ere (!ee a!g"#ta @AAE) t)e &"ll a##arat"! o& t)at &orm"lation o& t)e !"b!tantivi!t
notion o& economy. 3t! main #oint i! t)at t)e rationality t)at drive! an actor(! )i!toricity m"!t
come &rom t)at actor(! !en!e o& )er!el& a! an active in)abitant o& )er concretely co=managed #lace
a! a )ome$ not &rom an et)nicity(! o&&icial )i!torical narrative or *merican=!tyle de!#eci&ication
o& old narrative!$ bot) o& w)ic) wo"ld be #atriarc)al alibi!. 3n t)e #re!ent conte1t$ !"&&ice it to !ay
t)at a #er!on(! act o& concreti:ing )er ado#tion o& a conce#t"al !tr"ct"re involve! !)aving all t)e
Platonic beard! a! !)e begin! to own t)at !tr"ct"re(! categorie!$ t)"! bringing 9ccam(! ra:or to
li&e in )er active re!i!tance to t)e conce#t"al content o& #atriarc)al code! t)at kee# trying to
#reem#t )er !el&=&a!)ioning. /o t)e e1tent t)at !)e doe! t)i! *ri!totelian labo"r (a! any anti=
Platonic manoe"vre i! bo"nd to take on !"c) a colo"r) a! #art o& a !el&=con!cio"! ren"nciation o&
"nc)o!en commitment! and #rivilege!$ !)e di!engage! )er!el& &rom !trategie! t)at !)e wo"ld
ot)erwi!e b"y into by de&a"lt. /)i! enable! )er to move &rom !trategic action to comm"nicative
action$ to "!e an enlig)tening #air o& 'aberma!ian term!. 9nce !)e )a! become )er own
comm"nicator$ !)e i! t)en able to c)oo!e to in)abit a )i!tory t)at !)e )a! beg"n to own$ one t)at
i! concretely contin"o"! wit) t)e time and #lace !)e )a! c)o!en to contin"e to &a!)ion wit)
!igni&icant ot)er!.
oe! !"c) a "to#ia #er)a#! root &or .!#eranto rat)er t)an &or .ngli!)8 7or many reader! o& a te1t
!"c) a! t)i!$ !"c) a 5"e!tion may look too ab!tract to &orm #art o& t)i! e1erci!e. 7or me$ it i!
entirely concrete$ a! 3 &ind t)at .!#eranto enable! it! "!er! to imagine a world=&orming #roce!!
t)at di&&er! &rom t)e *nglo#)one )egemonic !y!tem! in t)e way! t)at many .ngli!)="!ing
o##onent! o& t)e *merican em#ire &ind congenial. 2"t t)i! i! an i!!"e t)at individ"al! need to
addre!! in t)eir own conte1t!$ a! t)e!e conte1t! e1#and to take on board t)e view#oint! o&
colleag"e! wit) w)om t)e nece!!ary bridge! )ave not yet been b"ilt. 'owever$ .!#eranto i! very
clo!e to t)e concern! t)at Yao wo"ld like "! to take !erio"!ly$ &or 0)ina and -a#an )ave c"ltivated
t)e internationali!m o& .!#eranto on a m"c) larger !cale t)an ot)er *!ian co"ntrie!$ and )ave
&rom day one engaged w)ite "!er! in a civili:ation=level dialog"e t)at t)eir #re!ence )a!
#revented &rom degenerating into ."rocentri!m. /)o!e o& "! w)o wi!) to take "# and contin"e
Yao(! enter#ri!e will need to do b"!ine!! wit) t)e vol"mino"! and rigoro"! tran!lation! o&
0)ine!e and -a#ane!e cla!!ic! into .!#eranto by 0)ine!e and -a#ane!e tran!lator!$ and to
com#are w)at )a##en! in t)e!e tran!lation! wit) t)e work o& a #)ilological ?aley or a #oetic
Po"nd. /)i! i! yet anot)er #oint at w)ic) Yao limit! )i! in5"iry to t)e #oint o& &orcing "! to
wit))old a!!ent "ntil ot)er! )ave enlarged )i! !co#e and contin"ed t)e &re!) (and welcome)
mode! o& !cr"tiny )e bring! to bear on m"c)=revi!ited te1t!.
?)ile we are on t)e !"b6ect o& *mericani:ation and it! ot)er!$ 3 m"!t "nder!core t)e &act t)at
Yao(! e1tended !t"dy o& i!!"e! o& 3ri!)ne!! in relation to Yeat! cry o"t &or connection wit) t)e
*merica 5"e!tion$ &or t)e 3ri!) element in t)e &ormation o& *merican )i!tory i! one o& t)e
&re5"ently !t"died !trand! o& t)e tro"bled relation between *nglo and *merican #artner! in t)e
.ngli!)="!ing literary !y!tem. 3& Yao(! #ro6ect need! to tea!e a#art vario"! !trand! in t)e !tandard
)egemonic c)aracteri:ation o& t)i! !y!tem$ t)en contin"ation! o& )i! #ro6ect m"!t interrogate not
only )ow 3ri!) contrib"tion! )ave )el#ed !)a#e twentiet)=cent"ry 2riti!) literat"re$ b"t al!o t)e
way in w)ic) t)e #ec"liar #artial &reedom t)at t)e 3ri!) )ave )ad to manage wit)in t)e 2riti!)
3!le! )a! im#acted on t)e e5"ally idio!yncratic !en!e t)at *merica )a! o& being a"tonomo"! vi!=
>=vi! 2ritain and vi!=>=vi! continental ."ro#e and yet o& remaining ca"g)t "# in and de#endent on
it! de&initional tro"ble!.
9ne way to make !"re t)at *nglo#)one literary work become! !el&=con!cio"! )a! been to re!ort
to ling"i!tic! and it! vario"! !#in=o&&!. Yao )a! worked at !"c) a va!t di!tance &rom t)e!e
re!o"rce! t)at it i! )ard to t"rn t)e arg"ment in t)i! direction. *nd yet event"ally )i! #ro6ect will
)ave to engage wit) t)o!e o& ling"i!t colleag"e!. /)e !en!e o& balance and #ro#ortion t)at )e
!eem! to !eek cannot be even &orm"lated i& one e1cl"de! t)e!e #artici#ant!$ a! )e and many ot)er
literary critic! tend to do. 'owever$ t)at di!c"!!ion will )ave to be initiated el!ew)ere4 we m"!t$
mo!t o& "!$ reac)ed t)e very end o& o"r attention !#an.
Re&erence!:
2"rge!!$ *nt)ony. @ABD. 3ntrod"ction. 3n: /)e 2e!t S)ort Storie! o& -.G. 2allard. New York: 'olt$
Rine)art F ?in!ton. vii=i1.
a!g"#ta$ Probal. @AAE. Gand)i$ 7re"d$ and t)e !en!e o& #lace. Gand)i Marg @D:2.@AG=20D.
Smit)$ 0ordwainer. @ABCa. /)e 2e!t o& 0ordwainer Smit). New York: 2allantine.
Smit)$ 0ordwainer. @ABCb. Nor!trilia. New York: 2allantine.
Smit)$ 0ordwainer. @ABD. H"e!t o& t)e /)ree ?orld!. New York: 2allantine.
Smit)$ 0ordwainer. @ABA. /)e 3n!tr"mentality o& Mankind. New York: 2allantine.