Crossing and crossers in East Asian pop music: Korea and Japan

JAMIE SHINHEE LEE*

ABSTRACT: This paper examines crossing and crossers between Korea and Japan in the domain of pop
music. Crossing of semiotic products such as music between the two countries, in both a linguistic and
physical sense, presents a sociolinguistic case in which renegotiation of positions of ex-colonizer (Japan)
and ex-colonizee (Korea) is promising. The turbulent cultural and linguistic dynamics between the two
countries have undergone stages of oppression, contestation, and collaboration over the years. Pop
culture, including music and TV shows, is a sociolinguistic venue that has recently experienced a notice-
able change in the power dynamics between Korea and Japan.
INTRODUCTION
1
This paper examines a sociolinguistic phenomenon called crossing (Cutler, 1999;
Rampton, 1995 and 1999) in East Asian pop music, in both a linguistic and physical
sense, with a focus on Japan and Korea. Music can be easily deterritorized, appropriated,
and transformed (Hall, 1997). In that regard, music is a highly promising and perhaps
ideal sociolinguistic space for crossing to develop. Rampton defines crossing as speakers
use of apparently outgroup linguistic styles (1999: 421) and code alternation by people
who are not accepted members of the group associated with the second language they
employ (1995: 280). A similar phenomenon is called styling the other by other scholars
(e.g., Bell, 1999; Hill, 1999). Bell (1999) describes styling the other as the performance of a
language or a variety other than ones own (p. 523). Regardless of labels, this particular
sociolinguistic phenomenon is pertinent to a semiotic linguistic performing act that can be
readily observed in East Asian pop music. As Hill (1999) points out, styling the other or
crossing involves an ever-present risk of the constructed self being rejected as inauthen-
tic and the crosser being rejected as a wannabe (p. 552). This is largely due, as Rampton
(1995) argues, to the fact that there is a disjunction between speaker and code that cannot
be readily accommodated as a normal part of ordinary social reality (p. 283, emphasis
added). Hill (1999) argues that speakers are able to draw on larger systems of power in
establishing their claims to linguistic resources and their rights to remodel both structure
and meaning of these (p. 542).
In this study, I opt for the term crossing rather than styling the other for several reasons.
First, this paper introduces an extended notion of Ramptons original idea of crossing. He
mainly discusses linguistic crossing within a multi-ethnic school-based speech com-
munity where speakers demonstrate an incomplete and rudimentary appropriation of
inheritor languages (e.g., the use of Panjabi by black and white adolescents). His study
does not include an actual transposing of uttered semiotic products from one physical
space to another. However, the strategic use of linguistic resources other than ones own in
Korean pop music (K-pop) and Japanese pop music (J-pop) in the present study deals
* University of Michigan-Dearborn, Department of Humanities, 4901 Evergreen Road, Dearborn, Michigan
48128, USA. E-mail: jamilee@umd.umich.edu
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd., 9600 Garsington Road, Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main Street,
Malden, MA 02148, USA.
World Englishes, Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 235250, 2006.
08832919
with physical crossing as well as linguistic crossing in the form of importing and
exporting semiotic products called music between countries.
Second, the term styling the other might unjustly evoke the image of a speaker attempting
to pass as someone that he or she is not via mindless mimicry or imitation of the other. As
this study will argue, the use of English in K-pop and J-pop cannot be dismissed as mere
imitation, trying to sound like the other or to pass as the other. Rather, skillful mixing of
linguistic sources in K-pop and J-pop achieves certain indexical and semiotic effects.
Third, crossing bears immediate pertinence to what is happening in the globalizing
world. The term elucidates flexibility and mobility that are distinctively available in the
highly interconnected world we live in today. It is not always clear whether traditionally
recognized boundaries such as nations and states are as demarcated as they used to be,
and this is even more true for pop culture commodities such as music and movies. It is not
inconceivable for teenagers in Korea to feel more connected with their peers in the
United States or in Japan than their Korean parents who speak the same language.
Fourth, crossing captures recent developments in the cultural dynamics between Korea
and Japan better than styling the other. Pop culture has been a constant battlefield for
Japan and Korea. Until recently, there was a ban on importing Japanese music and
movies into Korea (Lee, 2004c). Koreans refer to Japan as Kakkapkoto mennala
(close and yet distant country), which is often echoed in public discourse on the relation-
ship between the two countries. The Library of Congress Country Studies (http://
www.lcweb2.loc.gov) sums up this sentiment as follows: Korea is geographically close,
yet emotionally distant from Japan. Given the historical relationship between the two
countries, the paradoxical nature of their relation is readily understandable. This is
mainly due to 36 years (191045) of Japanese colonial occupation on the Korean
Peninsula. There is also the long-standing textbook issue, namely what is not in the
textbooks, revolving around Japans alleged omission and cover-up of its cruel and
inhumane acts of violence against Koreans and other Asians in the early twentieth
century. There are territorial disputes over uninhabited islets in the sea between Korea
and Japan (Associated Press, March 18, 2005). Koreans refer to this sea as the East Sea
and Japanese call it the Sea of Japan. When Koreans describe a cross over either
symbolic or physical to Japan, a metaphorical expression such as Tayhanhayhyepul
kenneta (Crossing the Korea Strait) is often used in the media. Although the body of
water that the East Sea and the Korea Strait refer to differs, both have a similar symbolic
meaning to Koreans, namely, the physical and emotional space that separates the two
countries and the gateway to connect with a new territory.
Korea has had mixed feelings about Japan; Japan is both an economic and techno-
logical envy and a historical and political opponent. On the other hand, Japans attitude
toward Korea has been either that of indifference or dismissal. However, this has begun to
change, and pop culture is one salient area that has experienced a dramatic change in the
dynamics between the two countries. Korean pop artists and their songs crossing the Sea
of Japan and Japanese pop artists and their songs crossing the East Sea have begun since
the Korean ban on Japanese pop culture commodities (e.g., songs, movies, and TV shows)
was lifted in 1998. Linguistic studies have begun to investigate pop music as a socio-
linguistic sphere (Lee, 2004c). Although this is a timely development, the preponderance
still tends to be on one country in Asia, namely Japan (see e.g., Loveday, 1996; Moody,
2001; Moody and Matsumoto, 2003; Pennycook, 2003; Stanlaw, 2000 and 2004). The
focus needs to be shifted from just a single country to a region, possibly with some sort of
236 Jamie Shinhee Lee
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
comparison within the region. Pop music is argued to be a critical element in youth
culture; young people participate in the process of expressing their unique identities and
voices through music. Loveday (1996) notes that pop music offers role models for
identification and idolization, which are particularly important for youth. Similarly,
Condry (2001) argues that in particular hip-hop is best characterized as youth music
that focuses on the importance of young peoples speaking out, in a society that stresses
seniority (p. 240).
I will limit my empirical scope to the following pop music genres that contain examples
of crossing: pop, rock, R & B, and hip-hop. Thulothu, a sub-genre of Korean pop music,
which mostly caters to middle-aged audiences, and enka, which is its Japanese equivalent,
are not included in the data since they show almost no sign of linguistic crossing. The main
objective of this study is to investigate crossing between Korea and Japan and its linguistic
and cultural implications for the historically and politically tumultuous relationship
between the two neighboring countries.
KOREAN CROSSERS AND CROSSING THE SEA OF JAPAN
The discussion in this section primarily focuses on a few South Korean singers who
have succeeded in their crossing in the Japanese music market. The singers whose lyrics
will be presented in this section include BoA, SES, and Y2K. South Korean pop artists
crossing the Sea of Japan is not a new trend, since there were earlier crossers such as
Unswuk Kyey and Yenca Kim. However, those who crossed before the 1990s are middle-
aged singers who sang almost exclusively in Japanese. They did not utilize English at all
and now permanently reside in Japan. What separates post-1998 crossers from pre-1998
crossers is the fact that more recent South Korean crossers are much younger normally
in their teens or twenties and their lyrics often contain English. These young pop artists
do not reside in Japan permanently; they actively engage in producing and releasing
albums both in Japan and Korea, and in most cases, they are equally successful in both
countries.
In particular, BoA, who has been the most successful among the Korean crossers,
presents an interesting case of what I term double crossing, a definition I operationalize
as simultaneous utilization of two languages that are not traditionally associated with a
speaker along with the distinct absence of the speakers native language within the same
text or discourse. In other words, the speaker uses two languages of the other, and thus the
risk of being dismissed as a wannabe or inauthentic doubles as well. BoA does not use her
native language, Korean, in the songs released in Japan; instead, she uses two languages of
the other: the ex-colonizer Japan and the oft-accused unofficial imperialist America, whose
military presence on the Korean peninsula is vehemently protested by Korean nationalists.
She released the same song both in the Korean version (KV) and the Japanese version
(JV). The linguistic crossing observed in these songs shows many of the same crossing
patterns, but it is also unique in its own way. The song released in Korea contains Korean
and English in the lyrics, whereas the song released in Japan includes English and
Japanese. The title of the song itself is the same in meaning, namely miracle both in
Korean and Japanese. However, their orthographic representations differ. In both
versions, English lyrics are almost identical with the exception of a few additions in the
KV. The local language lyrics (Korean lyrics in the KV and Japanese lyrics in the JV) are
slightly different. Example (1) shows the KV and JV lyrics side by side, along with my
Crossing and crossers in east Asian pop music 237
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
translations into English. The differences between the two versions are underlined, and
only the local language lyrics are translated. Korean transliteration
2
is in italics, and
Japanese transliteration
3
is in small caps.
(1)
KV transliteration Translation JV transliteration Translation
Kicek (Destiny) Kiseki
Milayuy kkwumul
kkwuko issnun
neykyetey
wusumul cenhaycwuko
siphun naciman
You are dreaming of
a future
I want to send you a
smile but
YUMEO HASHIRU
KIMINO SOBADE EGAO
TODOKETE ITAIKEDO
Right by you, who are
running towards your
dream, I want to send a
smile but
Destiny is shine or
not?
Destiny is shine or
not?
newa nan etilo
hyanghay kako
issnunci
I wonder where you
and I are headed
HUTARIWA DOKONI
TADORITSUKUNO
Please hold me tight
across the time
Where are we reaching?
Please hold me tight across
the time.
. . . . . .
Amwu uymi epsnun
umakto kuliko
khulisumasukkacito
Salangilan
wunmyengkwa
hamkkey uymilul tamki
Meaningless music
and even Christmas
With a destiny called
love it all has become
meaningful
PURATONMO PIASUMO
MERODIMO
KURISUMASUMO
ITOSHISANI DEAEBA
IMIO MOCHI HAJIMERU
Plato, Pierce,
melody even
Christmas
When you meet (your)
love, it starts having
meaning
sicakhacyo
Hamkkey hamye
nukkilswuissnun
Happiness
Happiness we feel
because we are
together
HUTARI IRU
YASURAGIDESAE
TAIKUTSUNI OMOERU
TOKIMO
Even with the
comfortable feeling
of us being together
when I feel bored
ciluhakey
nukkyecinun ttayeyto nan
Even when I feel
bored
Never mind Ill smile
to you
Never mind Ill smile
to you
Kutay kyethey
hamkkey yengwen
halkel yaksokhay
I will be with you
forever
I promise
KIMINO SOBANI
IRUKOTO CHIKAU
I swear Ill be with
you
Its miracle so
miracle
Its miracle so miracle
NOKOSAZU Let us embrace it
Namkimepsi
kamssaana naykeyn
nemwu socwunghay
Hold it (relationship)
tight it is so precious
to me
TSUTSUMUYO
TAISETSUNANDA
Youre my special
without reservation
because it is precious
Youre my special reason reason
Table 1 illustrates similarities and differences between the KV and the JV of the song
above by BoA. Both versions use almost identical English lyrics, part of which
shows semantic or syntactic features divergent from the Inner Circle Englishes. For
instance, when expressing her uncertainty about the future of her relationship, she
utters destiny is shine or not? to mean Is our destiny shining (bright) or not? The
238 Jamie Shinhee Lee
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
expression across the time signifies consistency in time such as forever. There is
also an instance of the replacement of the preposition at with to in Ill smile to you.
In both Japanese and Korean, datives are expressed by adding a case marking
suffix to nouns, -eykey for Korean and -ni for Japanese. Neither Korean nor
Japanese makes a distinction between at and to when they are used to indicate the
beneficiary.
The next example shows three versions of the same song titled NO. 1 by
BoA: the English version (EV) in (2a), which is included in the album released in
Japan, will be presented first followed by a comparative analysis of KV and JV in
(2b).
Table 1. Korean version and Japanese version of BoAs Miracle
KV JV
Similarities
Almost identical English
lyrics that are deviant from
the ICEs
Destiny is shine or not? (Is destiny shining or not? in ICEs)
Please hold me tight across the time
Never mind Ill smile to you (at in ICEs)
Its miracle so miracle (Its a miracle such a miracle. or Its
miraculous so miraculous in ICEs)
You are my special reason
Differences
Title Co-orthographic presentation
of Hangul [the Korean Alpha-
bet] and English in the title.
Only Japanese orthographic
presentation (Kanji [Sino-
Japanese])
The English equivalent of the
Korean title is miracle, but
the word destiny is included
instead in the title.
Lyrics:
Verb Youre dreaming of a dream Youre running a dream
Pronoun: first person plural Discrete: You and I (ne-wa-
nan)
Whole: We (hutariwa)
Generic Specific
NP (e.g. meaningless music) (e.g. Plato, Pierce . . .)
Local language for music
(i.e. umak)
Loanword merodi Melody
with Japanese phonological
adaptation
Addition of the English noun
Happiness
No addition of the English
noun
Message Love is called wunmyeng
(destiny), and this is incor-
porated into the title in
English.
No Japanese equivalent of
destiny is found in the lyrics
Crossing and crossers in east Asian pop music 239
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
(2) a
Its been so long
Since you were here with me
Since you left me
I could I set you free
Its just a game
Without, myself again
Finally, Im ready to confess you see
Cause I did some good, and I did some bad
And I know what we had was true
You still my No.1
Youre all Im thinking of
The one I cant deny
I guess you know the sore built inside
I love this song
This all you said and done
You still my No.1
The things I said
I take them back you know
Its not the end
Cause now Im taking my stand
And I miss you
And I want you back, In my life
(want you back in my life, I want you back in my life)
Cause I did some good, and I did some bad,
And I know what we had was true.
(2) b
KV transliteration Translation JV transliteration Translation
Etwumsokey ni
elkwul potaka nato
molay nwunmwuli
hullesse
My tears fell down
when I looked at
your face in the dark
Youve been with
JIKANWA KAJENO
YOONA HAYASADE
SUGIRU KEREDO
TAISETSUNA MONOWA
Although time passes
by with the speed of
wind
I always plan to
Soliepsi nal
ttalaomye
pichwunken finally
me and brighten
(me) without
complaints.
MAMOTTE KITATSUMO-
RIDAYO
MATSUGUNA
cherish precious
things
My eyes reflect only
nalalko
kamssacwunkeni
Is it because you
finally understand
and accept me
HITOMINIWA
KIMIDAKEO UTSUSUYO
you
Cheum nay salang pichwe
cwuten nen
nauy ipyelkkaci
ponkeya
You first lighted my
love
You knew this was
going to end
You still my No.1 You still my NO.1
Nal chacci
malacwe nauy
sulphum kalyecwe
Ce kwulumtwi nelul
swumkye pichul
tatacwe kulul anun
ikili nay nwunmwul
Dont look for me.
Cover my sorrow
Behind that cloud,
you hide yourself
and block the light
so that the way to
know him wont
KIMITO TEAI
KAGAITERU
KO SHYUNKANO
KANJITE IRUYO
NEGAIO TODOKE
you still my NO.1
I feel the moment
when I meet you and
shine
Send (your) wish
240 Jamie Shinhee Lee
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
molukey
Pyenhan kulul
yokhacin malacwe
ni elkwulto cokumssik
pyenhanikka
see my tears
Dont blame him for
changing his mind
because your face
also changes
MAYOTTARI
NAYANDARI TOKINIWA
NAMIDAO MISETE
SHINJIRU TSUYOSAO
SHITTE YUKU
Show me tears when
you get lost and are
in anguish
Ill continue to
believe in strength
But I miss you
Nel iculswu issulkka Can I ever forget
you?
SO TEKINAI KOTONANTE
HITOTSU NAIYO
There is no single
thing that cant be done
(Want you back in my life, I
want you back in my life)
You still my NO.1
KIMITO TEAI SHINJIRU
KOTO WASURENAI
YUKIO MITSUKETAYO
After I met you, Ive
found courage not to
forget and to have
faith.
Nauy salangto cinan chwue-
kto motwu ta salace kaciman
Although all my love
and past memories
fade way
NEGAIO KOMETE Make a wish
truthfully
You still my No.1 you still my NO.1
TEO NOBASEBA TODOKI
SOUNA YUMENO
SAKINIWA
If I extend my
hands, I feel like I can
reach beyond the
dream
In contrast to the song Miracle (example 1) by the same singer, the song NO. 1 shows
more variation across the versions. The only expression that is repeated consistently across
the three versions is You still my NO. 1, which shows copula deletion. Compared to the
JV, the KV uses more English, all of which appears in EV. For example, the expressions
such as finally, I miss you, and I want you back in my life are available in the KV
but absent in the JV. Not much overlap exists in the lyrics in each version except the
message that the main character still holds a special place in the singers heart the most
important and the best person NO. 1.
Crossing into English and Japanese is also attempted by other singers as well.
However, their linguistic backgrounds are not homogeneous. The three-member
female band named S.E.S. is a case in point. Each letter stands for the initial of the
name of an individual band member: Sea (Pata), Eugene, and Shu. Although all
members are South Korean, this group is linguistically versatile: Eugene was raised
in Guam and speaks English proficiently, and Shu was born in Japan and speaks
Japanese fluently. Sea was born and raised in Korea and is the Korean component of
the group. Example (3) features this groups crossing in both English and Japanese
within the one song.
(3)
. . .
Someday ITSUKA KITTO
TENI IRERU SONO HIMADE
Someday until the day that
I get it in my hands
AKIRAMENAIYO JIBUNNO YUMEIO I dont give up my dream.
MATSUGU OTTE YUKITAI I want to pursue it immediately
Youre my shining star
KIMITONARA ITSUDEMO GANBATTE
IKERU MABUSHIKU KAGAYAITE
If Im with you, I can go on in
full blaze shining brightly
Crossing and crossers in east Asian pop music 241
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
Wishing on a star
KONO MUNENI DAKISHIMERARENAI HODONO
My special song TODOKU MADE
To a degree that cannot be embraced
in my heart. My special song until it is delivered,
DONNANI TSURAKUTEMO HITORIJANAI It doesnt matter how painful it is. Im not alone
(Shining star by S.E.S
(AITO IYU NAMAENO HOKORI),
Proud name called love,
1999)
Table 2 opposite illustrates selective examples in English lyrics in the songs by Korean crossers
crossing the Sea of Japan. They showlexical, syntactic, and semantic features that deviate from
the ICEs.
JAPANESE CROSSERS AND CROSSING THE EAST SEA
Loveday (1996) states that language contact in J-pop presents a unique case where
monolingual style Anglicization as code-switching constitutes a fundamental feature of
the entire body of the text. He argues that Anglicization as codeswitching is employed as a
means of emotional expression. In his analysis of a Japanese song, Loveday provides a
plausible explanation as to why English is used and how this phenomenon should be
interpreted:
just because Nakayamas songs contain a greater amount of code-switching, it should not be
presumed that her fans possess a greater comprehension of English. Rather, the high degree of
English contact should be interpreted as a symbolic consequence of trying to establish a sophisti-
cated image (in the pop-music sphere), which the associations of the English language are seen to
be capable of providing. (pp. 1323, emphasis added)
Loveday proposes no significant discourse functions of English in J-pop other than
creating a superficial sophisticated image. His explanation for the use of English as a
means of expressing emotions is not as elaborated as Stanlaws. The use of English in
J-pop is argued to be a way to circumvent some of the sociolinguistic limitations of
Japanese (Stanlaw, 2000 and 2004). Stanlaw (2000) notes that Japanese female vocalists
and songwriters utilize English loanwords and phrasing to express their personal emotions
in a liberating way. He argues that the judicious use of both English words and English
loanwords contribute to the new style and rhetoric of female-produced pop music in
Japan (p. 76). A similar point is articulated in the conclusion of his article as follows:
English or English loanwords offer a way to circumvent some of the sociolinguistic limitations of
Japanese. They provide Japanese women not only with another voice, an additional and different
symbolic vocabulary with which to express their thoughts and feelings, but also with a rhetorical
power that was unknown to them previously, and that is suited for the growing power and stature
that women are gaining in Japanese society. In this way, the use of English helps to endow
female-created Japanese music with new alternatives and potential for women, and these, through
the popularity of the music and the artists, in turn give encouragement to Japanese women who
are pioneering new roles and ways of living and being in society. (p. 99)
Crossing is also successfully carried out by some Japanese singers. The five-member male
band called SMAP (Sports Music Assembly People),
4
which debuted in 1987, is popular in
South Korea. When Japanese artists release their albums in South Korea, album jackets
242 Jamie Shinhee Lee
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
normally contain Korean translations for the Japanese lyrics, but no translation is provided
for the English lyrics. This is presumably due to the assumption that most Koreans can read
and understand English, since it is a required foreign language course for anyone who is in the
Korean secondary educational system. In contrast, Japanese is one of the foreign languages
South Korean high school and college students can take as an elective. Thus, intelligibility of
the Japanese language across sub-populations in Korea is not assumed as is likely to be the
case with English. However, it is important to note that English proficiency varies from one
Table 2. Selective examples of English lyrics by Korean crossers
Types of crossing Lyrics ICEs equivalent Album (source)
Morpho-syntactic
Sentence order This my heart
belongs to you.
This heart of mine
belongs to you
Everlasting love by
Y2K
Summer Y2K (2002)
Copula deletion Its gonna alright Its going to be
alright
Everlasting love by
Y2K
Summer Y2K (2002)
You still my No. 1 Youre still No. 1 No. 1 by BoA
No. 1/KISEKI (2002)
What you gonna do? What are you going
to do?
I Kiss by BoA
My name BoA (2004)
Lack of morpheme Im still remember
you
Im still remembering
you
Everlasting love by
Y2K
Summer Y2K (2002)
Chance will come to
you
Chances will come to
you
Dreams come true
by BoA
Peace B (2001)
I am answer back I am answering back Whatever by BoA
ID: Peace B (2000)
It show We the Show
We The one way To
dream
It shows. Were the
show. We are the one
way to dream
Beside you BOKUO
YOBU KOE by BoA
Valenti (2003)
Missing
preposition
Yes, we can go, we
can go true shining
place
Yes, we can go, we
can go to a truly
shining place
Beside you BOKUO
YOBU KOE by BoA
Valenti (2003)
Semantic anomaly Now is forever What we have now
will last forever
I Kiss by BoA
My name BoA (2004)
INOTTERU (Im
praying) connecting
is my never land
Im praying that
(my ultimate fantasy)
connecting will never
end
ID: Click B by BoA
Peace B (single)
(2001)
Can I get a futuristic?
Would you?
Can I have a future
with you?
Whatever by BoA
ID: Peace B (2000)
Beside you every
time, Beside you
everywhere
Ill be with you
anytime and
anywhere
Beside you BOKUO
YOBU KOE by BoA
Valenti (2003)
Crossing and crossers in east Asian pop music 243
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
sub-population to another. Young Korean professionals tend to be more proficient in
spoken English than older Koreans. It turns out that age is one of the critical factors in
influencing how much English is used in advertising as well (Lee, 2004a and 2004b). The
fact that English is more intelligible across sub-populations in both countries than Japanese
in Korea or Korean in Japan and that English triggers no historical and emotional
competition between Korea and Japan presents a promising position for English. English
can function as what I term a cultural attache serving as a common vehicle of artistic
communication in cultural diplomacy that includes exchange of pop culture commodities
such as music, TV shows, and movies. As other diplomatic mission positions aim to
achieve, cultural attache (1) promotes the representing countrys cultural images; (2)
reinforces the wide dissemination of the representing countrys cultural artifacts and
products in the host country; (3) introduces the host countrys culture back to the repre-
senting country; (4) mediates potential cultural clashes and conflicts between the host
country and the representing country; (5) assists the active cultural exchange between the
host country and the representing county; and (6) encourages mutual respect and colla-
boration between the host country and the representing country. English seems to fulfill all
of these job descriptions of the cultural attache role in the culturally and linguistically
contentious relationship between Korea and Japan.
One of the SMAPs songs released in Korea is entirely in English. However,
their English still reveals their Japanese identity as it contains Japanized phonological
performance of the song.
(4)
Every word [wad] you said, every love [av i ]] you gave
Every you would make an ordinary day a better [beda] day
Always
Every risk [ri:sk] I took [tu:k], every night and day
Just for you
Saturday in a crowd Ive been waiting for [fo] you
You said at one but it is almost two
On the phone you were sure [sjua] to be right on time
But you are late again. Its same ol same
Im looking out the window just wondering why
People never look [u:k] above to see beyond the sky
You are the one who taught me how to find the day light moon
But now Im just looking down because I dont know what to do
Every day I feel, every night I dream
Every time I close my eyes I see you
Smiling just for [fo] me
. . .
(DONNA IIKOTO (Every you), by SMAP, 2001)
This song demonstrates Japanese phonological adaptations of certain phonemes. For
instance, the post-vocalic r in the word final position is dropped. High vowels /i/ and /u/
tend to lengthen. Mid vowels such as /^/ and /@/ get lowered. The title of the song in
Japanese, which literally means what good things, is accompanied by English in parenth-
esis that does not reflect the semantics of the original Japanese title.
Another Japanese band that has been popular in Korea is X-JAPAN. The band debuted
in 1985 by releasing their first album Ill kill you. It is also a five-member male band.
5
244 Jamie Shinhee Lee
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
(5)
Im looking for you
Trying to reach your roses
Carried away by the time
IZAKUNO KYOKINI KATAMEO TSUBU SARETA MAMA
Youve gone away
With one eye destroyed by a weapon of silence
From the stage
Leaving no words
Theres just fake tears left
ITSUWARINO SHINJUDE KAZATTA BARANO HANATABAO
SAGASU
I look for a bouquet of roses decorated with
fake pearls
Im blind insane
In the red of silence
Now Ive lost your love
GENKAKUNO AINI KAWARETA AYATSURI NINGYO Im a puppet bought into fantasy love
Get me on my feet
Pretend you love me
YUBISAKIMADE SHINKUNI SOMATTA OREO MITSUMETE
MOU TAEKIRENAI KODOKUNO seranade
Looking at me whose fingers are smudged by
blood I can no longer stand the serenade of
this solitude/loneliness
MUNENI DAITEMO I cannot stop
silent Jealousy
Even if I try to embrace it I cannot stop silent
jealousy
Dont you leave me alone
Tell me true DOKONI YUKEBA KURUSHIMI AISERU Tell me true where can I go to love this misery
I still want your love AIO TOMETE KURIZAKU KIOKUO
KESHITE
I still want your love. Stop love and erase this
memory
I just wanted to stay with you
I just wanted to feel your breath of grace
I didnt know what to do
I couldnt say anything
When consciousness returned
Everything had been washed away
by the tide of time, even you
But the scars of memory never fade away
I cant stop loving you
Stop my tears
Stop my loving
Kill my memories
You dyed my heart in blood
No way to kill my sadness
TACHISARU MAENI KOROSHITE KYOKINO AINI TAKARETA
HITOMIWA NANIMO MIENAI IMAMO I miss you
Kill me before you leave even now the eyes
flared by crazy love cannot see anything
Cant live without you
Silent jealousy YUMENI OCHITE Silent jealousy fall into a dream
. . .
Stay in yesterday TOKIO TOMETA KURIKAESU
KODOKUO KESHITE
Stay in yesterday. Get rid of solitude that
repeatedly stops time.
Take me back to the memory, to the dream
Silent jealousy
Dont you leave me alone
(Silent jealousy by X-JAPAN, X-Japan Fans best selection Disc 1, 2001)
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2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
In an attempt to compare Japanese pop artists crossing patterns with those of Korean
pop artists (illustrated in Table 2), I present some examples of English crossing types in
J-pop lyrics in Table 3.
Table 3. Selective examples of English used by Japanese crossers*
Lyrics ICEs equivalent Source
Semantic crossing
Part time kiss. No time love I have some time to kiss you
but no time to love you
Part time Kiss by SMAP
Urasuma (2001)
Dont you know?
I love you so
Dont you know?
I love you that way
Part time Kiss by SMAP
Urasuma (2001)
Will you hold my heart? Will you not break my heart? Forever love X-JAPAN
X-JapanFans best selection
Disc 2 (2001)
MO KOWARE SOUNA (is likely to be
broken) all my heart
Will you comfort my heart
that is likely to be broken?
Tears by X-JAPAN
X-Japan Best Fans Selection
Disc 1 (2001)
Loneliness your silent whisper fills
a river of tears through the night
I cry all night because of
loneliness and your silence
Same as above
Sands of time will keep your
memory
Ill keep your memory for a
long time
Same as above
Time through the rain has set me
free
Time endured through
difficulties has finally set me
free
Same as above
Alive within your breathless heart Still there in your lifeless
heart
Same as above
Ive never thought beyond that
time
Ive never thought about wh-
at would happen after
Same as above
Ive never thought the pictures of
that life
Ive never imagined what my
life would be like
Crucify my love by
X-Japan
From X-Japan Best Fans
Selection Disc 2 (2001)
Never know Never trust that love
should see a color
You never know and believe
that love has a color
Same as above
If it should be that way swing the
heartache feel it inside out
If it cant be changed,
embrace your pain to the
fullest so that it wont hurt
Same as above
When the wind cries Ill say good-
bye
When there is no hope, Ill
say good-bye
Same as above
If it should be that way Til the
loneliness shadows the sky Ill be
sailing down and I will know I
know I can clear clouds away
If it cant be changed, Ill
persevere until I cant bear
the loneliness and then Ill
realize that I can survive
Syntactic crossing: (Non) Use of prepositions and articles
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2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
IMPLICATIONS OUTSIDE THE DOMAIN OF POP MUSIC
Ever since the need was felt for the two countries to collaborate on creating something
Asian and not a replica of the West, there have been some specific projects that indicate
that this could be done. For example, Shimokawa Masaharu, Editor to Mainichi Shimbun,
reports that six co-produced CDs by the two countries hit the market in July 2002. They
include Koyanagi Yuki, Chage, Asuka, Tube, Cho Sungmo, and Pinpull. These joint
endeavors were intended to promote a successful co-hosting of the World Cup. Cultural
partnership between the two countries leads to co-producing and releasing albums
synchronically in both countries. In a recent cooperative effort, the new band named
The TRAX concurrently released its second single both in Korea and Japan. The title
song Scorpio (example 6) is composed by Yoshiki, who was a leader in the Japanese
rock band X-JAPAN and its Korean lyrics are written by the Korean lead vocal Jay Kim.
(6)
I dont give a chance, if they wanna fault
Cause theres nothing left to crack
I wanna make a ride were gonna run to forth connect the dots, disconnect the line
Lets shine like Scorpio in the sky
Yeah! come On! Rock!!
Ce pyelpichuy (the star light) Reflection
. . . Shining Stars
Lets leave it all behind
So freak that dead line Let go
Like Beautiful Green or Orange Sunshine
or do I wanna shine G-freakin head
So far away Im gonna find my way
Table 3 continued
Lyrics ICEs equivalent Source
Paint brilliant tomorrow Paint a brilliant tomorrow Scars by X-JAPAN
X-Japan Best Fans Selection
Disc 2 (2001)
Dead poems still screamin into
me
A dead poems still screaming
at me
Tears by X-JAPAN
X-Japan Best Fans Selection
Disc 1 (2001)
Love everlasting fades away Everlasting love fades away Scars by X-JAPAN
X-Japan Best Fans Selection
Disc 2 (2001)
Dead poems still alive into me Adeadpoemsstill aliveinsideme Tears by X-JAPAN
X-Japan Best Fans Selection
Disc 1 (2001)
But I never thought youd trade
your soul to the fates
But I never thought youd
trade your soul with/for/to
the fates
*These examples are not exhaustive and exclude the ones that are discussed earlier in this paper.
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2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
A to D to D to A
Try to find the way to the Milky Way
My world is born in the TRAX
. . . like Shining Stars
Let the world break me down, as if I care
Ive got nothing to lose, Like shattered glass
Flying to pieces, Im already torn
But theres a way to shine, if theres will
woke up and hated life
wanna feel it, what its like
(Scorpio by the TRAX, Scorpio, 2004)
Crossing the Sea of Japan does not seem to be limited to pop music. South Korea TV
shows have gained popularity recently. Miyazaki reports the success of South Korean
entertainers in Japan as follows: Korean entertainers are now among the biggest celeb-
rities in the Land of the Rising Sun (BBC News, March 28, 2005). For instance, the lead
character of the Korean soap-opera called Winter Sonata, Bae Yong-Jun, or Yon-sama as
he is affectionately and respectfully referred to by the Japanese, receives Hollywood A-list
movie star treatments from his fans. In fact, recently the Japanese Prime Minister
Koizumi said, Yon-sama is more popular than me.
Miyazaki is correct in pointing out the fact that this new found popularity is all the
more surprising considering the historical issues that have coloured relations between the
two countries (BBC News, March 28, 2005). Territorial disputes over islets, the continued
lack of voting rights for Korean-Japanese, and accusations of Japanese textbooks ignoring
the cruelty of Japanese troops during World War II are complicating factors between the
two countries: ex-colonizer and colonizee. Thus, crossing in East Asian pop culture, in
particular between Korea and Japan, has implications that could potentially impact
linguistic, cultural, economic, and political issues. Therefore, it calls for all the more
attention from sociolinguists.
CONCLUSION
Crossing in K-pop and J-pop presents an interesting sociolinguistic case in which
renegotiation of positions of ex-colonizer and colonizee is promising. The turbulent
cultural and linguistic dynamics between the two countries have undergone different
stages of oppression, contestation, and collaboration over the years. Pop culture, includ-
ing music and TV shows, is a sociolinguistic venue that has lately experienced a noticeable
change in the power dynamics between Korea and Japan.
Crossing and crossers in both countries demonstrate similar patterns such as the use of
English in their lyrics. However, there are also differences in their crossing patterns. South
Korean crossers who actively perform in Japan cross into both English and Japanese.
On the other hand, Japanese crossers who are popular in Korea do not show crossing into
Korean. Their lyrics contain English and Japanese, not Korean. Japanese crossers do
not normally engage in live performances in Korea as much as Korean crossers do in
Japan. Korean crossers make TV appearances and perform live at concerts in Japan. The
fact that Korean pop artists who are successful in Japan sing in the others language,
including that of ex-colonizer, is not necessarily a sign of an ex-colonizees deep-rooted
surrender to ideological hegemony. Rather, it needs to be viewed as a skillful pragmatic
248 Jamie Shinhee Lee
2006 The Author. Journal compilation 2006 Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
deployment of linguistic capital to claim what Heller (2003) calls economic oppor-
tunities that bilingual linguistic resources provide for outsiders to compete with insiders
in the globalizing world.
If and when Japanese crossers sing in Korean and English, can one claim that the power
dynamics between the two countries are completely shifted? The answer remains to be
seen. What we observe is at least an attitudinal shift in linguistic and cultural issues
between the two countries toward each other. When it comes to pop culture issues,
Korea is no longer a colony that struggles with a victim mentality, caught in the bitter
battle of linguistic and cultural hegemony. Japan is no longer a colonizer that exercises
callous linguistic and cultural oppression. Instead, what we see is the beginning of cultural
collaboration between the two countries.
NOTES
1. Earlier versions of this paper were presented at the University of Michigan at Dearborn in February, 2005 and
at the Linguistics Seminar at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in April, 2005. My sincere
thanks to Yamuna Kachru and Elizabeth Martin for their comments, Heidi Lorimor for her stylistic sugges-
tions, and Tomomi Kumai and Hiromi Okazawa for proofreading my Japanese translations.
2. The Romanization of transliteration of the Korean data in this study, including proper nouns, is based on the
Yale system presented in Sohn (1999: 23).
3. The Romanization of Japanese transliteration is based on Table 1.1 The Japanese syllabaries in Loveday
(1996: 8).
4. Kimura Takuya, Chonankang, Katori Singo, Inagaki Koro, and Nakai Masahiro.
5. Yoshiki, Toshi, Hide, Pata, and Hisu.
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