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\
|
=
B
Q
d
c
Q in this formula is Q per cell. If d
c
exceeds D then take d
c
as D.
Now calculate (d
c
+ D)/2.
Tailwater (TW), as gathered in Section
9.11.1.1, is required for determination of
the next variable.
The next step is to establish the adopted
tailwater (h
o
) for design. Determine if TW
>D:
- If yes, h
o
=TW;
- If no, h
o
=the larger of TW and (d
c
+
D)/2.
January 2013
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Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 9
Road Drainage Manual Culvert Design
Now, multiply the proposed culvert length
(L) and slope (S
o
), as gathered in Section
9.11.1.1, to calculate LS
o
.
Headwater under outlet control conditions
(HW
o
) is calculate using:
0 0 0
LS h H HW + =
Now check HW
o
against AHW and if HW
o
is greater than AHW, try another size until
both HW
i
and HW
o
are acceptable (<AHW).
9
9.11.1.6
9.11.1.7
Determine the
Controlling Headwater
Compare the values of HW
i
and HW
o
. The
higher headwater governs and indicates the
flow control existing under the given
conditions for the trial size selected.
- If HW
i
>HW
o
the culvert is under
inlet control and Controlling HW =
HW
i
.
- If HW
i
<HW
o
the culvert is under
outlet control and Controlling HW =
HW
o
.
The controlling headway for trial should be
clearly shown in design workings (design
form).
There are now two checks that should be
undertaken before completing trial design:
(a) If controlling HW is less than 1.2D,
then the culvert is most likely not
operating with a submerged inlet and
therefore may not be operating
efficiently. Design should be revised
using a different (slightly smaller)
culvert size / configuration.
(b) If controlling HW is less than 0.75D
and the culvert is under outlet control,
then the culvert may be flowing only
part-full and using (d
c
+D)/2 to
calculate h
o
may not be giving accurate
results. Design should be revised using
a different culvert size / configuration,
where D TW.
Sometimes, calculations show HWi and
HWo to be equal or nearly equal. In this
instance, it is not clear whether or not the
culvert will perform under inlet control or
outlet condition. In reality, the culvert
could also operate under both conditions
(swap from one to the other) during the
same rainfall event. Therefore, outlet
velocity calculations should be done for
both Inlet Control and Outlet Control
conditions with the higher velocity (and
associated control condition) being adopted.
Outlet Velocity Outlet
Control
The average outlet velocity for all culvert
types can be calculated using:
A
Q
V
o
=
Where:
- Q = design discharge per culvert
barrel / cell (m
3
/s); and
- A =cross sectional area of flow from
culvert barrel / cell (m
2
).
The cross-sectional area of flow (A)
depends on the flow depth at the outlet.
Flow depth will be one of the following:
- critical depth (dc) if the tailwater is
below critical depth;
- tailwater depth (TW) if the tailwater
is between critical depth and the top
of the barrel; or
- the height of the barrel (D) if the
tailwater is above the top of the
barrel.
Refer Figure 9.11.1.7(a) for guidance in
determining flow area for box culverts.
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Road Drainage Manual Culvert Design
9.11.1.8
Figure 9.11.1.7(a) Flow Area for Box
Culverts
Determination of flow area for pipes is a
little more difficult. The area can be
determined using a CADD package such as
AutoCAD or calculated using:
when y =D
2
R Area t =
or
( ) u u t sin
2
1
2 2
= R R Area
Where:
- R =internal radius of pipe (m); and
- u =angle in radians
Figure 9.11.1.7(b) provides guidance in
determining flow area for pipes.
9
Figure 9.11.1.7(b) Flow Area for Pipe
Culverts
Outlet Velocity Inlet
Control
The average outlet velocity for all culvert
types can be calculated using:
A
Q
V
o
=
Where:
- Q = design discharge per culvert
barrel / cell (m
3
/s); and
- A =cross sectional area of flow from
culvert barrel / cell (m
2
).
The cross-sectional area of flow (A)
depends on the flow depth at the outlet
which can be approximated by the normal
depth of open-channel flow in the barrel,
computed by Mannings equation for the
discharge flow, barrel size, roughness and
slope of culvert selected.
For Pipe Culverts
For a pipe culvert, the culvert will not be
flowing full at the outlet when under inlet
control, meaning only a part of the full
waterway area will be used. To determine
this Part Area, the designer needs to firstly
establish the relationship between Full
Flow (Q
f
) and Part Flow (Q
p
) for the
culvert trial where:
- Part Flow (Q
p
) is the design
discharge per cell; and
- Full Flow (Q
f
) capacity of the trial
culvert, and its velocity, can be
determined using the Figure 9A-11.
Now determine the ratio Q
p
/ Q
f
.
Using this ratio and Figure 9A-12,
determine the percentage factors for
velocity (V
o
), depth of flow (y), area of flow
(A) and hydraulic radius (R).
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Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 9
Road Drainage Manual Culvert Design
Figure 9A-12 is used as follows:
- Step 1 - Plot Q
p
/ Q
f
. ratio on x-axis.
- Step 2 - Draw a line up to Discharge
line.
- Step 3 - Draw a line left and right to
both edges (the left edge being the y-
axis).
- Step 4 Read off % Depth of Flow
from y-axis.
- Step 5 Drop lines to x-axis from
each intersect between horizontal line
drawn in Step 3 and the Velocity,
Area and Hydraulic Radius curves.
- Step 6 Read of % Values from x-
axis for each of these hydraulic
elements.
Now draw a table as shown in Figure
9.11.1.7(c) and enter values as follows:
- A is Q
f
- B is Q
p
- C is outlet velocity determined using
Figure 9A-11
9
- D is nominal diameter of pipe
- E is waterway area of pipe
- F is hydraulic radius of pipe when
flowing full
- G are the hydraulic element values
determined using Figure 9A-12.
The remaining spaces of table, including
the determination of V
o
, are calculated by
multiplying the Full values by relevant
Factor.
Figure 9.11.1.7(c) Full Flow / Part Flow
Table
For Box Culverts
As for a pipe culvert, a box culvert will not
be flowing full at the outlet when under
inlet control. To determine the normal flow
conditions, depth (y) and velocity (V
o
), use
Mannings Equation to develop a Modified
Stage-Discharge Curve for the culvert cell
(Refer Chapter 8).
Using the Modified Stage-Discharge Curve,
the flow depth (y) and outlet velocity (V
o
)
can be read directly.
9.11.1.9 Outlet Flow Energy
To complete the hydraulic calculations for a
trial culvert, the designer must determine
Froudes Number (F
r
) for the flow at the
outlet (refer Chapter 8). This is important
as the designer can check this against
Froudes Number for the channel flow and
determine if a hydraulic jump will occur.
Froudes Number can be determined using:
( )
3
gA
B
Q F
r
=
Where:
- B = ( ) y D y 2
refer Figure 9.11.1.9
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Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 9
Road Drainage Manual Culvert Design
Figure 9.11.1.9 Flow Width in Pipes
When a pipe or box culvert is flowing full,
technically there is no water surface and
therefore no B. In this situation, it is
considered suitable to calculate F
r
at the
moment just before the water surface
touches the obvert of the culvert and adopt
this F
r
value for the trial culvert. Therefore:
- For box culverts, use full waterway
area and B =nominal width of box
section; and
- For pipe culverts, use full waterway
area, but assume B as 10% of D (
99.7% of A).
9
9.11.1.10 Design Check
At this stage, the outlet velocity (V
o
) should
be checked against the maximum allowable
stream velocity (V
max
) for outlet channel.
Preferably, V
o
should be less than V
max
. If
V
o
exceeds V
max
then the designer must
include suitable outlet protection for the
culvert into the design (refer Sections 9.15
and 9.16). Where outlet protection is not
suitable (size / cost) then a larger / wider
culvert trial is required.
9.11.2 Practical Design
If a culvert trial is considered unacceptable,
the designer is required to redesign the
culvert by trialling another culvert size /
configuration. The choices the designer has
in determining a new trial culvert are:
- Add another barrel or cell if channel
width permits;
- Increase barrel or cell height if
vertical clearance permits;
- Alter culvert slope (Note: desirable
minimum is 0.25%).
- A combination of the above.
Where a designer decides to alter invert
levels, it is preferable to lower inlets and
leave outlets as close to natural surface as
possible. Drop inlets (and structures) are
better than hanging or buried outlets.
9.12 Minimum Energy Loss
Culverts
The early designs based on this principle
were known as minimum energy / constant
energy and no afflux culverts, although the
last title is no longer used. Bridge
waterways have also been designed as
minimum energy loss structures.
To minimise energy loss through a culvert
and the resulting afflux, the design requires
carefully shaped inlets and outlets (refer
Figure 9.12) and usually a dropped culvert
barrel such that critical flow passes through
the system in the design flood. In a
minority of these structures flow is not at
critical depth in the barrel in the design
flood.
Furthermore, due to the size, material
requirements and increased difficultly in
construction, minimum energy culverts are
generally very expensive options and the
benefits of these types of culverts is
arguable.
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Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 9
Road Drainage Manual Culvert Design
Figure 9.12 Minimum Energy Loss
Culvert on Gateway Motorway
Advantages promoted by others over
conventional structures are that:
- by constricting the natural flow to a
greater extent, the body or cell has a
minimum width, reducing
construction costs for this
component;
- the flow through the culvert is
streamlined and therefore, has
reduced turbulence which, in turn,
reduces the erosion potential of the
flow and minimises the need for
protection; and
- the minimisation of energy losses
results in little or no adverse effect on
upstream flood levels.
Problems have been observed in some
existing structures and some designers see
them as indications for caution in the future
design of minimum energy loss structures. 9
Stated reservations include:
- Critical flow is inherently unstable
and therefore, sensitive to small
changes in energy and depth of flow.
Discharges both higher and lower
than the design discharge have the
potential to give higher affluxes than
the design flood. The range of flows
for which streamlined flow may
occur in any structure is questioned;
- The cost of shaped inlets and outlets
will be more costly than those for
conventional culverts;
- An anti-ponding pipe may be
necessary to prevent ponding of
water after a flood;
- Sediment may be deposited after a
flood and may not be removed in
future flows with the possibility of
growth of vegetation requiring
removal i.e. Provision for
maintenance required; and
- The possibility of debris blocking the
culvert barrel is increased because of
the smaller cell.
The significance of some key points above
is that too much debris or siltation will
change the geometry such that streamlined
flow would not occur.
Minimum Energy Loss Culverts are no
longer used or recommended by the
department. If an existing minimum energy
loss structure requires extension or
alteration, then the design must be referred
to Director (Hydraulics), Hydraulics
Section, Engineering & Technology
Division.
9.13 Blockage of Culverts
The likelihood of blockage should be
considered for all culverts. Blockage can
occur through siltation or by debris (such as
vegetation).
Blockage reduces the waterway area of the
culvert and therefore adversely affects the
capacity / performance of the culvert. The
result of blockage is typically:
- an increase in upstream peak water
levels / flooding;
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Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 9
Road Drainage Manual Culvert Design
- an increased potential for water to
overtop the road; and
- an increased risk of failure to road
embankment / culvert.
Silt deposits and some debris can be
detected and removed via maintenance
processes outside of a rainfall event
therefore would not impede the any flows,
however this is highly dependant on the
efficiency of maintenance in the area.
Where debris blockage during an event is
considered likely (typical in catchments that
contain significant woody riparian
vegetation), larger culvert sizes may be
required, in accordance with the extent of
adverse impacts that could occur to the
roadway or to surrounding properties.
Where large or long branches and/or tree
trunks are a possibility, sloped extensions to
piers, as shown in Figure 9.13, can be used
to turn long objects into the culvert barrel.
Figure 9.13 - Flood Water Flowing into
Box Culverts
9
Designers must consider the potential for
and impacts of blockage for each catchment
/ culvert installation and where impacts are
considered unacceptable, design mitigating
treatments accordingly.
9.14 Consideration of
Large or Extreme
Events
Irrespective of the design ARI of a culvert,
consideration should be given to the
impacts of flood events which are larger
than the design event (refer Section 2.7). In
determining the appropriate degree of
consideration, issues such as the frequency
and consequence of overtopping should be
addressed.
9.15 Culvert Outlet
Protection
Outlet protection is required in situations
where:
- outlet velocity exceeds the scour
velocity of the bed or bank material;
- an unprotected channel bend exists
within a short distance of the culvert
outlet;
- the outlet channel and banks are
actively eroding; and
- if an erodible channel bank exists
less than 10 to 13 times the pipe
diameter downstream of the outlet,
and this bank is in-line with the
outlet jet (i.e. likely to be eroded by
the outlet jet) the bank should
adequately protected to control any
undesirable damage as a result of the
outlet jetting.
The most appropriate outlet protection is
determined by considering the hydraulic
performance of the outlet in the prevailing
stream environment.
At outlet structures, the best hydraulic
performance is obtained when the confining
sidewalls are parallel and the distribution of
flow across the channel is uniform.
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January 2013
9-43
9
Culverts, however, are generally narrower
than the natural waterway and a transition
section is required to return the flow to the
natural channel. When culvert outlet
velocities are high, additional measures at
the outlet may prove to be necessary for
energy dissipation. Section 9.16 below
provides additional information on more
specialised energy dissipators.
In all types of culvert outlets, protection of
the stream bed would normally be provided
by TMRs standard apron treatment, as
shown on Standard Drawings 1131, 1317
and 1318 (QDMR 2009b), for a minimum
distance of 1.5D downstream where D is
the diameter of a pipe or the height of a box
culvert..
To check whether standard inlet and outlet
structures with headwalls, wingwalls,
aprons and cut-off walls are adequate, the
outlet velocity for the culvert requires
examination with respect to:
- natural environment (soil and
vegetation cover);
- size of peak flow; and
- duration of large flows.
If outlet velocities exceed the acceptable
limits, it may be necessary to check for
potential bed scour problems.
Where the outlet flows have a Froude
Number (F
r
) less or equal to 1.7 and outlet
velocities less than 5.0 m/s, an extended
concrete apron or rock pad (commonly
used) protection is recommended.
The recommended minimum rock size (d
50
)
and length (L) of rock protection
downstream of culvert outlets may be
determined from Figure 9.15(a).
The minimum recommended width of the
rock pad is defined as:
- Immediately downstream of the
outlet: the width of the outlet apron;
- At the downstream end of the rock
pad: the above width plus 0.4 times
the length of the rock pad (L) as
shown in Figure 9.15(b).
When the width of the channel is less than
the recommended width of the rock
protection, then the rock protection shall
extend up the banks of the channel to a
height equal to the obvert of the outlet.
The recommended depth or thickness of the
rock pad is 1.5 2.0 times d
50
.
For Froude Number (F
r
) values greater than
1.7 and outlet velocities equal or greater
than 5.0 m/s, an alternative energy
dissipator structure should be considered as
discussed in Section 9.16.
Department of Transport and Main Roads Chapter 9
Road Drainage Manual Culvert Design
Seek specialist advice for alternative solution
C
u
l
v
e
r
t
O
u
t
l
e
t
V
e
l
o
c
i
t
y
(
m
/
s
)
Culvert Diameter or Cell Height (mm)
Figure 9.15(a) Minimum Rock Size and Length of Apron
9
Figure 9.15(b) Rock Apron Detail
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9.16 Special Energy
Dissipation Structures
at Culvert Outlet
When rock pad protection is not appropriate
due to high velocity and/or high energy
flows, non standard and more specialised
energy dissipators are required. These
options can be expensive to design and
construct and generally have a potential for
high maintenance costs (i.e. debris
collection). These devices can also be a
potential public and wildlife safety hazard.
Use of such energy dissipators should be
considered the exception, not the norm, and
should only be used when no other
reasonable options are available. The
design of these devices / structures should
be referred to Hydraulics Section,
Engineering & Technology Division or a
suitably prequalified consultant.
9.17 Self Cleaning
Culverts
If a self cleaning culvert is required,
designers are referred to Section 2.8 for
requirements / design parameters.
9.18 Inlet Structures
9
For culvert inlet structures, headwalls and
wingwalls of concrete or rock masonry are
usually needed to provide embankment
stability and protection against erosion.
Culverts with wingwalls should be designed
with an apron extending between the walls.
Aprons may be grouted rock pitching,
reinforced or unreinforced concrete or rock
mattresses. The actual configuration of the
wingwalls will vary according to the
direction of flow and so protection against
scour is maximised through inclusion of the
apron. Refer to Standard Drawings 1131,
1148, 1179, 1303, 1304, 1305 and 1306
(QDMR 2009b).
The use of a cutoff wall along and under the
edge of the inlet apron should also be
investigated / checked.
An important aspect that designers must
check for is the occurrence of a hydraulic
jump in the inlet of the culvert.
Supercritical flows in the existing channel,
at the site of a proposed culvert, will be
forced back to subcritical flow by the
presence of the culvert. This will force a
jump at the culvert entrance which can:
- cause erosion about the inlet if not
adequately protected; and/or
- affect the hydraulic design of the
culvert due to the turbulence.
If this is the case, it is recommended to
force the jump to occur some distance
upstream of the culvert (by placing a hump
across the stream bed) so that the energy
and turbulence can dissipate before arriving
at the culvert.
9.19 Managing Sediment
Sediment deposits within culverts,
especially multi-cell culverts, can cause
significant operational and maintenance
problems.
Occasionally sediment traps (basins) are
constructed upstream of culverts. In these
cases, an access ramp for maintenance must
be provided to allow de-silting of the trap.
In critical areas, or for long culverts where
maintenance is extremely difficult, a small
sediment trap / weir can be constructed at
the inlet to divert low flows to just one or
two culvert cells. This will allow the flow
to enter the remaining cells only during
high flows.
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These sediment weirs should be designed to
be fully drowned during major flood events
so that no adverse backwater effects occur.
9.20 Safety
9
9.20.2.1
9.20.2.2
9.20.2.3
9.20.1 Culverts Used As
Walkways and Bikeways
Provision for pedestrians and cyclists can
be made in sizing a waterway culvert.
However, in order to be effective, the
approach ramps must allow clear vision
through the culvert cell.
It should also be kept in mind that
pedestrians will often prefer to cross over a
road than under it for reasons of security.
9.20.2 Barriers to Flow
Trafficability
Considerations
Consideration needs to be given to the
desired trafficability of the road during
overtopping flood flows.
Raised median strips can result in traffic
movement only on one side of the road
during overtopping flows. In critical flood
control areas, it may be necessary to use a
painted median.
Raised kerbs or pedestrian pathways on the
downstream side of a road can cause
ponding to occur across the full width of
the road, thus reducing trafficability in both
directions during flood events.
Traffic Safety Barriers
Median traffic barriers such as the GM
Barrier can significantly interfere with the
passage of overtopping flood flows and the
migration of terrestrial wildlife across the
road.
If these barriers are likely to interfere with
flood waters or terrestrial movement, then
the road layout should be designed to avoid
the need for such barriers, subject to
satisfying safety requirements for road
users.
Noise Fencing
Noise control fencing must allow for the
free passage of overtopping flood flows in
most cases. Even where culverts have been
designed with a large capacity (e.g. 50 yr
ARI event) consideration of the impacts of
the fence on overtopping flow is also
required.
9.20.3 Additional Safety
Considerations
In the design and location of pipe
installations, designers must consider the
hazards / risks which may exist at particular
sites. Workplace Health and Safety
requirements should be considered in
culvert design, installation and subsequence
maintenance. Some of the issues which
should be addressed may include, but are
not restricted to:
- Excavation / Trenching Stage
- Geotechnical analysis and the need
for shoring;
- Placement of excavated material
close to trench walls;
- Location of underground services;
- Placement of materials;
- Proximity of machinery to
excavations;
- Crane capacity and reach;
- Proximity of machinery to overhead
powerlines and obstructions;
- Backfilling;
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January 2013
9-47
- Probability of wall collapse arising
from vibration or traffic movement;
- Amount of time excavation will be
open;
- Working within confined space; and
- Anticipated weather conditions.
The cost of control measures to be used to
ensure that the risks associated with the
above issues are minimised should be
included in the installation costs of the
drainage structure.
Also, where culvert inlets are located in
areas likely to be accessed by people
(particularly children), consideration must
be given to appropriately fence the inlet to
ensure someone is not swept into the
culvert during a flood event. An example
of this type of fencing is shown in Figure
9.20.3.
Figure 9.20.3 - Fencing Around Pipe Inlet
9
A serious problem with fencing a culvert
inlet is that the potential for blockage is
greatly increased and designers need to
check for and mitigate any possible adverse
affect due to the blockage.