Kestabilan Tambang Bawah Tanah

The Stability of
The Stability of
Underground
Underground
Ope
Ope
ning
ning
Lufi Rachmad
2
Review from Last Week
Insitu Stress (gravitational, tectonic, residual
stresses)
An underground opening changes the stress
condition Induced Stress
Induced Stress could triger unstability
Understanding stresses is an important part
in designing underground opening
3
Empirical equation to estimate insitu stresses
e.g. Shoerey
)
z
1
(0.001 E 7 0.25 k
h
+ + =
4

Stress distribution around various opening
Stress distribution around various opening
shapes (circle, horseshoe, square, ellipse)
shapes (circle, horseshoe, square, ellipse)

Underground opening design methodology
Underground opening design methodology
5
Case Study A
Case Study A
An orebody XYZ has been defined as a block
caving deposit. What we should design first?
Plan View Section A-A
A A
Orebody
XYZ
Orebody
XYZ
Surface
7 km
1
.
4

k
m
6
Case Study A
Case Study A
ACCESS
Orebody
XYZ
Surface
shaft
decline
adit
7
Case Study A
Case Study A
The access for the orebody are decided to be
twin adits, 6.8 m wide and 6.0 m high.
The opening size considers the following
factors:
Biggest dimension
Effective size after
ground support
Drainage pipe &
trench
Intake airways
8
Case Study A
Case Study A
For the design purpose, how far apart should
these two adits be?
Access
Adits
(A-A)
Surface
?
Orebody
XYZ
Access Adits Plan View
A A
The farther
the more
ineffective
9
Case Study A
Case Study A
Assuming the simplest condition, the
axisymmetric stress distribution could be used.
0.00
0.50
1.00
1.50
2.00
0 2 4 6 8 10
Jarak dari batas terowongan, r/R
T
e
g
a
n
g
a
n

I
n
d
u
k
s
i
/
T
e
g
a
n
g
a
n

A
w
a
l
Tegangan radial
Tegangan tangensial
r = 5R, the pre-mining
stress would not be
significantly different
from the virgin stress
field.
r = 17 meter as an
early indication.
Might be further
analyzed using pillar
stability calc and
numerical modeling
10
Insitu Stress
Insitu Stress
For a depth of 1,400 m, the equation
gives the vertical stress v = 38 MPa , the
ratio k = 0.5 (for Eh = 25 GPa) and hence
the average horizontal stress h= 19 MPa
During preliminary design, the empirical
stress equation can be used to obtain a first
rough estimate of the vertical and average
horizontal stress in the vicinity of the tunnel
11
Stress Distribution around
Stress Distribution around
Horse
Horse
-
-
Shoe
Shoe
Tunnel
Tunnel

h h
=
=
v v

A A
= 2.2 = 2.2
v v

B B
= 1.3 = 1.3
v v

h h
= 0.5
= 0.5
v v

A A
= 0.6 = 0.6
v v

B B
= 1.8 = 1.8
v v

h h
= 0.33
= 0.33
v v

A A
= 0.1 = 0.1
v v

B B
= 1.9 = 1.9
v v
A
B B
h
12
Insitu Stress
Insitu Stress
Given the rock mass strength is around 70-
80 MPa, a preliminary analysis of the
stresses induced around the proposed
tunnel shows that these induced stresses
are likely to exceed the strength of the rock
and that the question of stress
measurement must be considered in more
detail
13
Insitu Stress Measurement
Insitu Stress Measurement
Various ways to measure insitu stress
Overcoring - Triaxial Strain Cell
Hydraulic Fracturing
Flatjack Measurement
Borehole Breakout
Acoustic Emission
The most common set of procedures is
based on the determination of strains in
the wall of a borehole, induced by
overcoring that part of the hole containing
the measurement device.
14
Overcoring
Overcoring
(CSIRO Cell)
(CSIRO Cell)

The CSIRO cell, referred to as a hollow inclusion
The CSIRO cell, referred to as a hollow inclusion
cell. It consists of a thin epoxy tube, with three
cell. It consists of a thin epoxy tube, with three
strain gage rosettes, embedded within the
strain gage rosettes, embedded within the
epoxy.
epoxy.
Strain
Gages
Epoxy
15

Overcoring methods are measuring in situ stress
Overcoring methods are measuring in situ stress
based on the stress relief around the borehole.
based on the stress relief around the borehole.
The relief of external forces by overcoring
The relief of external forces by overcoring
causes the changes in strain on the borehole
causes the changes in strain on the borehole
wall.
wall.
Overcoring
Overcoring
(CSIRO Cell)
(CSIRO Cell)

The field procedures consist of drilling a
The field procedures consist of drilling a
concentric EX
concentric EX
-
-
size borehole, installation of the
size borehole, installation of the
deformation gage, and overcoring a stress relief
deformation gage, and overcoring a stress relief
borehole.
borehole.

If the elastic properties of the rock are known,
If the elastic properties of the rock are known,
the changes in borehole diameter or strains can
the changes in borehole diameter or strains can
be converted to in situ stress in the rock.
be converted to in situ stress in the rock.
16

The CSIRO cell is designed to measure diametral
The CSIRO cell is designed to measure diametral
deformations of an EX
deformations of an EX
-
-
size (1.5" in diameter)
size (1.5" in diameter)
borehole during overcoring a concentric
borehole during overcoring a concentric
borehole (6" in diameter). The diametral
borehole (6" in diameter). The diametral
deformations are measured in three directions
deformations are measured in three directions
(60 degree apart) in the same diametral plane.
(60 degree apart) in the same diametral plane.
17
Overcoring
Overcoring
(CSIRO Cell)
(CSIRO Cell)

Need
Need
Young
Young
s
s
modulus and Poisson
modulus and Poisson
s inputs
s inputs

Limited
Limited
to within
to within
10
10
-
-
30
30
meters of existing
meters of existing
opening
opening

Overcoring Cost
Overcoring Cost
CSIRO Cells (2 sites)

CSIRO Cells (2 sites)

NIRM US$ 61K
NIRM US$ 61K

ES&S US$ 44K approx. 20K per site
ES&S US$ 44K approx. 20K per site

Price does not include drilling which will be
Price does not include drilling which will be
around US$ 120K / m
around US$ 120K / m
18

Typically hydraulic fracturing is conducted in
Typically hydraulic fracturing is conducted in
vertical boreholes. A short segment of the hole
vertical boreholes. A short segment of the hole
is sealed off using an straddle packer. This is
is sealed off using an straddle packer. This is
followed by the pressurization of the fracture
followed by the pressurization of the fracture
-
-
free segment of the hole by pumping in water.
free segment of the hole by pumping in water.
19
The pressure is raised until

The pressure is raised until
the rock surrounding the
the rock surrounding the
hole fails in tension at a
hole fails in tension at a
critical pressure.
critical pressure.
Following breakdown, the

Following breakdown, the
shut
shut
-
-
in pressure, the
in pressure, the
lowest test
lowest test
-
-
interval
interval
pressure at which the
pressure at which the
hydrofrac closes
hydrofrac closes
completely under the
completely under the
action of the stress acting
action of the stress acting
normal to the
normal to the
hydrofracture
hydrofracture
20

Limited to drill/pump equipment and ground
Limited to drill/pump equipment and ground
conditions
conditions
Max range 300m

Max range 300m
1000m
1000m

Qualitative
Qualitative

Assumptions
Assumptions

S1 Maximum Principle Stress is Vertical or
S1 Maximum Principle Stress is Vertical or
aligned with
aligned with
hole
hole

Hydofracing
Hydofracing

NIRM
NIRM
US$ 87K
US$ 87K

Golder US$ 188K
Golder US$ 188K
21
Borehole Breakout
Borehole Breakout

Extensive field evidence and laboratory
Extensive field evidence and laboratory
experiments suggest that borehole breakouts,
experiments suggest that borehole breakouts,
defined as borehole cross
defined as borehole cross
-
-
section elongations
section elongations
resulting from preferential rock failure, is a
resulting from preferential rock failure, is a
direct consequence of the in situ stress in the
direct consequence of the in situ stress in the
rock.
rock.
22
Borehole Breakout
Borehole Breakout

One of the early observations of breakouts was
One of the early observations of breakouts was
in the quartzite and conglomerates of the
in the quartzite and conglomerates of the
Witwatersrand gold mine in South Africa
Witwatersrand gold mine in South Africa
(Leeman, 1964). The spalling was observed to
(Leeman, 1964). The spalling was observed to
occur at diametrically opposed points on the
occur at diametrically opposed points on the
borehole wall perpendicular to the direction of
borehole wall perpendicular to the direction of
the maximum principal stress.
the maximum principal stress.
23
Borehole Breakout
Borehole Breakout

The most publicized
The most publicized
observation of breakouts
observation of breakouts
was in the 3 m diameter
was in the 3 m diameter
drift at 420 m level in the
drift at 420 m level in the
Underground Research
Underground Research
Laboratory (URL), Canada.
Laboratory (URL), Canada.
Two diametrically opposed
Two diametrically opposed
breakouts were
breakouts were
approximately aligned with
approximately aligned with
the vertical stress, which is
the vertical stress, which is
the overall least principal
the overall least principal
stress at URL.
stress at URL.
24
Case Study A
Case Study A
From insitu stress measurement, the bearing
of the major principal stress is around 38-40
degree. What is the preferable panel/undercut
drift orientation?
Plan View
Orebody
XYZ
Plan View
Orebody
XYZ
Panel/ Drill Drift
1

1
25
Case Study A
Case Study A
Ideally, the panel/undercut drift and the
direction of cave advance are aligned with the
principal horizontal in situ stresses.
If the direction of advance
is perpendicular, the levels
of stress in the abutment
ahead of the undercut will
be high and will increase
as the undercut advances
Undercut
Advance
Direction
Plan View
Orebody
XYZ
1
26
Stress Induced in the
Extraction and Undercut Level
High abutment stresses induced in the
vicinity of an advancing undercut front is
resulted from undercutting activity.
Abutment
stress
Cave Advance
27
The magnitude of abutment stresses in the
cave vicinity could reach up 2 to 3 times
the insitu stress magnitude.
This abutment stress could devastate
development drifts if does not maintain
properly
For XYZ Mine, the vertical stress v = 38
Mpa. The abutment stress = 76 - 114
MPa
28
Failure of yielding arch support
Failure of yielding arch support
El Salvador Mine, Chile
El Salvador Mine, Chile
Photo: M. L. Van Sint J an
29
Rockburst at Extraction Level,
Rockburst at Extraction Level,
DOZ Mine, Indonesia
DOZ Mine, Indonesia
30
Collapse of an extraction level drift,
Collapse of an extraction level drift,
El Teniente Mine, Chile, 1989
El Teniente Mine, Chile, 1989
CONCRETE
DAMAGE
CONCRETE
DAMAGE
1.5 m
31
Panel 15, 28 June 2003
Panel 15, 23 August 2003 Panel 15, 7 August 2003
32
Several factors have the potential to
influence the levels of stress induced in the
extraction level excavation:
Distance between Undercut and Extraction
Cave Hydraulic Radius
Undercut direction
In situ Stress regime
The timing of undercut relative to the
extraction level development
Undercut face shape
33
Case Study A
Case Study A
extraction level development relates to the
selected undercutting method.
In general, there are three main undercutting
strategies:
1.Post Undercutting
2.Pre Undercutting
3.Advanced Undercutting
For XYZ BC Mine, an undercutting method
should be selected.
34
Terminology
Terminology
Drill Drift - Undercut
Fan Drilling
Draw Bell Drift
Draw Bell
Major Apex
Panel Drift -
Extraction
Minor Apex
Draw Point
Orepass
35
Conventional
Conventional
Panel
Panel
Caving
Caving
Undercutting and drilling takes place after
development of the underlying extraction
level has been completed.
Drawbells and DB drifts are prepared ahead
of the undercut and are ready to receive the
ore blasted from the undercut level
36
Advance
Advance
Undercut
Undercut
Panel
Panel
Caving
Caving
Undercutting and drilling takes place above a
partially developed extraction level.
The partial development on the extraction level
can consist of either extraction drift only or
extraction drift and drawpoint drift
37
Advance
Advance
Undercut
Undercut
Panel
Panel
Caving
Caving
Drawbells are always prepared in the de-
stressed zone behind the undercut,
usually adhering to the 45 degree rule.
38
Comparing Abutment Stress Impact
Measuring abutment stress changes could
be done indirectly by monitoring its impact.
The stress impact reflects in displacement /
deformation occurred in the underground
opening.
There are many different methods for
monitoring displacement. The simplest and
most common among them is a
convergence gage
39
A convergence gage usually consists of a
tape, wire, rod, or tub in series with a
deformation indicator.
Precision is typically around 0.005 in (0.13
mm)
40
3
3
-
-
Point Convergence
Point Convergence
41
Case Study A
Case Study A
Near XYZ BC Mine, there is an active BC mine,
called KLM Mine, where the trial between Post
Undercut and Advanced Undercut will take
place.
Plan View
Orebody
XYZ
KLM
Mine
4 km
42
Undercut Trial at KLM Mine
Panel 15
Post
Undercut
Panel 16
Advanced
Undercut
43
Cave
UC
Lvl
Extr
Lvl
Cave Advance
Convergence
Station
Last
Blasting
Row
Abutment
18 m
44
Result of KLM Mine Trial
Advanced Undercut vs Post Undercut
Stable after
Cave Front
Passing
Post Undercut
Anomaly
Cave Advance
45
Anomaly
Cave Advance
Stable after
Cave Front
Passing
46
Anomaly
Anomaly
The anomaly from KLM Mine Trial could be
explained as the result of remnant undercut
pillar or stump.
Stump is created when the undercut
blasting fails to break the rock completely.
Cave
Cave
Advance
Last Blasting Row
Remnant
Pillar
Abutment Stress
47
Examples
Examples
of
of
Remnant
Remnant
Pillars / Stump
Pillars / Stump
48
Case Study A
Case Study A
The KLM Mine trial shows that the
advanced undercut has the advantage to
reduce the stress induced impact to
undercut and extraction level.
Considering the KLM Mine trial result, XYZ
BC Mine will implement the advanced
undercutting method.
A note has been made that XYZ BC should
establish undercut blasting control such
that a remnant pillar will be avoided.
49
Several factors have the potential to
influence the levels of stress induced in the
extraction level excavation:
Distance between Undercut and Extraction
Cave Hydraulic Radius
Undercut direction
In situ Stress regime
extraction level development
Undercut face shape
50
Case Study A
Case Study A
The undercut face shape is controlled by the
undercut opening sequence and the lead and
lag among drill drift cave front
Irregularities of cave front could create
unfavorable conditions in term of stress
concentration in the production level
51
Undercutting Sequence
52
Lead and Lag
Lead and Lag
Lead and Lag: the
distance between the
caving front on adjacent
panels
Cave
Front
Lead
and
Lag
53
Since trial with different undercut sequence is
quite impossible, a numerical modeling will be
used to evaluate the most preferable sequence
for XYZ BC Mine.
54
When comparing the results of the undercut
sequence models, the main useful criteria to
examine have proven to be:
1.Peak stress levels (in the stronger ground)
induced on the production level elevation.
2. Average and maximum values of strain
(as a measure of the severity of damage
and deformation) induced on the production
level elevation.
55
3. Areas of damage on the production level
elevation, measured in terms of areas where
shear strains exceed a set limit of 2 x 10-3 (2
millistrains). This value was chosen because it
includes damage in the stronger ground and
not just the weaker ground areas, which are
known to become extensively damaged,
whatever undercut sequence is chosen.
56
Undercut Opening Sequence
From modeling result, a wedge type sequence
appears preferable. Mining in weak ground
should be over a short front, and bordered by
panels that are mining in stronger ground, which
bears load and limits rock mass deformation in
the weak ground area.
57
The undercut wedge apex should advance into
the weaker ground, close to the boundary with
stronger ground, with the apex angle broad
rather than narrow.
58
Lead and Lag
Lead and Lag

To evaluate the lead
To evaluate the lead
and lag, convergence
and lag, convergence
information from
information from
KLM mine is used.
KLM mine is used.
Cave
Front
Displacement
(mm/ day)

Convergence data is
Convergence data is
presented in velocity
presented in velocity
(mm/day) contour
(mm/day) contour

Displc. = Lt
Displc. = Lt
-
-
L0
L0
Increasing of horizontal and vertical
velocity due to lead and lag (60 meter)
No Advanced
horizontal
vertical
070501 140501
0.0
mm/day
070501 140501
-1.3
mm/day
-0.2
mm/day
-1.12
mm/day
Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity
after reducing lead and lag distance (54 meter)
horizontal vertical
140501 290501
-1.3
mm/day
140501 290501
-0.74
mm/day
-1.12
mm/day
-0.1
mm/day
Advance 6 m
horizontal vertical
290501 120601
-0.74
mm/day
290501 120601
-0.5
mm/day
-0.1
mm/day
0.3
mm/day
Advance 9 m
Increasing of horizontal velocity due to no
advanced of lead and lag distance (45 meter)
horizontal vertical
120601 260601
-0.5
mm/day
120601 260601
-0.65
mm/day
0.3
mm/day
-0.2
mm/day
No Advance
after reducing lead and lag distance
(30 meter)
horizontal vertical
260601 130701
-0.65
mm/day
260601 130701
-0.4
mm/day
-0.2
mm/day
0.0
mm/day
Advance 15 m
Increasing of horizontal velocity due to no advanced
of lead and lag distance (30 meter)
horizontal vertical
130701 070801
-0.4
mm/day
130701 070801
-0.8
mm/day
0.0
mm/day
-0.1
mm/day
No Advance
horizontal vertical
070801 230801
-0.8
mm/day
070801 230801
-0.1
mm/day
-0.1
mm/day
0.0
mm/day
Advance 5 m
Increasing of horizontal and vertical velocity due to
no advanced of lead and lag distance (25 meter)
horizontal vertical
230801 150901
-0.1
mm/day
230801 150901
-0.75
mm/day
0.0
mm/day
-0.4
mm/day
No Advance
Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity after
reduce lead and lag distance (8 meter)
horizontal vertical
150901 260901
-0.75
mm/day
150901 260901
-0.4
mm/day
-0.4
mm/day
0.1
mm/day
Advance 17 m
Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity in the
same of lead and lag distance (8 meter)
horizontal vertical
260901 091001
-0.4
mm/day
260901 091001
-0.1
mm/day
0.1
mm/day
0.0
mm/day
No Advance
Decreasing of horizontal and vertical velocity below 8
meter of lead and lag distance (5 meter)
horizontal vertical
091001 261001
-0.1
mm/day
091001 261001
0.0
mm/day
0.0
mm/day
0.0
mm/day
Advance 3 m
Constant stable of horizontal and vertical velocity
below 8 meter of lead and lag distance (5 meter)
horizontal vertical
261001 071101
0.0
mm/day
261001 071101
0.0
mm/day
0.0
mm/day
0.0
mm/day
No Advance
71
Lead & Lag Issue
Lead & Lag Issue
Reading
Date
Lead
and Lag
Distance (m)
Cave
Advanced (m)
Horizontal
Displacement
Velocity (mm/day)
Vertical
Displacement
Velocity (mm/day)
07-May-01 Cave not
started
0 0.0 0.2
14-May-01 60 0 1.3 () 1.12 ()
29-May-01 54 6 0.74 () 0.1 ()
12-Jun-01 45 9 0.5 () -0.3 ()
26-Jun-01 45 0 0.65 () 0.2 ()
13-Jul-01 30 15 0.4 () 0.0 ()
07-Aug-01 30 0 0.8 () 0.1 ()
23-Aug-01 25 5 0.1 () 0.0 ()
15-Sept-01 25 0 0.75 () 0.4 ()
26-Sept-01 8 17 0.4 () -0.1 ()
09-Oct-01 8 0 0.1 () 0.0 ()
29-Oct-01 5 3 0.0 () 0.0
72
Lead & Lag Issue
Lead & Lag Issue

From the convergence measurement,
From the convergence measurement,
the ideal
the ideal
lead and lag is between 5 to 8 meters
lead and lag is between 5 to 8 meters
, cave
, cave
front can be stopped without any significant
front can be stopped without any significant
displacement
displacement

If the lead and lag is over the 12 m, the cave
If the lead and lag is over the 12 m, the cave
face cannot be stopped for more than one week
face cannot be stopped for more than one week
because excessive damage will occur in the
because excessive damage will occur in the
panels
panels
73
Case Study A
Case Study A
XYZ Mine
Plan View
Access
Adits
Undercut
Sequence and
Direction
Extraction Drift
Orientation

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The Stability of

CSIRO Cells (2 sites)

The pressure is raised until

Following breakdown, the

Max range 300m

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