Wireless communication interview

1. What is CDMA2000?
CDMA2000 is a Multi-carrier code-division multiple access version of IMT-2000 standard
CDMA2000 is a 3G wireless technolog!
"orld#s first 3G commercial sstem was launched $ %& Telecom of %outh &orea using
CDMA2000 '(
CDMA 2000 supports mo$ile data communications at speeds from '))&*+% to 3M*+%
The versions of CDMA2000 have $een developed $ ,ualcomm and -ricsson
There were 2.0/300/000 su$scri$es world for CDMA $ March 2000!
What is CDMA? Explain the technology.
CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access
CDMA is a wireless technolog used in transmission of signal from places with high %ecurit and
noise reduction!
The principle of %pread %pectrum is used to wor1 with CDMA!
%pread signal is $elow the noise level noise and has no effect on the signal!
CDMA does not fre2uenc specific to each user! Instead/ ever channel uses the full availa$le
spectrum!
Individual conversations are encoded with a pseudo-random digital se2uence!
CDMA alwas provides $etter capacit for voice and data communications
CDMA is a common platform for 3G technologies
Analog radio transmission technologies li1e Advanced Mo$ile +hone %stem were used in
CDMA at the time of its inception
A uni2ue code is received $ all mo$ile networ1 users and is allowed continuous networ1 access
instead of intermittent and timed access!
Explain a.) CDMA One b.) CDMA2000
CDMA One
CDMA one refers original IT3 I%-4. CDMA wireless interface protocol! It is considered as a 2G
mo$ile wireless technolog
The version I%-4.A protocol emplos a '!2. Mh5 carrier and data speeds up to ')!) &$ps
The version I%-4.* support data speeds up to ''. 1$ps $ emploing 600 M75 8 '!4 G75!
CDMA2000
Also 1nown as IMT Multi-Carrier/ a famil of 3G mo$ile technolog standards!
3sed for sending voice/ data and signaling $etween cell sites and mo$ile pones
The standards such as CDMA2000 '(/ CDMA2000 -9-D: ;ev! 0/ are approved radio interfaces
for IT3 IMT-2000
CDMA 2000 is $ac1ward compati$le with its previous 2G iteration I%-4.!
2. Explain EDGE.
-DG- is an acronm for -nhanced Data G%M -nvironment
An improved wireless technolog over G%M
A 2nd generation cell phone technolog
-DG- is used for wireless data transfer via mo$ile phone connection
Data transfer rates up to ) times more than G%M networ1s
"ith the advent of *lac1$err and i+hone/ faster data transfer is sought
3sing more sophisticated coding/ usuall without high end hardware/ wireless carrier#s $ase
stations are supported for data transfer speeds up to 36) &*+%
-DG- is an alternative to replacing wireless technolog/ such as G+;%
-DG- will eventuall $e replaced $ 3G technolog such as "CDMA!
3. Explain DECT.
D-CT is one of the wireless technologies/ originated in -urope
D-CT was designed to interwor1 with various networ1s such as +%T</ I%D</ G%M etc!
The initial standard! of D-CT focused on developing air interface which is a radio lin1 $etween
cordless telephone and the $ase stations
This standard plugged into the telephone soc1et and the standard protocols for handover $etween
several $ase stations
All these are connected to the same office switch$oard/ tpicall a +A*(
The first product of its 1ind was from :livetti/ was a wireless =A< tpe product/ 1nown as
<-T3!!
4. Explain High pee! "ac#et Access.
7%+A is a com$ination of 2 mo$ile telephon protocols > 7igh %peed Downlin1 +ac1et Access
and 7igh %peed 3plin1 +ac1et Access
7%+A improves the performance of e?isting "CDMA protocols!
7%+A provide increased performance $ utili5ing schemes of modulation and refining the
protocols/ through which the $ase stations and handsets communicate
7%+A is used for $etter usage of the availa$le $andwidth provided $ "CDMA
7%+A supports data rates of up to ') M*it 8 s in the downlin1
7%+A supports data rates of up to .!6 M*it 8 s in the uplin1
7%+A reduces the latenc and increases up to . times more sstem capacit during downlin1 and
twice more sstem capacit during uplin1
7%+A uses '0,AM for ielding higher $it rates
7%+A rollouts are achieved $ implementing software upgrades to e?isting 3G networ1s! This
gives 7%+A a head start over "iMa?!
5. Explain E$%DO& E$DO.
-9D: stands for -volution Data :ptimi5ed
-9D: is a 3G $road$and technolog used $ 9eri5on/ %pring/ Alltel
It provides tpical download speeds of 000 to ')00 &*+%
A personal $road$and service for wide range of customers
It is alwas :n
-9D: utili5es CDMA signals
3sers can $e connected remotel for using email/ downloading large files/ spreadsheets etc!
-9D: is relativel low cost with high capacit
Allows rich we$ $rowsing and application usage
%eamless roaming/ internal internet connectivit without reling on other#s connection/
accessi$ilit to the corporate 9irtual +rivate <etwor1 $ customers are some of the advantages
over "i@i !
6. What is the !i''e(ence bet)een CDMA an! GM?
The important differences areA
Data Transfer !ee"#
CDMA is faster than G%M!
CDMA2000 downstream rate is 2 mega$its 8 second/ through -9D:/ where G%M downstream
rate is up to 36) 1ilo$its 8 second/ through -DG- technolog
u$scri$er %"entit& Mo"ule '%M( car"s#
%IM is tied to the networ1/ rather than the actual phone! +hones with card-ena$led can $e used
with an carrier of G%M
+roprietar handsets are lin1ed to one carrier onl and not card-ena$led in CDMA
)oamin*#
G%M carriers have wider coverage of more rural areas/ where as CDMA ma not cover rural
areas compared to G%M carriers
%nternational )oamin*#
G%M has facilit to offer more international roaming/ as the num$er of connections in world
mar1et dominate G%M networ1!
CDMA phones do not have the capacitB however/ there are more countries that use CDMA
networ1s!
+. What is the i*po(tance o' CDMA in to!ay+s cell,la( )o(l!?
The transition to digital radio through the process of defining standards is implementing a$out
40C in the cellular industr!
%mooth transition to digital standards is involved in CDMA technolog!
Most often/ it can $e viewed as improved and replacement technolog of TDMA
Moving towards )G technolog is compati$le with CDMA technolog !
,. Di''e(entiate bet)een- a.) CDMA an! .DMA b.) CDMA an! TDMA
a.( CDMA an" -DMA
CDMA
%ame fre2uenc is used $ ever user and simultaneous transmission occurs
-ver narrow$and signal is multiplied $ wide$and spreading signal/ usuall 1nown as codeword
-ver user has a separate pseudo-codeword/ i!e!/ orthogonal to others
:nl the desired codeword is detected $ the receivers and others appear as noise
It is mandator for the receivers to 1now a$out the transmitter#s codeword
-DMA
"hen the channel is not in use/ it sits simpl idle
*andwidth of Channel is relativel narrow D30 &75E/ 1nown as narrow$and sstem
=ittle or no e2uali5ation is needed for spreading sm$ol time
Analog lin1s are suita$le for @DMA
@raming or snchroni5ation $its are not needed for continuous transmission
Tight filtering is needed to minimi5e interference
Com$ined with @DD for duple?ing
$.( CDMA an" TDMA
CDMA
+ower limited sstem
"hile people tal1ing/ random noise $and plaing occurs
Conversation need to $e e?tracted from the $ac1ground din
G+ is high when people spea1 different languages/ which is easier to distinguish individual spea1ers
It is difficult for distinguishing individuals/ when G+ is low!
The sstem performance will $e degraded for ever user when the num$er of users increases!
@ading would $e reduced with wide fre2uenc spectrum
<eed to have separate multipath signals with different delas $ FchipG unit!
TDMA
;eceiving or transmission is allowed for onl one user in a given slot
All slots are assigned cclicall
The transmission is non-continuous
It is essential to use digital data and modulation
Data rate overhead is $etween 20C > 30C
:verhead tradeoffs are si5e of data paload and latenc
Multiple users are shared with single carrier fre2uenc
7andoff is made simpler $ using non-continuous transmission
All slots are assigned on demand
Due to reduced inter user interference/ the power control is less stringent
/. What is the !i''e(ence bet)een CDMA an! G"0? Which o' the* is bette(? Why?
The DifferencesA
CDMA is one of the tpes of mo$ile connections for ma1ing calls where as G+;% is a technolog
for internet connections through a mo$ile phone!
G+;% ena$les to surf the internet from a mo$ile phone! G+;% technolog is used in other
gadgets apart from mo$ile phones!
"-CDMA technolog is faster than G+;%/ since the user cares a$out the technolog that is
applied for air interface!
Average latenc on G+;% is around '!3 seconds/ where as on CDMA is around )00 milli second
G+;% supports onl 3ser Datagram +rotocol/ where as CDMA supports $oth 3D+ and TC+
G+;% relies on <etwor1 Address Translation and a private I+ address is assigned to it! :n the
other hand CDMA assigns a pu$lic I+ address CDMA is $etter $ecauseA
--mail is prett light/ until ou enter M%-:ffice!
+oc1et +C#s support for office documents with similar functionalit which can $e had on +alm
:% and %m$ian
3pon availa$ilit of A+Is/ a software developer could write various applications/ li1e voice
transfer/ data transfer to client#s account/ integrating $illing amount etc!
"e$ services could $e utili5ed!
10. Explain 'ollo)ing 'o()a(! lin# channels in CDMA syste*- a.) "ilot Channel b.) ync.
Channel
.ilot C/annel
A forward lin1 channel which is a $ase to mo$ile that modulates onl $ the pilot +<! It spreads common
codes to all signals transmitted from a given $ase station!
%everal critical important functions are provided $ the pilot channel for forward lin1s in I%-4. sstems
The pilot channel modulation facilitates the process of time snchroni5ed replica generation at the
receiver of the +< spreading se2uences! These are utili5ed at the transmitter for modulating the
snchroni5ation/ paging and traffic channels! These are transmitted from the same $ase station!
&nc. C/annel
A $ase station transmits a %nc-Channel that spreads with "alsh code 32!
The frame of snch channel is 6083ms long with frame $oundar is aligned to the pilot!
%nc channel transmits a single message continuall/ called %nc Channel Message!
The %nc Channel Message contains networ1 information/ including the +< offset that is used $ the
*ase %tation sector!
The length and content of the message is dependent on the +H;-9!
The message transmission rate is 32 $its 8 frame!
The message is encoded to '26 sm$ols
The message ielding rate is '200 $its 8 s!
11. Explain the 'ollo)ing t)o types o' han! o'' in CDMA syste*- a.) o't han!o'' b.) o'te( han!o''
a.( oft /an"off
%oft handoff is a feature in which a cellular phone is simultaneousl connected to two or more
cellular phones during a single call
It is he overlapping of repeater coverage ones/ which ena$les ever cell phone set is alwas well
within the range of a specific repeater!
More than one repeater can send and receive signals to transmit signals to and from mo$iles!
All repeaters are used with the same fre2uenc channel for each mo$ile phone set!
+racticall no dead 5ones and as result/ the connections seldom interrupted or dropped!
$.( ofter /an"off
%ofter handover is a significant soft handover in which the added and removed lin1s $elong to the
same node
Macro diversit with ma?imum ratio com$ining could $e performed in the same node
The movement of handoff/ when a user can $e served in another cell more efficientl Dless power
emission/ less interferenceE/ is the most o$vious cause for $etter performance!
12. Explain G"0
%hort form of General +ac1et ;adio %stem
G+;% is the ne?t generation of G%M/ and the $asis of the 3G networ1s
A pac1et oriented data service availa$le to users of G%M and I%-'30 tpe mo$ile phones
It complements the e?isting services li1e circuit-switched cellular phone connections and the
%M%
%hortest set-up time is added for I%+ connections
An optimi5ed mo$ile service for sending and receiving information across a mo$ile telephone
networ1/ with less cost
G+;% provides data rates of mo$ile telephon and moderate speed data transfer/ using unused
TDMA channels
G+;% does not need dial-up modem connection
%ending and receiving e-mails/ surfing internet are among the features of G+;%
13. What signals a(e t(ans'e((e! in G"0?
G+;% uses 2!. generation of G%M signals
The radio interface is the same that of G%M
G+;% uses 400 8 '600 Mh5/ fre2uenc $and and GM%& modulation
The $it rates are -G+;%/ similar to -DG-
%eparate hardware and ports need to $e added and availed!
14. Explain the !i''e(ent co!ing sche*es ,se! in G"0 an! thei( i*po(tance.
Multi!le Access Co"in* c/eme#
Multiple access scheme is used in G+;% $ased on the @DD and TDMA
:ne pair of up-lin1 and down-lin1 fre2uenc channels are assigned to a user during a session
The Multiple Access Coding %cheme is com$ined with statistical multiple?ing Ipac1et mode
communicationJ/ that allows several uses to share the same fre2uenc channel
Downlin1 uses first-come first-served pac1et scheduling and uplin1 uses a scheme that is similar
to reservation A=:7A!
%lotted A=:7A is utili5ed for reservation in2uiries in a contention phase/ followed $
transferring data $ utili5ing dnamic TDMA with first-come/ first-served scheduling
C/annel 0nco"in* c/eme
Channel -ncoding %cheme is $ased on a convolution code at various code rates and GM%&
modulation
The ta$le $elow summari5es the optionsA
Coding %cheme %peed
C%-' 6!0
C%-2 '2!0
C%-3 ')!)
C%-) 20!0
The least ro$ust and fasted coding scheme is C%-) and is availa$le near a *ase Transceiver
%tation
The most ro$ust coding scheme is C%-' and is used in case of mo$ile station is further awa from
a *T%
A speed of 20!0 &$it8s8time slots can $e achieved with C%-) and has 2.C normal cell coverage
A speed of 6!0 &$it8s8time slots can $e achieved with C%-' and has 46C of normal coverage
Multislot Class
%peed of data transfer availa$le in the 3plin1 and Downlin1 directions is determined $ Multislot
Class
The speed varies $etween ' and ). for allocating $ the networ1 to allocate radio channels in the
uplin1 and downlin1 channels
The representation of multi slot class is .K2/ for e?ample/ where the first num$er is the num$er of
down lin1 time slots and the second num$er is the num$er of up lin1 time slots that are allocated
to use $ a mo$ile station
15. What g(oss !ata (ate !oes G"0 p(o2i!e?
G+;% provide gross data rate of 22!60 &*+% 8 time slot
9oice uses onl '3&*+%8 time slot and the rest is consumed $ -rror Correction Code
-rror connection code is utili5ed for detecting and correcting the transmission errors
As voice is compressed/ the usage of -rror connection code is mandator
16. Ho) !oes G"0 a(chitect,(e !i''e( '(o* GM?
The following ta$le depicts the architectural differences $etween G+;% and G%M
Mo$ile %tation
<ew mo$ile station is needed for accessing G+;% services! The are $ac1ward
compati$le with G%M for voice calls
*ase Transceiver
%tation
%oftware upgrade is needed in the e?isting *T%
*ase %tation
Controller
%oftware upgrade and new hardware/ +ac1et Control 3nit are needed for G+;%!
G+;% %upport
<odes
Installation of new core networ1 elements/ 1nown as serving G+;% support node/ and
gatewa G+;% support node are needed to deplo G+;%
Data$ases
;e2uires software upgrade to handle new models and functions to handle data$ases
involved in the networ1
1+. Di''e(entiate bet)een GM an! G"0.
The differences $etween G%M and G+;% are depicted in the following ta$le
1M 1.)
3ses one among L slots 3ses as man as )K' time slots
Connecting resources to each unit from remote location
to the $ac1 office is done through a direct dial up
Does not claim an resources until some data is
sent! The information is divided into pac1ets
Circuit switched mode of operations +ac1et switched mode of operations
Dedicated channel all the wa to the destination is
provided to the customer
:ne or more dedicated channels are assigned $
the operator specificall for shared use
1,. What is GM?
%hort form of Glo$al %stem for Mo$ile Communications/ is a wireless networ1 sstem
A standard for digital cellular mo$ile communications
International roaming arrangements are ena$led among mo$ile networ1 operators/ $ providing
the su$scri$ers to use their personal mo$ile phones anwhere in the world!
G%M is considered as second generation mo$ile/ as signaling and speech channels are digital
The carriers can $e replaced without replacing mo$ile phones!
The u$i2uit of G%M implementations is also ena$ling the switching $etween networ1 operators/
who can choose e2uipment from man G%M e2uipment vendors!
G%M pioneered low cost %M% implementation
The G%M standard includes a worldwide emergenc telephone num$er feature!
Explain the se(2ices o''e(e! by GM.
The services offered $ G%M are I%D< compati$le
G%M allows snchronous data and asnchronous data to $e transported as $earer service/ one of
the telecommunication services offered $ G%M/ and forms I%D< terminal
The data could $e either transparent service or nontransparent service
Telephon is one of the services offered $ G%M/ which an emergenc and the service provider is
notified $ dialing 3 digits
* using appropriate fa? adaptor/ G3 fa? service is supported
:ne of the features of G%M is %hort Messaging %ervice
Certain services/ namel supplementar services are provided on top of teleservices or $earer
services $ G%M/ such as/ caller identification/ call forwarding/ multipart conversations/ $arring
outgoing calls and call waiting!
12. What is the *axi*,* !ata (ate s,ppo(te! by a GM syste*?
The ma?imum data rate supported $ a G%M sstem is 4!0 1$ps!
7owever there are e?tensions to G%M standard to improve throughput!
G+;% is one of the e?tended G%M service!
The e?tended standards of G%M allows theoretical data rates on the order of '') &$it8s/ $ut with
throughput closer to )0&$it8s in practice!
20. Explain the 'ollo)ing techni3,es in GM- a.) ecto(i4ation o' a cell b.) .(e3,ency 0e%,se c.)
T(ans*itte! "o)e( Cont(ol !.) Discontin,o,s T(ans*ission
a.( ectori3ation of a cell
%ectori5ation is a process to cut down e2uipment costs in a cellular networ1! It influences in
traffic load and cell si5e
%ectori5ation reduces co-channel interference/ when applied to clusters of cells
The ma?imum traffic capacit of sectored antennas is more than omnidirectional antennas!
$.( -re4uenc& )e5use
@re2uenc re-use is the 1e factor of cellular networ1 a$ilit for increasing $oth coverage and
capacit!
Different fre2uencies are utili5ed $ adMacent cellsB however pro$lem does not arise to determine
the cell sufficientl far apart using the same fre2uenc!
;euse distance and the reuse factor are the two elements that influence fre2uenc reusa$ilit
The fre2uenc is '8&/ where & is the num$er of cells that cannot use the same fre2uencies for
transmission!
c.( Transmitte" .ower Control
Transmitted power control is one of the technical mechanism used within some networ1ing
devices
T+C is used for preventing too much unwanted interference among wireless networ1s
The central idea is to automaticall reduce the transmission output power used/ when other
networ1s are within the same range!
T+C reduces interference pro$lems and increases the $atter capacit
The power levels of a single mo$ile device can $e reduced $ 0d*
".( Discontinuous Transmission
Discontinuous Transmission/ also 1nown as DT( in short is a method of momentaril powering
down a mo$ile set when there is no voice input to the set!
The overall efficienc of a wireless voice communication sstem is optimi5ed $ DT(!
-ach spea1er in a two wa conversation spea1s slightl less than half of the time!
The wor1load of the components in the transmitter amplifiers are made eas and reduces
interference!
21. Which ,plin#& !o)nlin# spect(,* is allocate! to 'ollo)ing? a.) GM 5 /00 b.) DC 5 1600
a!E G%M > 400A 3plin1 spectrum is 640!2>4')!6 and downlin1 spectrum is 43.!2>4.4!6
$!E DC% > '600A 3plin1 spectrum is 'L'0!2>'L6)!6/ and downlin1 spectrum is '60.!2>'6L4!6
7a*e the algo(ith*s ,se! in 'ollo)ing- a.) Ciphe(ing b.) A,thentication
a!E Ciphering
The algorithm '24---A3 and '26--IA3/ 3G++ Confidentialit and Integrit Algorithm is used for
ciphering in G%M
$!E Authentication
The algorithm $ name A3 is used for authentication in the G%M sstems
This algorithm is used in implementing %u$scri$er Identit Module
22. 7a*e the algo(ith*s ,se! in 'ollo)ing- a.) Ciphe(ing b.) A,thentication
a!E Ciphering
The algorithm '24---A3 and '26--IA3/ 3G++ Confidentialit and Integrit Algorithm is used for
ciphering in G%M
$!E Authentication
The algorithm $ name A3 is used for authentication in the G%M sstems
This algorithm is used in implementing %u$scri$er Identit Module !
23. Explain the 'ollo)ing- a.) E3,alisation b.) 8nte(lea2ing c.) peech co!ing !.) Channel co!ing
a.( 04ualisation#
An adaptive e2uali5er is emploed $ a G%M receiver for overcoming the impact of non-ideal channel
characteristics which are caused $ multipath propagation!
Adaptive e2uali5er is re2uired $ecause the channel characteristics are often changing fast!
Tuning the for each time slot is done $ the e2uali5er!
$.( %nterleavin*#
Time diversit in a signal communication sstem is o$tained $ using Interleaving!
The possi$ilit of losing whole $ursts will $e decreased $ interleaving
Total ).0 $its from convolution encoder/ including 20ms of speech/ is su$divided into eight
$loc1s! -ach $loc1 consists of .L $its!
All these $loc1s are transmitted in consecutive time slots!
-nough information is availa$le in L $loc1s/ in case one of the $loc1s is lost due to $urst errors!
This ena$les whole segment recover $ using error correction!
c.( !eec/ co"in*#
%peech coding is all a$out turning voice into digital form
%peech is inherentl analog/ as G%M is a digital sstem!
The digiti5ation is emploed $ I%D</ and the current telephone sstems that are used for
multiple?ing voice lines/ with high speed trun1s/ optical fi$er lines is done $ +ulse Code
ModulationD+CME
The +CM output is 0) 1$ps/ which is too high over a radio lin1 in feasi$ilit
The 0)1$ps signal is redundant
The algorithm used in conventional cellular is 9ector %um -?cited =inear +redictive speech
compression!
".( C/annel co"in*
The data rate for the radio channel is 2L0 1$ps
The data rate is split into 6 full rate or '0 half rate traffic channels/ along with signaling channels
In order to have the ma?imum chance for detecting and correcting errors/ the code is comple? in a
tpical propagation path
@orward -rror Correction is applied in order to get the speech coder encrption/ coding and
interleaving in a sophisticated wa
The data is sent as $ursts in .LL mus time slots! -ach contains ''0 encrpted $its
-ver TDMA frame consists of 6 or '0 time slots
Transmit time slots are staggered/ so that at some instant the mo$ile station will not receive the
same instants while transmitting/ which ena$les the simplifing the filtering re2uirements
At least one spare slot $etween transmit and receive is availa$le with this scheme!
24. What is '(e3,ency (e%,se?
-re4uenc& )euse#
@re2uenc ;euse is one of the techni2ues for improving capacit and spectral efficienc
Commercial wireless sstems are $ased on @re2uenc ;euse/ that involves the partitioning of an
;@ radiation area into cell segments!
A fre2uenc that is far enough awa from the fre2uenc in the $ordering segment is used $ one
segment of the cell!
%imilar fre2uenc is used at least two cells apart from each other!
This practice ena$les various cellular providers to have several customers for a given site license!
25. What a(e the inte('aces bet)een thee 'ollo)ing?a.) 9T an! M b.) 9T an! 9C c.) 9 an!
MC !.) T0A: an! 9C e.) 9C an! "C:
a.( 6T an" M
*ase station su$sstem is a segment of cellular telephone networ1 that is responsi$le for setting
signals and traffic $etween mo$ile phone sets and networ1 switching su$sstems!
Transcoding of speech channels are carried out $ *%%! *%% allocates radio channels to mo$ile
phones/ paging/ transmission and reception over the air interface and man other tas1s that are
pertaining to the radio networ1!
$.( 6T an" 6C
*ase %tation Controller provides the intelligence $ehind the *T%s! A *%C conrolls hundreds of
*T%s!
Allocation of radio channels/ receiving measurements from the mo$ile phones are some of the
maMor tas1 handlings $ *%C!
*%C controls *T% to *T%!
*%C acts as a concentrator in which man different low capacit connections to *T%s will
$ecome reduced to few num$ers of connections towards the mo$ile switching center!
*%C provides the re2uired data to operation support su$sstemD:%%E and also to the performance
measuring centers
*T% supports the 1e features li1e/ fre2uenc hopping/ sectori5ation/ and G+;%!
The e?pansion and upgradation in the field are the features emphasi5ed during its design!
The power output of *T% is up to 60"!
c.( 6 an" MC
*%% will send the called num$er to M%CDMo$ile %witching CenterE
M%C chec1s the 9=; and 2ueries *%% for allocation of resources for the cell
Then M%C routes the call to GM%C
%witching nodes for $ase station controls is done $ M%C
".( T)A7 an" 6C
T;A3 DTranscoder and ;ate Adaptation 3nitE is an entit to perform a transcoding function for
speech channels and ;AD;ate AdaptationE for various data channels!
*%C and T;A3 does not demand specific environmental conditions to perform operations!
"ith this the operator has an option for placing an one or $oth units at a central location!
*%C supports various *%C-*T% configurations li1e star/ multidrop and loop/ and star
configurations towards T;A3
T;A3 is a stand alone unit which could $e located close to a M%CDMo$ile %witching CenterE/
which ena$les the optimum utili5ation of '0 1$it8s channel su$ multiple?ing and saves line costs!
e.( 6C an" .C7
The +ac1et Control 3nit is an adaptor 8 handler unit which ena$les G+;% and -DG-
functionalit within ;adio Access <etwor1!
The *%C from the G%M networ1 is connected with pac1et core $ +C3
Motorola +C3 is $ased on certain industr standards li1e Compact +CI and is highl scalea$le!
26. Explain- a.) Cell plitting b.) W" c.) MA !.) MA8O
a.( Cell !littin*
The process of dividing the radio coverage of a cell site within a wireless telephone sstem into
new cell sites is 1nown as Cell %plitting
Additional capacit within the region can $e achieved $ using Cell %plitting
$.( W.
The wireless e2uivalent of the Government -mergenc Telecommunications %ervices is referred
to "+%!
"+% provides access $ased on the priorit to wireless telephone service during emergencies
Certain governing $odies such as authori5ed federal/ officials of state and local/ and certain 1e
private sector officials can $e put first in line for an open cellular channel $ dialing 2L2 Must
$efore entering the num$er $eing called
It is T-Mo$ile/ which $egan offering an initial operating capa$ilit in <ew Nor1 and "ashington
and had it deploed later!
c.( MA
The A$solute ;adio @re2uenc Carrier <um$er is used in hopping se2uence pattern are
determined $ certain contents of the test set#s Mo$ile Allocation Ta$le!
The hopping se2uence $eginning point is 1nown as Mo$ile Allocation Inde? :ffset!
The first entr of Mo$ile Allocation is corresponds to 5ero!
An MA ta$le is a list of A;@C<s! The present in Cell Allocation Ta$le which shares the same
fre2uenc $and
A separate MA ta$le is allocated for each fre2uenc $and!
".( MA%O
Mo$ile Allocation Inde? :ffset is applied to same timeslot of different T;(!
-ver time slot will have a separate 8 different MAI:/ as the are using the same 7%<
In case all time slot have the same 7%</ a their se2uence need to $e started at different
fre2uencies
The MAI: will set the inde? of the se2uence for each timeslot!
The 7%<s do not run the same pseudo random se2uence at the same moment!
2+. Explain- a.) H7 b.) DT; c.) D0; 5 T0;
a.( 89
7opping se2uence num$er is utili5ed/ to spread the interference $etween all cells that uses the
same hopping TC7s
The correlation $etween closel located cells can $e avoided $ using 7%<
7%< of 5ero corresponds to the cclic hopping se2uence/ and ' through 03 corresponds to
various pseudo random patterns!
$.( DT:
Discontinuous Transmission is one of the methods which is $ased on the advantage of the fact
that a person spea1 less
<earl )0C of time in general conversation/ the transmitter is turned off during silence periods
Mo$ile phone power conservation is an added $enefit of DT(
9oice Activit Detection is the most important component of DT(
DT ( distinguishes $etween voice and noise inputs!
The transmitter is turned off when a voice signal is misinterpreted as noise! This causes annoing
effect 1nown as clipping is heard at the receiver#s end
Comfort noise is created at the receiving end/ in order to ensure the non-connection!
c.( D): ; T):
D):#
D;( is referred as driver receiver!
D;( performs the transmission and reception of signals
%ends and receives the signals to or from higher networ1 entities/ as in $ase station controller in
mo$ile telephon
T):#
The transceivers allows to serve several fre2uencies and different sectors of the cell
%ends and receives signals from 8 to higher networ1 entities!
2,. What !o yo, *ean by 'ollo)ing? a.) E(langs b.) Go
a.( 0rlan*s
Total traffic volume per hour 8 3000 seconds is descri$ed $ erlang
@or e?ample/ 00 calls in one hour and each lasting . minutes results the followingA
Minutes of traffic in an hour O <um$er of calls ? Duration
Minutes of traffic in an hour O 00 ? . O 300 minutes
7ours of traffic in the hour O 300 8 00 O . hrs
The traffic figure O . erlangs
$.( 1o
Grade of %ervice is a pro$a$ilit of a cell in a circuit group which is $loc1ed 8 delaed for more
than a specified interval
Go% is e?pressed as a vulgar fraction 8 decimal fraction
It is with reference to the $us hour at the time of greatest intensit of the traffic
Go% ma $e viewed independentl from the perspective of incoming vs outgoing calls
The Go% is not essentiall e2ual $etween source to destination pairs!
22. What !o 'ollo)ing *ean? Why !o )e nee! the*? a.) <ocation A(ea b.) <ocation :p!ate
a.( <ocation Area
=ocation Area is a group of cells!
The su$scri$er is paged in this area
:ne or more $ase station controllers are used to serve each =ocation Area $ut $ a single M%C!
-ach =ocation Area has a uni2ue =ocation Area Identit num$er
$.( <ocation 7!"ate
IM%I attach or IM%I detach location update process is to $e performed whenever a mo$ile is
switched on or off
-ach mo$ile is needed to report regularl its location at a given time of interval $ using a
periodic location update process
A random location update is re2uired/ whenever a mo$ile moves from one location to another
while not on a call
7ence/ the su$scri$er has relia$ilit to access the networ1 and freedom of mo$ilit within the
coverage area! !
30. Explain- a.) 8M8 b.) TM8 c.) 8ME8 !.) M%8D7.
a.( %M%
International Mo$ile %u$scri$er Identit > a uni2ue identification that is associated with all G%M
and 3MT% networ1 mo$ile phones
The %IM inside the phone contains it as a 0) $it field!
3sed for ac2uiring certain details in 7ome =ocation ;egister or 9isitor =ocation ;egister
IM%I is rarel sent for preventing eavesdroppers to identif and trac1 the su$scri$er on the radio
interface!
It is presented as '. digit long num$er/ where first 3 digits represent the Mo$ile Countr Code
and followed $ the Mo$ile <etwor1 Code!
;emaining digits are mo$ile station identification num$er within the customer $ase networ1
$.( TM%
Temporar Mo$ile %u$scri$er Identit for most commonl sent $etween the mo$ile and the
networ1
TM%I is assigned randoml $ 9=; to each mo$ile in the area
The TM%I num$er is local for a specific local area/ and need to $e updated ever time when the
mo$ile moves to a new geographical area
+aging a mo$ile is the 1e use of the TM%I
The communication $etween the mo$ile and the $ase station is 1nown as paging
The emphasis of $roadcast information is top set up channels for paging
*roadcast mechanism is availa$le in ever cellular sstem for distri$uting $roadcast information
to a pluralit of mo$iles
c.( %M0%
International Mo$ile -2uipment Identit is a num$er usuall uni2ue for identifing
G%M/"CDMA and iD-< mo$ile phones
It is generall printed inside the $atter compartment of the phone!
The num$er can $e displaed on the screen $ entering PQ00Q into the 1epad on most of the
phones
A stolen phone can $e stopped from accessing the networ1 within the countr/ $ using IM-I
num$er for valid devices
3nli1e CDMA8M-ID#s electronic serial num$er/ the IM-I is onl used for identifing the device
and has no permanent relation to the su$scri$er
The su$scri$er is identified $ IM%I num$er/ stored on the %IM card/ which then can $e
transferred to an other handset
".( M5%D9
Mo$ile %u$scri$er Integrated services Digital <etwor1 <um$er/ a uni2ue num$er identifing a
su$scription in a G%M 8 3MT% mo$ile networ1
It is the telephone num$er of the %IM card in a mo$ile phone
M%ID< and IM%I are important num$ers used to identif a mo$ile su$scri$er
M%ID< is used for routing the calls to the su$scri$er/ where as IM%I identifies the %IM
In the 7=;/ the IM%I is the 1e/ and M%ID< is the num$er that is dialed for connecting a call to
the mo$ile phone!
=1. What !o yo, *ean by A0.C7?
A$solute ;adio @re2uenc Channel <um$er/ a code to specif a pair of phsical radio carriers
and channels within the spectrum that is allocated for cellular mo$ile communications
A;@C< is used for transmitting and receiving on the 3M Interface/ one to uplin1 signal and one
to downlin1 signal
A;@C<#s $andwidth is 2L0!633 175B channel spacing is 200 175 in a given G%M $and
The uplin1-downlin1 spacing is generall ). 8 .0 M75
If @re2uenc Division Duple? is operated in the sstem/ then the channel num$er is associated
with $oth uplin1 and downlin1 radio channels
A;@C< is '-'2) within G%M400 spectrum/ .'2-66. within G%M'600/ .'2-6'0 within
G%M'400/ are used!
=2. What is po)e( cont(ol?
+ower control is the intelligent selection of transmit power in a communication sstem for
achieving $est performance within the sstem
The performance is depend on conte?t and there are chances to include optimi5ing metrics li1e
lin1 data rate/ networ1 capacit/ geographic coverage and range
A higher transmit power translates into a higher signal power at the receiver
The $it error rate will $e reduces at the receiver of a digital communication lin1/ $ having higher
signal-to-noise ratio
7igher transmit power provides more protection against a signal fade in a wireless fading
channel!
==. Explain- a.).DD b.)TDD
a.(-DD
@re2uenc Division Duple? is one of the techni2ues/ in which one fre2uenc $and is utili5ed for
transmitting and another used for receiving!
To uplin1 the carring data from mo$ile phones to the $ase station/ one electromagnetic $loc1
spectrum is allocated
9arious $loc1s of spectrum is allocated to downlin1 carring data from the $ase station to the
mo$ile telephone hand sets
$.(TDD
Time Division Duple?ing/ a 3G++ standardi5ed version of 3niversal Mo$ile Telecommunications
%stem networ1s!
The designated mo$ile sends the data in a stipulated time and receives data from the *T% in
another time
The time is divided into various time slots and user sends data in few time slots and receives the
data in the rest of the time slots
Alternative downlin1 and uplin1 directions are used !
=>. What !o yo, *ean by Exten!e! Cell? Does it ha2e any i*pact on the syste*? 8' yes? )hat?
-?tended cell feature ena$les the operators for e?tending the coverage without installing new cell
cites
-?tended cell feature is designed specificall for providing covering in rural areas/ where densit
of population is low and installation of additional cell sites
<ew features can $e deploed in coastal areas for providing G%M coverage in offshore waters
It#s impact is A
The cell radius could $e dou$le or even more/ $ased on the antenna/ tpe of terrain and timing
advance
Indoor coverage is supported $ G%M and could $e achieved with the usage of picocell $ase
station or an indoor repeater along with distri$uted indoor antennas!
=@. What is WiMax? What !ata (ate !oes WiMax p(o2i!es?
It is a protocol designed to provide an e?tension to wireless communication! In Rune 200' I--- formed a
group called "iMa? forum to define the "iMa? standards! It#s an I--- standard 602!'0 $ased
technolog/ which ena$les a last mile deliver of $road$and access! It provides wireless communication
at a distance of around .01ms!
"iMa? would not replace "i-@i/ $ut rather will fill in $etween hotspots and e?tend our Internet access
on the go!
What !ata (ate !oes WiMax p(o2i!es?
Theoreticall it is e?pected to provide data rate of around L)m$ps/ $ut in practice its much less at around
).m$ps per channel! 7owever as the channel is shared among multiple users/ performance ma $e even
low! I--- standard 602!'0 is e?pected to offer up to 'g$ps of speed DrefA "i1ipedia!orgE!
=A. What a(e the ,ses o' WiMax? What a(e the a!2antages o' WiMax?
"ith a data rate of a$out )0m$ps and coverage of .0 1m "iMa? can $e used as an eas alternative for
ca$le and D%= $road$and connections!
It can also provide services li1e I+ telephon D9:I+E and I+T9 DT9 over internet protocolE/ and video
conference!
What a(e the a!2antages o' WiMax?
- ;elativel higher data rates compared to 3G or such mo$ile standards
- "ireless communication across cit
- Data rates compara$le to ca$le or D%= connection
- =ower cost of deploment
- Much faster installation
=B. What is a WiMax gate)ay? Ho) !oes WiMax )o(#s?
It is a stand alone indoor device which is installed at a good reception area! It acts as a wi-fi access point
for other devices such as home pc/ 9:I+ handset etc! "iMa? operators generall provide this gatewa
device or su$scri$er unit which communicates with $ase station and provides wi-fi access within home or
office for device li1e laptop/ %martphone!
Ho) !oes WiMax )o(#s?
"iMa? com$ines the advantages of favorite "i-@i and a wide coverage of cellular networ1! It ta1es a
$est part of wi-fi networ1s > the fast speed and $road$and internet e?perience! "iMa? is a "A<
technologB service providers will deplo a wima? networ1 that ena$les access over long distance!
Coverage for a geographical area is divided into a series of overlapping areas called cells! -ach cell
provides coverage for users within that immediate vicinit! "hen ou travel from one cell to another/ the
wireless connection is handed off from one cell to another!
=6. Co*pa(e WiMax )ith )i%'i.
-"iMa? DI--- standard 602!'0E is primaril used to provide internet access to devices at long distance/
covering man 1ilometers! "i-fi DI--- standard 602!'0E is used to provide access to local networ1s/ with
limited distance!
-"iMa? uses licensed or un-licensed spectrum/ whereas wi-fi uses unlicensed spectrum!
-"i-fi runs on media access controls C%MA8CA Dcarrier sense media access8collision avoidanceE protocol
which is connectionless/ while "iMa? uses connection oriented MAC protocol!
-*oth standards provide peer-to-peer Dp2pE networ1s and ad-hoc networ1s!
=/. Do 8 nee! a license! 'o( WiMax technology?
"iMa? ma us either licensed or unlicensed networ1s/ unlicensed networ1 is open to all users! "i-fi
spectrum is unlicensed spectrum! "iMa? service providers use licensed spectrum/ which allows access to
onl su$scri$ers and provide a $etter controlled service!
Nou as a user don#t need to own an license to use "iMa?! All ou need is a su$scription with a service
provider/ same as our current mo$ile or ca$le T9 su$scription!
3nlicensed spectrum can $e used for setting up our own "iMa? networ1!
>0. Do )e nee! special e3,ip*ent to connect to WiMax net)o(#s?
Nes! A separate device that connects to a "iMa? networ1 is re2uired! These devices acts as a
communication interface $etween our home devices Dnote$oo1/ smart phones/ and 9:I+ handsetsE and
"iMa? antenna or tower! This is what we call a gatewa device!
At one end this device will communicate with a $ase station or tower with "iMa? networ1 and at other
end it provides a wireless access point $ased service Dgenerall an internet accessE to internal devices!
Intel had introduced some chips with in$uilt "iMa? antennasB in smart phones 7TC had released their
"iMa? ena$led devices! "ith such devices ou won#t need additional device to connect to "iMa?
networ1!
>1. Do 8 nee! to set ,p the WiMax access point li#e 8 !i! 'o( Wi%.i?
<o! All ou need is our "iMa? ena$led device and either a su$scription or pa-as-ou-go plan/ or ou
can connect to a networ1 maintained $ a service provider offering "iMa? service in our area!
If our device is "iMa? ena$led then connecting to "iMa? networ1 is as simple as using internet on
our mo$ile device!
-ven if ou don#t have "iMa? ena$led device/ all ou need is plug and pla device Dgenerall provided
$ service providerE that will do all re2uired setup!
>2. What is base station?
The central radio transmitter8receiver installed $ service provider to $roadcasts "iMa? signals!
These transmitters are tpicall mounted on towers or tall $uildings! Cellular networ1s are $ased on the
concept of cells Da logical division of geographical areaE/ each such cell is allocated a fre2uenc and is
served $ a $ase station!
*ase station consists of a receiver/ transmitter and a control unit! AdMacent $ase stations use different
fre2uencies to avoid crosstal1!
>=. 8s WiMax sec,(e?
Nes/ "iMa? is a standard $ased design/ and "iMa? standards are well defined to provide much $etter and
fle?i$le securit than wi-fi networ1s!
-"iMa? securit stac1 supports two encrption standards one is popular D-%3 DData -ncrption
%tandardE and other is A-% DAdvanced -ncrption %tandardE!
-Additionall it re2uires dedicated securit processor for $ase station!
-It also defines minimum encrption re2uirements for the traffic and for end to end authentication!
What '(e3,encies a(e ,se! by WiMax net)o(#s?
%tandards does not define an uniform glo$al licensed spectrum for "iMa?/ however the "iMa? forum
has pu$lished 3 licensed spectrum profiles 2!3 G75/ 2!. G75 and 3!. G75/ in an effort to drive
standardi5ation and decrease cost! Also plans for use of analog T9 spectrum DL00 M75E await the
complete deploment of digital T9!
>>. What a(e the li*itations o' WiMax?
"iMa? can not provide highest performance over .0 1ilometers! As the distance increases/ $it error rate
thus reducing performance! ;educing distance to less than '1m allows a device to operate at higher $it
rate! A user closer to $ase station gets $etter speed at around 30m$ps!
Also as an availa$le $andwidth is shared $etween no of users/ performance depends on num$er of active
users connecting to that $ase station! %o this needs a use of ,ualit of %ervice D,:%E mechanism to
provide a minimum guaranteed throughput!
>@. Why )e nee! WiMax technology?
The simple answer is/ for high speed $road$and li1e internet access on the move! "e have $road$and
connections that provide high speed networ1s/ $ut are attached to =A< sstems i!e! not porta$le! "i-fi
provides access to such sstems $ut limited to a much shorter distance!
Then we have cellular networ1s which provide internet access $ut their speed is limited and the are
relativel costl! To overcome these pro$lems we need "iMa? or compara$le technolog!
>A. What is =G?
Definition# 3G/ 1nown as 3rd Generation/ is a standard for mo$ile 8 cellular phones! It provides the
services that fulfill the International Telecommunication 3nion specifications!
The application services of 3G include wireless voice telephone/ mo$ile internet access/ video calls and
mo$ile television > all in a mo$ile environment!
3G allows simultaneous use of speech and data services
3G provides pea1 data rates of at least 200 &*its according to the IMT-2000 specification!
Mo$ile $road$and access of several M*its to laptop computer sstems/ smart phones is provided $ latest
3!.G/ 3!L.G versions!
31 stan"ar"s#
7MT#
3niversal Mo$ile Telecommunications %stem > :ne of the 3G mo$ile telecommunications
technologies/ also $eing developed into a )G technolog!
Most common form of 3MT% uses "-CDMA as an underling air interface!
3MT% also covers ;adio Access <etwor1 > 3MT% Terrestrial ;adio Access <etwor1 D3T;A<E/
and Mo$ile Application +art DMA+E!
3sers are authenticated via 3%IM cards D3niversal %u$scri$er Identit ModuleE!
CDMA2000
Also 1nown as IMT Multi-Carrier DIMT-MCE/ uses CDMA channel access for sending voice/ data
and signaling data $etween mo$ile phones and cell sites!
The standards are CDMA2000 I(/ CDMA2000 -9-D:; ;ev!0/ CDMA2000 -9-D: ;ev!A and
CDMA2000 -9-;ev!*! The are approved radio interfaces for the IT3#s IMT-2000!
>B. What a(e the a!2antages an! !isa!2antages o' =G?
Advantages of 3GA
:vercrowding is relieved in e?isting sstems with radio spectrum
*andwidth/ securit and relia$ilit are more
+rovides interopera$ilit among service providers
Availa$ilit of fi?ed and varia$le rates
%upport to devices with $ac1ward compati$ilit with e?isting networ1s
Alwas online devices > 3G uses I+ connectivit which is pac1et $ased
;ich multi media services are availa$le
Disadvantages of 3GA
The cost of cellular infrastructure / upgrading $ase stations is ver high
<eeds different handsets!
;oaming and data8voice wor1 together has not et $een implemented
+ower consumption is high
;e2uires closer $ase stations and are e?pensive
%pectrum-license costs/ networ1 deploment costs and handset su$sidies su$scri$ers are
tremendous!
>6. Ho) is =G !i''e(ent '(o* 2G?
+ac1et data speed is higher in 3G/ and it is up to 36) &*+%
9oice and sms speed is also 36) &*+% in 3G
2G utili5es different switching techni2ues for voice and data/ where as 3G uses single switching/
irrespective of data
3G has at least 2M* of data lin1 of a mo$ile/ where in 2G the data rate is in &*+%
3G has "iMA( facilit for faster 9:I+ and internet
2G uses G%M TDMA technolog with narrow$and 200&h5!
3G uses CDMA technolog with $road$and .Mh5/ with same fre2uenc carrier and time!
>/. Explain- a.) G"0 C Gene(al "ac#et 0a!io e(2ice)- b.) GM CGlobal yste* 'o( Mobile
Co**,nications)- c.) H<0 CHo*e <ocation 0egiste()- e.) iDE7C8nteg(ate! Digital
Enhance! 7et)o(#)- '.) i%appli
1.) ' 1eneral .ac=et )a"io ervice(
+ac1et oriented mo$ile data service availa$le to the users of 2G cellular sstems!
It is glo$al sstem for communicating through mo$ile phones using G%M as well as in 3G
sstems!
G+;% data transfer is charged per M* of traffic transferred/ where as in circuit switching/ data
transfer is charged per minute of connection time
G+;% is $etter pac1et switching service/ as opposed to circuit switching!
2G cellular sstems are com$ined with G+;% and 1nown as 2!.G!
+rovides moderate speed data transfer $ using unused TDMA channels/ such as G%M!
1M '1lo$al &stem for Mo$ile Communications(
Most popular standard for mo$ile telephon sstems/ originated from Groupe %pecial Mo$ile
The u$i2uit of G%M ena$les the international roaming arrangements among mo$ile phone
operators!
*oth signaling and speech channels are digital/ and thus G%M is considered as 2G mo$ile phone
sstem!
G%M standard $enefited customers the a$ilit to roam and switch carriers without replacing the
hand sets and networ1 operators!
G%M implements low-cost implementation of %hort Message %ervice
8<) '8ome <ocation )e*ister(
@or G%M and CDMA wireless networ1s
It#s responsi$ilit is to authenticate and authori5e su$scri$ers and their services
iD09'%nte*rate" Di*ital 0n/ance" 9etwor=(
A wireless technolog for Motorola
It has the capa$ilities of digi-cellular phone/ 2 wa radio/ alphanumeric pager and data modem 8
fa? modem in a single networ1
:perational $ands are 600 M75/ 400 M75 and '!. G75
iD-< is $ased on TDMADTime Division Multiple AccessE and G%M architecture
@or voice compression it uses Motorola#s 9ector %um -?cited =inear +redictors vocoder
@or delivering 0)&*+% over a 2. &75 channel/ it uses ,AM modulation!
iD-< is designed to serve the mo$ile user for accessing information 2uic1l without carring
several devices!
i5a!!li
i-appli is a Rava environment $ased on C=DC!
7andsets of <TT DoCoMos are utili5ing i-appli
It is similar to MID+/ however $oth A+Is are incompati$le!
@0. Explain :MT.
3MT% stands for 3niversal Mo$ile Telecommunications %stems
:ne of the emerging mo$ile technologies for 3G mo$ile phones!
The main $enefit of 3MT% is/ undou$tedl/ its speed
Current rates of $road$and data transfer is 2M*its 8 second
The speed of 3MT% ma1es it possi$le to stream video that supports movie downloads and video
conferencing!
In a nut shell/ 3MT% provides almost all the facilities of a home computer sstem while on the
move!
3MT% com$ines the technologies li1e wireless/ satellite which provides seamless transitions
$etween "i-@i and satellite!
@1. What is >G?
A short name for @ourth Generation
A stage of $road$and mo$ile communications that supersede 3G
)G is e?pected to use radio spectrum in an efficient manner/ and as a result/ provides ca$le-
modem transmission speeds to the end users!
This feature ena$les high-2ualit streaming video
%imultaneous connections to multiple high-speed networ1s/ 1nown as pervasive computing/ are
e?pected $ )G!
Thus seamless handoffs are provided throughout a geographical area!
Coverage enhancement technologies/ li1e femtocell and picocell are e?pected to develop for
addressing various needs of mo$ile users in homes/ pu$lic $uildings etc!!
@2. What is 8nte(national Teleco**,nications :nion an! )hat a(e its ',nctions?
IT3 is an intergovernmental organi5ation
Telecommunications are developed $ using IT3 $ pu$lic and private organi5ations!
IT3 is responsi$le for adopting regulations/ international treaties and standards that governs
telecommunications
-unctions of %nternational Telecommunications 7nion#
Maintaining and e?tending the international cooperation for the improvement
;ational usage of telecommunications/ for promoting efficient use of technical facilities
To harmoni5e the actions of nations!
@=. What is 0o,te(?
The wa switches connect multiple computers/ a router connects multiple networ1s! ;outers comprise of
data consisting of large ta$les of networ1s and addresses! ;outers use algorithms to determine the shortest
route to an address in a networ1!