MODULE 3: WATER Chapters: 10 14

Chapter 10: Water on Earth

- Only substance found in 3 states
- In BIOsphere, LITHOsphere, HYDROsphere, ATMOsphere
- Essential transport system (eg. Minerals, vitamins)
- heat transfer systems
- essential chemical in many reactions (eg. Photosynthesis)
Solutions
- Homogenous mixtures
Solute solid which is dissolved
Solvent substance which does the dissolving
Saturated no more solute will dissolve in current conditions
Unsaturated more solute is able to be dissolved in current conditions / does not contain maximum
amount of solute

Density = m / V



Chapter 11: Molecular Structure (of water) + Hydrogen Bonding
Molecular Shapes
- electron pairs arranged as far apart as possible = minimise repulsion
Linear


Can be Polar, eg.
HCl
Can be Non-Polar
eg. H2

Non-Polar
Triangular Planar (triangle with central atom)
Bent Shaped

Polar eg. H
2
O
Tetrahedral (triangular pyramid, with central atom)

Polar Bonds covalent, uneven charge distribution
Electronegativity
- determines bond type
- large different = ionic
- moderate difference = polar covalent
- no difference = non-polar covalent
Polar Molecules:
- contain one or more polar bonds
- Not symmetrical
MODULE 3: WATER Chapters: 10 14

Intermolecular Forces
Hydrogen Bonding strong dipole-dipole between H and O, N or F
Dipole-Dipole attraction between oppositely slightly charged ends of polar molecules
Dispersion weakest, non-polar molecules, temporary dipoles due to constant movement of electrons,
usually gases

Surface Tension molecules at surface have an overall downwards attractive force, creates tension
Viscosity resistance to flow
M.P/B.P of Water higher than expected due to strong HYDROGEN bonding





Chapter 12: Water as a Solvent
Solvent Dissolves a Solute
- Intermolecular forces between solvent broken
- Intermolecular or Ionic bonds broken
- Intermolecular between solvent + solute form
Like Dissolves Like
- Polar solvents dissolve polar solutes
- Non-polar solvents dissolve non-polar solutes
- Water = polar and ionic compounds
- Solubility depends = solute molecular structure + bonding
- Polar or non-polar + size of particles eg. Does water have the muscle power to physically separate
the solute particles
Ionic Usually soluble Eg. NaCl, CuSO
4
C.M which form H bonds Soluble Eg. Glucose, HF
Polar + Non-Polar C.M Slightly Soluble solubility
increases with polarity
Eg. CO
2
, N
2
Large C.M Insoluble Eg. Cellulose
C.N Insoluble

Dissociation Ionic solid separates into ions (as dissolves)
Ionisation C.M dissolves to form ions
Electrolyte produces ions when dissolved = conductor solution






MODULE 3: WATER Chapters: 10 14

Chapter 13: Soluble and Insoluble Salts
Precipitation Reaction two solutions mix, insoluble solid forms
Precipitate - solid which forms from solution of two soluble solutions

Table of Solubilities
GENERALLY SOLUBLE EXCEPTIONS (ions)
Sodium Na
+
,
Potassium K
+

Ammonium NH
4
+

Nitrates NO
3
-

- All
Sulphates SO
4
2-

Sr, Ba, Pb ions insoluble
Ca, Ag slightly soluble
Chloride Cl
-
Ag insoluble
Pb slightly soluble
Bromine Br
-
Ag insoluble
Pb slightly soluble
Iodine I
-
Ag, Pb insoluble

Equilibrium
- Rate of forward and reverse reactions equal
- No observable change
- Eg. In saturated solutions
Concentration
- Diluted solution = # of moles same, concentration decreases


C = n/V
Concentration = number of moles (solute) / volume
(Mol L
-1
)

(mol) (L)


Chapter 14: Heat Capacity of Water
Specific Heat Capacity
- Amount of heat energy needed to raise 1 gram of substance by one Kelvin/degrees
- J/g/K or Jg
-1
K
-1

Water = 4.18 Jg
-1
K
-1

GENERALLY INSOLUBLE EXCEPTIONS
Carbonates CO
3
2-

All solubles

Phosphates PO
4
3-
All solubles

Oxides O
2-
All solubles , Ba soluble
Ca slightly soluble

Hydroxides OH
-
All solubles , Ba soluble
Ca slightly soluble
EXOTHERMIC
Energy is released
Decrease in enthalpy of system
Increase in surroundings temp.
Combustion reactions heat + light released

ENDOTHERMIC
Energy is absorbed (from surroundings)
Increase in enthalpy of system
Decrease in surroundings temp.
Photosynthesis, thermal decomp. reactions

MODULE 3: WATER Chapters: 10 14


Combustion Reactions oxidation reactions
Enthalpy stored heat energy
- H = H (products/final) H (reactants/initial)
- -H exothermic
- +H endothermic
Energy Change
H = -mCT H = energy (J) m= mass
C = specific heat capacity
T = temp. change
- Change in enthalpy system
- Shows exo. or endo.
Heat of solution
- Enthalpy change when solute dissolves in solvent
- Endothermic separating solute particles
- Endothermic separating water molecules
- Exothermic hydration process
o Thermal pollution excess heat released into enviro.
o Gases become less soluble as water temp. increases