General relativity

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General relativity
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A simulated black hole of ten solar masses as seen from a distance of 600 kilometers with the Milky Way in the background
General relativity or the general theory of relativity is the geometric theory of gravitation published by Albert !instein in "#"6
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&t is the current description of gravitation in modern physics
General relativity generalises special relativity and 'ewton(s law of universal gravitation, providing a unified description of gravity as a geometric property of space and time, or spacetime &n
particular, the curvature of spacetime is directly related to the four)momentum *mass)energy and linear momentum+ of whatever matter and radiation are present ,he relation is specified by
the !instein field e-uations, a system of partial differential e-uations
.ome predictions of general relativity differ significantly from those of classical physics, especially concerning the passage of time, the geometry of space, the motion of bodies in free fall, and the
propagation of light !/amples of such differences include gravitational time dilation, gravitational lensing, the gravitational redshift of light, and the gravitational time delay General relativity(s
predictions have been confirmed in all observations and e/periments to date Although general relativity is not the only relativistic theory of gravity, it is the simplest theory that is consistent with
e/perimental data 0owever, unanswered -uestions remain, the most fundamental being how general relativity can be reconciled with the laws of-uantum physics to produce a complete and self)
consistent theory of -uantum gravity
!instein(s theory has important astrophysical implications For e/ample, it implies the e/istence of black holes1regions of space in which space and time are distorted in such a way that nothing,
not even light, can escape1as an end)state for massive stars ,here is ample evidence that suchstellar black holes as well as more massive varieties of black hole are responsible for the
intense radiation emitted by certain types of astronomical ob2ects such as active galactic nuclei or micro-uasars ,he bending of light by gravity can lead to the phenomenon of gravitational lensing,
where multiple images of the same distant astronomical ob2ect are visible in the sky General relativity also predicts the e/istence ofgravitational waves, which have since been measured indirectly3
a direct measurement is the aim of pro2ects such as 4&G5 and 'A.A6!.A4aser &nterferometer .pace Antenna &n addition, general relativity is the basis of current cosmological models of a
consistently e/panding universe
Contents
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1 History
2 From classical mechanics to general relativity
o 2.1 Geometry of ewtonian gravity
o 2.2 Relativistic generali!ation
o 2." #instein$s e%uations
" &efinition and 'asic a((lications
o ".1 &efinition and 'asic (ro(erties
o ".2 Model)'uilding
* +onse%uences of #instein$s theory
o *.1 Gravitational time dilation and fre%uency shift
o *.2 ,ight deflection and gravitational time delay
o *." Gravitational waves
o *.* -r'ital effects and the relativity of direction
. /stro(hysical a((lications
o ..1 Gravitational lensing
o ..2 Gravitational wave astronomy
o .." 0lac1 holes and other com(act o'2ects
o ..* +osmology
3 /dvanced conce(ts
o 3.1 +ausal structure and glo'al geometry
o 3.2 Hori!ons
o 3." 4ingularities
o 3.* #volution e%uations
o 3.. Glo'al and %uasi)local %uantities
5 Relationshi( with %uantum theory
o 5.1 6uantum field theory in curved s(acetime
o 5.2 6uantum gravity
7 +urrent status
8 4ee also
19 otes
11 References
12 Further reading
1" #:ternal lin1s
[edit]History
Main articles: History of general relativity and Classical theories of gravitation
.oon after publishing the special theory of relativity in "#07, !instein started thinking about how to incorporate gravity into his new relativistic framework &n "#08, beginning with a simplethought
e/periment involving an observer in free fall, he embarked on what would be an eight)year search for a relativistic theory of gravity After numerous detours and false starts, his work culminated in
the 'ovember, "#"7 presentation to the 9russian Academy of .cience of what are now known as the !instein field e-uations ,hese e-uations specify how the geometry of space and time is
influenced by whatever matter is present, and form the core of !instein(s general theory of relativity
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,he !instein field e-uations are nonlinear and very difficult to solve !instein used appro/imation methods in working out initial predictions of the theory ;ut as early as "#"6, the astrophysicist <arl
.chwar=schild found the first non)trivial e/act solution to the !instein field e-uations, the so)called .chwar=schild metric ,his solution laid the groundwork for the description of the final stages of
gravitational collapse, and the ob2ects known today as black holes &n the same year, the first steps towards generali=ing .chwar=schild(s solution toelectrically charged ob2ects were taken, which
eventually resulted in the >eissner)'ordstr?m solution, now associated with electrically charged black holes
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&n "#"8, !instein applied his theory to the universe as a whole, initiating the field of
relativistic cosmology &n line with contemporary thinking, he assumed a static universe, adding a new parameter to his original field e-uations1the cosmological constant1to reproduce that
AobservationA
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;y "#:#, however, the work of 0ubble and others had shown that our universe is e/panding ,his is readily described by the e/panding cosmological solutions found
by Friedmann in "#::, which do not re-uire a cosmological constant 4emaCtre used these solutions to formulate the earliest version of the big bang models, in which our universe has evolved from
an e/tremely hot and dense earlier state
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!instein later declared the cosmological constant the biggest blunder of his life
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During that period, general relativity remained something of a curiosity among physical theories &t was clearly superior to 'ewtonian gravity, being consistent with special relativity and accounting
for several effects une/plained by the 'ewtonian theory !instein himself had shown in "#"7 how his theory e/plained the anomalous perihelion advance of the planet Mercurywithout any arbitrary
parameters *Afudge factorsA+
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.imilarly, a "#"# e/pedition led by !ddington confirmed general relativity(s prediction for the deflection of starlight by the .un during the total solar eclipse of May :#,
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making !instein instantly famous
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Fet the theory entered the mainstream of theoretical physics and astrophysics only with the developments between appro/imately "#60 and "#87, now
known as the Golden age of general relativity
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9hysicists began to understand the concept of a black hole, and to identify these ob2ects( astrophysical manifestation as -uasars
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!ver
more precise solar system tests confirmed the theory(s predictive power,
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and relativistic cosmology, too, became amenable to direct observational tests
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[edit]From classical mechanics to general relativity
General relativity is best understood by e/amining its similarities with and departures from classical physics ,he first step is the reali=ation that classical mechanics and 'ewton(s law of gravity
admit of a geometric description ,he combination of this description with the laws of special relativity results in a heuristic derivation of general relativity
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[edit]Geometry of Newtonian gravity
At the base of classical mechanics is the notion that a body(s motion can be described as a combination of free *or inertial+ motion, and deviations from this free motion .uch deviations are caused
by e/ternal forces acting on a body in accordance with 'ewton(s second law of motion, which states that the net force acting on a body is e-ual to that body(s *inertial+ massmultiplied by
its acceleration
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,he preferred inertial motions are related to the geometry of space and timeG in the standard reference frames of classical mechanics, ob2ects in free motion move along straight
lines at constant speed &n modern parlance, their paths are geodesics, straight world lines in curved spacetime
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;all falling to the floor in an accelerating rocket *left+, and on !arth *right+
Honversely, one might e/pect that inertial motions, once identified by observing the actual motions of bodies and making allowances for the e/ternal forces *such as electromagnetism or friction+,
can be used to define the geometry of space, as well as a time coordinate 0owever, there is an ambiguity once gravity comes into play According to 'ewton(s law of gravity, and independently
verified by e/periments such as that of !?tv?s and its successors *see !?tv?s e/periment+, there is a universality of free fall *also known as the weak e-uivalence principle, or the universal e-uality
of inertial and passive)gravitational mass+G the tra2ectory of a test body in free fall depends only on its position and initial speed, but not on any of its material properties
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A simplified version of this
is embodied in !instein(s elevator e/periment, illustrated in the figure on the rightG for an observer in a small enclosed room, it is impossible to decide, by mapping the tra2ectory of bodies such as a
dropped ball, whether the room is at rest in a gravitational field, or in free space aboard an accelerating rocket generating a force e-ual to gravity
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Given the universality of free fall, there is no observable distinction between inertial motion and motion under the influence of the gravitational force ,his suggests the definition of a new class of
inertial motion, namely that of ob2ects in free fall under the influence of gravity ,his new class of preferred motions, too, defines a geometry of space and time1in mathematical terms, it is
the geodesic motion associated with a specific connection which depends on the gradient of the gravitational potential .pace, in this construction, still has the ordinary !uclidean geometry
0owever, spacetime as a whole is more complicated As can be shown using simple thought e/periments following the free)fall tra2ectories of different test particles, the result of transporting
spacetime vectors that can denote a particle(s velocity *time)like vectors+ will vary with the particle(s tra2ectory3 mathematically speaking, the 'ewtonian connection is notintegrable From this, one
can deduce that spacetime is curved ,he result is a geometric formulation of 'ewtonian gravity using only covariant concepts, ie a description which is valid in any desired coordinate system
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&n
this geometric description, tidal effects1the relative acceleration of bodies in free fall1are related to the derivative of the connection, showing how the modified geometry is caused by the presence
of mass
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[edit]Relativistic generalization
As intriguing as geometric 'ewtonian gravity may be, its basis, classical mechanics, is merely a limiting case of *special+ relativistic mechanics
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&n the language of symmetryG where gravity can be
neglected, physics is 4orent= invariant as in special relativity rather than Galilei invariant as in classical mechanics *,he defining symmetry of special relativity is the9oincarI group which also
includes translations and rotations+ ,he differences between the two become significant when we are dealing with speeds approaching the speed of light, and with high)energy phenomena
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4ight cone
With 4orent= symmetry, additional structures come into play ,hey are defined by the set of light cones *see the image on the left+ ,he light)cones define a causal structureG for each event A, there
is a set of events that can, in principle, either influence or be influenced by A via signals or interactions that do not need to travel faster than light *such as event ; in the image+, and a set of events
for which such an influence is impossible *such as event H in the image+ ,hese sets are observer)independent
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&n con2unction with the world)lines of freely falling particles, the light)cones can be
used to reconstruct the spaceJtime(s semi)>iemannian metric, at least up to a positive scalar factor &n mathematical terms, this defines a conformal structure
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.pecial relativity is defined in the absence of gravity, so for practical applications, it is a suitable model whenever gravity can be neglected ;ringing gravity into play, and assuming the universality of
free fall, an analogous reasoning as in the previous section appliesG there are no global inertial frames &nstead there are appro/imate inertial frames moving alongside freely falling particles
,ranslated into the language of spacetimeG the straight time)like lines that define a gravity)free inertial frame are deformed to lines that are curved relative to each other, suggesting that the inclusion
of gravity necessitates a change in spacetime geometry
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A priori, it is not clear whether the new local frames in free fall coincide with the reference frames in which the laws of special relativity hold1that theory is based on the propagation of light, and thus
on electromagnetism, which could have a different set of preferred frames ;ut using different assumptions about the special)relativistic frames *such as their being earth)fi/ed, or in free fall+, one
can derive different predictions for the gravitational redshift, that is, the way in which the fre-uency of light shifts as the light propagates through a gravitational field *cf below+ ,he actual
measurements show that free)falling frames are the ones in which light propagates as it does in special relativity
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,he generali=ation of this statement, namely that the laws of special relativity hold
to good appro/imation in freely falling *and non)rotating+ reference frames, is known as the !instein e-uivalence principle, a crucial guiding principle for generali=ing special)relativistic physics to
include gravity
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,he same e/perimental data shows that time as measured by clocks in a gravitational field1proper time, to give the technical term1does not follow the rules of special relativity &n the language of
spacetime geometry, it is not measured by the Minkowski metric As in the 'ewtonian case, this is suggestive of a more general geometry At small scales, all reference frames that are in free fall
are e-uivalent, and appro/imately Minkowskian Honse-uently, we are now dealing with a curved generali=ation of Minkowski space ,he metric tensor that defines the geometry1in particular, how
lengths and angles are measured1is not the Minkowski metric of special relativity, it is a generali=ation known as a semi) or pseudo)>iemannian metric Furthermore, each >iemannian metric is
naturally associated with one particular kind of connection, the 4evi)Hivita connection, and this is, in fact, the connection that satisfies the e-uivalence principle and makes space locally
Minkowskian *that is, in suitable locally inertial coordinates, the metric is Minkowskian, and its first partial derivatives and the connection coefficients vanish+
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[edit]Einstein's equations
Main articles: Einstein field equations and Mathematics of general relativity
0aving formulated the relativistic, geometric version of the effects of gravity, the -uestion of gravity(s source remains &n 'ewtonian gravity, the source is mass &n special relativity, mass turns out to
be part of a more general -uantity called the energy)momentum tensor, which includes both energy and momentum densities as well as stress *that is, pressure and shear+
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Ksing the e-uivalence
principle, this tensor is readily generali=ed to curved space)time Drawing further upon the analogy with geometric 'ewtonian gravity, it is natural to assume that the field e-uation for gravity relates
this tensor and the >icci tensor, which describes a particular class of tidal effectsG the change in volume for a small cloud of test particles that are initially at rest, and then fall freely &n special
relativity, conservation of energy)momentum corresponds to the statement that the energy)momentum tensor is divergence)free ,his formula, too, is readily generali=ed to curved spacetime by
replacing partial derivatives with their curved)manifold counterparts, covariant derivatives studied in differential geometry With this additional condition1the covariant divergence of the energy)
momentum tensor, and hence of whatever is on the other side of the e-uation, is =ero1 the simplest set of e-uations are what are called !instein(s *field+ e-uationsG
5n the left)hand side is the !instein tensor, a specific divergence)free combination of the >icci tensor Rab and the metric &n particular,
is the curvature scalar ,he >icci tensor itself is related to the more general >iemann curvature tensor as
5n the right)hand side, ab is the energy)momentum tensor All tensors are written in abstract inde/ notation
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Matching the theory(s prediction to observational results
for planetary orbits *or, e-uivalently, assuring that the weak)gravity, low)speed limit is 'ewtonian mechanics+, the proportionality constant can be fi/ed as L M EN!6c
B
,
with ! the gravitational constantand c the speed of light
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When there is no matter present, so that the energy)momentum tensor vanishes, the result are the vacuum Einstein
equations,
,here are alternatives to general relativity built upon the same premises, which include additional rules and6or constraints, leading to different field e-uations !/amples
are ;rans)Dicke theory, teleparallelism, and !instein)Hartan theory
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[edit]efinition and !asic a""lications
"ee also: Mathematics of general relativity and #hysical theories modified by general relativity.
,he derivation outlined in the previous section contains all the information needed to define general relativity, describe its key properties, and address a -uestion of crucial
importance in physics, namely how the theory can be used for model)building
[edit]efinition and !asic "ro"erties
General relativity is a metric theory of gravitation At its core are !instein(s e-uations, which describe the relation between the geometry of a four)dimensional, pseudo)
>iemannian manifold representing spacetime, and the energy)momentum contained in that spacetime
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9henomena that in classical mechanics are ascribed to the action
of the force of gravity *such as free)fall, orbital motion, and spacecraft tra2ectories+, correspond to inertial motion within a curved geometry of spacetime in general
relativity3 there is no gravitational force deflecting ob2ects from their natural, straight paths &nstead, gravity corresponds to changes in the properties of space and time,
which in turn changes the straightest)possible paths that ob2ects will naturally follow
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,he curvature is, in turn, caused by the energy)momentum of matter 9araphrasing
the relativist Oohn Archibald Wheeler, spacetime tells matter how to move3 matter tells spacetime how to curve
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While general relativity replaces the scalar gravitational potential of classical physics by a symmetric rank)two tensor, the latter reduces to the former in certain limiting
cases For weak gravitational fields and slow speed relative to the speed of light, the theory(s predictions converge on those of 'ewton(s law of universal gravitation
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As it is constructed using tensors, general relativity e/hibits general covarianceG its laws1and further laws formulated within the general relativistic framework1take on
the same form in all coordinate systems
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Furthermore, the theory does not contain any invariant geometric background structures &t thus satisfies a more
stringent general principle of relativity, namely that the laws of physics are the same for all observers
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4ocally, as e/pressed in the e-uivalence principle, spacetime
is Minkowskian, and the laws of physics e/hibit local 4orent= invariance
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[edit]#odel$!uilding
,he core concept of general)relativistic model)building is that of a solution of !instein(s e-uations Given both !instein(s e-uations and suitable e-uations for the
properties of matter, such a solution consists of a specific semi)>iemannian manifold *usually defined by giving the metric in specific coordinates+, and specific matter
fields defined on that manifold Matter and geometry must satisfy !instein(s e-uations, so in particular, the matter(s energy)momentum tensor must be divergence)free
,he matter must, of course, also satisfy whatever additional e-uations were imposed on its properties &n short, such a solution is a model universe that satisfies the laws
of general relativity, and possibly additional laws governing whatever matter might be present
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!instein(s e-uations are nonlinear partial differential e-uations and, as such, difficult to solve e/actly
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'evertheless, a number of e/act solutions are known, although
only a few have direct physical applications
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,he best)known e/act solutions, and also those most interesting from a physics point of view, are the .chwar=schild
solution, the >eissner)'ordstr?m solution and the <err metric, each corresponding to a certain type of black hole in an otherwise empty universe,
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and the Friedmann)
4emaCtre)>obertson)Walker and de .itter universes, each describing an e/panding cosmos
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!/act solutions of great theoretical interest include the G?del
universe *which opens up the intriguing possibility of time travel in curved spacetimes+, the ,aub)'K, solution *a model universe that is homogeneous, but anisotropic+,
and Anti)de .itter space *which has recently come to prominence in the conte/t of what is called the Maldacena con2ecture+
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Given the difficulty of finding e/act solutions, !instein(s field e-uations are also solved fre-uently by numerical integration on a computer, or by considering small
perturbations of e/act solutions &n the field of numerical relativity, powerful computers are employed to simulate the geometry of spacetime and to solve !instein(s
e-uations for interesting situations such as two colliding black holes
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&n principle, such methods may be applied to any system, given sufficient computer resources, and
may address fundamental -uestions such as naked singularities Appro/imate solutions may also be found by perturbation theories such as lineari=ed gravity
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and its
generali=ation, the post)'ewtonian e/pansion, both of which were developed by !instein ,he latter provides a systematic approach to solving for the geometry of a
spacetime that contains a distribution of matter that moves slowly compared with the speed of light ,he e/pansion involves a series of terms3 the first terms represent
'ewtonian gravity, whereas the later terms represent ever smaller corrections to 'ewton(s theory due to general relativity
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An e/tension of this e/pansion is
the parametri=ed post)'ewtonian *99'+ formalism, which allows -uantitative comparisons between the predictions of general relativity and alternative theories
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[edit]%onsequences of Einstein's theory
General relativity has a number of physical conse-uences .ome follow directly from the theory(s a/ioms, whereas others have become clear only in the course of the
ninety years of research that followed !instein(s initial publication
[edit]Gravitational time dilation and frequency shift
Main article: !ravitational time dilation
.chematic representation of the gravitational redshift of a light wave escaping from the surface of a massive body
Assuming that the e-uivalence principle holds,
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gravity influences the passage of time 4ight sent down into a gravity well is blueshifted, whereas light sent in the
opposite direction *ie, climbing out of the gravity well+ is redshifted3 collectively, these two effects are known as the gravitational fre-uency shift More generally,
processes close to a massive body run more slowly when compared with processes taking place farther away3 this effect is known as gravitational time dilation
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Gravitational redshift has been measured in the laboratory
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and using astronomical observations
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Gravitational time dilation in the !arth(s gravitational field has been
measured numerous times using atomic clocks,
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while ongoing validation is provided as a side effect of the operation of the Global 9ositioning .ystem *G9.+
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,ests in
stronger gravitational fields are provided by the observation of binary pulsars
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All results are in agreement with general relativity
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0owever, at the current level of
accuracy, these observations cannot distinguish between general relativity and other theories in which the e-uivalence principle is valid
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[edit]&ight deflection and gravitational time delay
Main articles: $epler problem in general relativity, !ravitational lens, and "hapiro delay
General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent in a gravitational field3 light passing a massive body is deflected towards that body ,his effect has been confirmed
by observing the light of stars or distant -uasars being deflected as it passes the .un
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Deflection of light *sent out from the location shown in blue+ near a compact body *shown in gray+
,his and related predictions follow from the fact that light follows what is called a light)like or null geodesic1a generali=ation of the straight lines along which light travels
in classical physics .uch geodesics are the generali=ation of the invariance of lightspeed in special relativity
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As one e/amines suitable model spacetimes *either the
e/terior .chwar=schild solution or, for more than a single mass, the post)'ewtonian e/pansion+,
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several effects of gravity on light propagation emerge Although the
bending of light can also be derived by e/tending theuniversality of free fall to light,
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the angle of deflection resulting from such calculations is only half the value given by
general relativity
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Hlosely related to light deflection is the gravitational time delay *or .hapiro effect+, the phenomenon that light signals take longer to move through a gravitational field than
they would in the absence of that field ,here have been numerous successful tests of this prediction
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&n theparameteri=ed post)'ewtonian formalism *99'+,
measurements of both the deflection of light and the gravitational time delay determine a parameter called P, which encodes the influence of gravity on the geometry of
space
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[edit]Gravitational waves
Main article: !ravitational %aves
>ing of test particles influenced by gravitational wave
5ne of several analogies between weak)field gravity and electromagnetism is that, analogous toelectromagnetic waves, there are gravitational wavesG ripples in the metric
of spacetime that propagate at the speed of light
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,he simplest type of such a wave can be visuali=ed by its action on a ring of freely floating particles *upper image to
the right+ A sine wave propagating through such a ring towards the reader distorts the ring in a characteristic, rhythmic fashion *lower, animated image to the right+
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.ince !instein(s e-uations are non)linear, arbitrarily strong gravitational waves do not obey linear superposition, making their description difficult 0owever, for weak
fields, a linear appro/imation can be made .uch lineari=ed gravitational waves are sufficiently accurate to describe the e/ceedingly weak waves that are e/pected to
arrive here on !arth from far)off cosmic events, which typically result in relative distances increasing and decreasing by 19
; 21
or less Data)analysis methods routinely
make use of the fact that these lineari=ed waves can be Fourier decomposed
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.ome e/act solutions describe gravitational waves without any appro/imation, eg, a wave train traveling through empty space
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or so)calledGowdy universes, varieties
of an e/panding cosmos filled with gravitational waves
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;ut for gravitational waves produced in astrophysically relevant situations, such as the merger of two black
holes, numerical methods are presently the only way to construct appropriate models
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[edit]'r!ital effects and the relativity of direction
Main article: $epler problem in general relativity
General relativity differs from classical mechanics in a number of predictions concerning orbiting bodies &t predicts an overall rotation *precession+ of planetary orbits, as
well as orbital decay caused by the emission of gravitational waves and effects related to the relativity of direction
[edit](recession of a"sides
'ewtonian *red+ vs !insteinian orbit *blue+ of a lone planet orbiting a star
&n general relativity, the apsides of any orbit *the point of the orbiting body(s closest approach to the system(s center of mass+ will precess1the orbit is not an ellipse, but
akin to an ellipse that rotates on its focus, resulting in a rose curve)like shape *see image+ !instein first derived this result by using an appro/imate metric representing
the 'ewtonian limit and treating the orbiting body as a test particle For him, the fact that his theory gave a straightforward e/planation of the anomalous perihelion shift of
the planet Mercury, discovered earlier by Krbain 4e Qerrier in "E7#, was important evidence that he had at last identified the correct form of the gravitational field
e-uations
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,he effect can also be derived by using either the e/act .chwar=schild metric *describing spacetime around a spherical mass+
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or the much more general post)
'ewtonian formalism
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&t is due to the influence of gravity on the geometry of space and to the contribution of self)energyto a body(s gravity *encoded in
the nonlinearity of !instein(s e-uations+
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>elativistic precession has been observed for all planets that allow for accurate precession measurements *Mercury, Qenus and
the !arth+,
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as well as in binary pulsar systems, where it is larger by five orders of magnitude
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[edit]'r!ital decay
5rbital decay for 9.>"#"@R"6G time shift in seconds, tracked over three decades
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According to general relativity, a binary system will emit gravitational waves, thereby losing energy Due to this loss, the distance between the two orbiting bodies
decreases, and so does their orbital period Within the solar system or for ordinary double stars, the effect is too small to be observable ,his is not the case for a
close binary pulsar, a system of two orbiting neutron stars, one of which is a pulsarG from the pulsar, observers on !arth receive a regular series of radio pulses that can
serve as a highly accurate clock, which allows precise measurements of the orbital period .ince the neutron stars are very compact, significant amounts of energy are
emitted in the form of gravitational radiation
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,he first observation of a decrease in orbital period due to the emission of gravitational waves was made by 0ulse and ,aylor, using the binary pulsar 9.>"#"@R"6 they
had discovered in "#8B ,his was the first detection of gravitational waves, albeit indirect, for which they were awarded the "##@ 'obel 9ri=e in physics
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.ince then,
several other binary pulsars have been found, in particular the double pulsar 9.> O08@8)@0@#, in which both stars are pulsars
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[edit]Geodetic "recession and frame$dragging
Main articles: !eodetic precession and Frame dragging
.everal relativistic effects are directly related to the relativity of direction
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5ne is geodetic precessionG the a/is direction of a gyroscope in free fall in curved spacetime
will change when compared, for instance, with the direction of light received from distant stars1even though such a gyroscope represents the way of keeping a direction
as stable as possible *Aparallel transportA+
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For the Moon)!arth)system, this effect has been measured with the help of lunar laser ranging
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More recently, it has been
measured for test masses aboard the satellite Gravity 9robe ; to a precision of better than "S
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'ear a rotating mass, there are so)called gravitomagnetic or frame)dragging effects A distant observer will determine that ob2ects close to the mass get Adragged aroundA
,his is most e/treme for rotating black holes where, for any ob2ect entering a =one known as the ergosphere, rotation is inevitable
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.uch effects can again be tested
through their influence on the orientation of gyroscopes in free fall
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.omewhat controversial tests have been performed using the 4AG!5. satellites, confirming the
relativistic prediction
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Also the Mars Global .urveyor probe around Mars has been used
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A precision measurement is the main aim of the Gravity 9robe ; mission ,he geodetic effect was confirmed to better than 07S accuracy
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[edit])stro"hysical a""lications
[edit]Gravitational lensing
Main article: !ravitational lensing
!instein crossG four images of the same astronomical ob2ect, produced by agravitational lens
,he deflection of light by gravity is responsible for a new class of astronomical phenomena &f a massive ob2ect is situated between the astronomer and a distant target
ob2ect with appropriate mass and relative distances, the astronomer will see multiple distorted images of the target .uch effects are known as gravitational lensing
$#"%
Depending on the configuration, scale, and mass distribution, there can be two or more images, a bright ring known as an !instein ring, or partial rings called arcs
$#:%
,he earliest e/ample was discovered in "#8#3
$#@%
since then, more than a hundred gravitational lenses have been observed
$#B%
!ven if the multiple images are too close
to each other to be resolved, the effect can still be measured, eg, as an overall brightening of the target ob2ect3 a number of such Amicrolensing eventsA have been
observed
$#7%
Gravitational lensing has developed into a tool of observational astronomy &t is used to detect the presence and distribution of dark matter, provide a Anatural telescopeA
for observing distant gala/ies, and to obtain an independent estimate of the 0ubble constant .tatistical evaluations of lensing data provide valuable insight into the
structural evolution of gala/ies
$#6%
[edit]Gravitational wave astronomy
Main articles: !ravitational %aves and !ravitational %ave astronomy
Artist(s impression of the space)borne gravitational wave detector4&.A
5bservations of binary pulsars provide strong indirect evidence for the e/istence of gravitational waves *see 5rbital decay, above+ 0owever, gravitational waves reaching
us from the depths of the cosmos have not been detected directly, which is a ma2or goal of current relativity)related research
$#8%
.everal land)based gravitational wave
detectors are currently in operation, most notably the interferometric detectors G!5 600, 4&G5*three detectors+, ,AMA @00 and Q&>G5
$#E%
A 2oint K.)!uropean space)
based detector, 4&.A, is currently under development,
$##%
with a precursor mission *4&.A 9athfinder+ due for launch in :0":
$"00%
5bservations of gravitational waves promise to complement observations in the electromagnetic spectrum
$"0"%
,hey are e/pected to yield information about black holes
and other dense ob2ects such as neutron stars and white dwarfs, about certain kinds of supernova implosions, and about processes in the very early universe, including
the signature of certain types of hypothetical cosmic string
$"0:%
[edit]*lac+ holes and other com"act o!,ects
Main article: &lac' hole
Whenever the ratio of an ob2ect(s mass to its radius becomes sufficiently large, general relativity predicts the formation of a black hole, a region of space from which
nothing, not even light, can escape &n the currently accepted models of stellar evolution, neutron stars of around "B solar masses, and stellar black holes with a few to a
few do=en solar masses, are thought to be the final state for the evolution of massive stars
$"0@%
Ksually a gala/y has one supermassive black hole with a few million to a
few billion solar masses in its center,
$"0B%
and its presence is thought to have played an important role in the formation of the gala/y and larger cosmic structures
$"07%
.imulation based on the e-uations of general relativityG a star collapsing to form a black hole while emitting gravitational waves
Astronomically, the most important property of compact ob2ects is that they provide a supremely efficient mechanism for converting gravitational energy into
electromagnetic radiation
$"06%
Accretion, the falling ofdust or gaseous matter onto stellar or supermassive black holes, is thought to be responsible for some spectacularly
luminous astronomical ob2ects, notably diverse kinds of active galactic nuclei on galactic scales and stellar)si=e ob2ects such as micro-uasars
$"08%
&n particular, accretion
can lead to relativistic 2ets, focused beams of highly energetic particles that are being flung into space at almost light speed
$"0E%
General relativity plays a central role in
modelling all these phenomena,
$"0#%
and observations provide strong evidence for the e/istence of black holes with the properties predicted by the theory
$""0%
;lack holes are also sought)after targets in the search for gravitational waves *cf Gravitational waves, above+ Merging black hole binaries should lead to some of the
strongest gravitational wave signals reaching detectors here on !arth, and the phase directly before the merger *AchirpA+ could be used as a Astandard candleA to deduce
the distance to the merger eventsJand hence serve as a probe of cosmic e/pansion at large distances
$"""%
,he gravitational waves produced as a stellar black hole
plunges into a supermassive one should provide direct information about supermassive black hole(s geometry
$"":%
[edit]%osmology
Main article: #hysical cosmology
,he current models of cosmology are based on !instein(s e-uations including cosmological constant T, which has important influence on the large)scale dynamics of the
cosmos,
where gab is the spacetime metric
$""@%
&sotropic and homogeneous solutions of these enhanced e-uations, the Friedmann)4emaCtre)>obertson)Walker solutions,
$""B%
allow physicists to model a universe that has evolved over the past "B billion years from a hot, early ;ig ;ang phase
$""7%
5nce a small number of parameters *for
e/ample the universe(s mean matter density+ have been fi/ed by astronomical observation,
$""6%
further observational data can be used to put the models to the test
$""8%
9redictions, all successful, include the initial abundance of chemical elements formed in a period of primordial nucleosynthesis,
$""E%
the large)scale structure of
the universe,
$""#%
and the e/istence and properties of a Athermal echoA from the early cosmos, the cosmic background radiation
$":0%
Astronomical observations of the cosmological e/pansion rate allow the total amount of matter in the universe to be estimated, although the nature of that matter
remains mysterious in part About #0S of all matter appears to be so)called dark matter, which has mass *or, e-uivalently, gravitational influence+, but does not
interact electromagnetically and, hence, cannot be observed directly
$":"%
,here is no generally accepted description of this new kind of matter, within the framework
of known particle physics
$"::%
or otherwise
$":@%
5bservational evidence from redshift surveys of distant supernovae and measurements of the cosmic background
radiation also show that the evolution of our universe is significantly influenced by acosmological constant resulting in an acceleration of cosmic e/pansion or,
e-uivalently, by a form of energy with an unusual e-uation of state, known as dark energy, the nature of which remains unclear
$":B%
A so)called inflationary phase,
$":7%
an additional phase of strongly accelerated e/pansion at cosmic times of around 19
; ""
seconds, was hypothesi=ed in "#E0 to
account for several pu==ling observations that were une/plained by classical cosmological models, such as the nearly perfect homogeneity of the cosmic
background radiation
$":6%
>ecent measurements of the cosmic background radiation have resulted in the first evidence for this scenario
$":8%
0owever, there is a
bewildering variety of possible inflationary scenarios, which cannot be restricted by current observations
$":E%
An even larger -uestion is the physics of the earliest
universe, prior to the inflationary phase and close to where the classical models predict the big bang singularity An authoritative answer would re-uire a complete
theory of -uantum gravity, which has not yet been developed
$":#%
*cf the section on -uantum gravity, below+
[edit])dvanced conce"ts
[edit]%ausal structure and glo!al geometry
Main article: Causal structure
9enrose diagram of an infinite Minkowskiuniverse
&n general relativity, no material body can catch up with or overtake a light pulse 'o influence from an event A can reach any other location U before light sent out
at A to U &n conse-uence, an e/ploration of all light worldlines *null geodesics+ yields key information about the spacetime(s causal structure ,his structure can be
displayed using 9enrose)Harter diagrams in which infinitely large regions of space and infinite time intervals are shrunk *AcompactifiedA+ so as to fit onto a finite
map, while light still travels along diagonals as in standard spacetime diagrams
$"@0%
Aware of the importance of causal structure, >oger 9enrose and others developed what is known as global geometry &n global geometry, the ob2ect of study is not
one particular solution *or family of solutions+ to !instein(s e-uations >ather, relations that hold true for all geodesics, such as the >aychaudhuri e-uation, and
additional non)specific assumptions about the nature of matter *usually in the form of so)called energy conditions+ are used to derive general results
$"@"%
[edit]Horizons
Main articles: Hori(on )general relativity*, +o hair theorem, and &lac' hole mechanics
Ksing global geometry, some spacetimes can be shown to contain boundaries called hori=ons, which demarcate one region from the rest of spacetime ,he best)
known e/amples are black holesG if mass is compressed into a sufficiently compact region of space *as specified in thehoop con2ecture, the relevant length scale is
the .chwar=schild radius
$"@:%
+, no light from inside can escape to the outside .ince no ob2ect can overtake a light pulse, all interior matter is imprisoned as well
9assage from the e/terior to the interior is still possible, showing that the boundary, the black hole(s hori(on, is not a physical barrier
$"@@%
,he ergosphere of a rotating black hole, which plays a key role when it comes to e/tracting energy from such a black hole
!arly studies of black holes relied on e/plicit solutions of !instein(s e-uations, notably the spherically symmetric .chwar=schild solution *used to describe
a static black hole+ and the a/isymmetric <err solution *used to describe a rotating, stationary black hole, and introducing interesting features such as
the ergosphere+ Ksing global geometry, later studies have revealed more general properties of black holes &n the long run, they are rather simple ob2ects
characteri=ed by eleven parameters specifying energy, linear momentum, angular momentum, location at a specified time and electric charge ,his is stated by
the black hole uni-ueness theoremsG Ablack holes have no hairA, that is, no distinguishing marks like the hairstyles of humans &rrespective of the comple/ity of a
gravitating ob2ect collapsing to form a black hole, the ob2ect that results *having emitted gravitational waves+ is very simple
$"@B%
!ven more remarkably, there is a general set of laws known as black hole mechanics, which is analogous to the laws of thermodynamics For instance, by the
second law of black hole mechanics, the area of the event hori=on of a general black hole will never decrease with time, analogous to the entropy of a
thermodynamic system ,his limits the energy that can be e/tracted by classical means from a rotating black hole *eg by the 9enrose process+
$"@7%
,here is strong
evidence that the laws of black hole mechanics are, in fact, a subset of the laws of thermodynamics, and that the black hole area is proportional to its entropy
$"@6%
,his leads to a modification of the original laws of black hole mechanicsG for instance, as the second law of black hole mechanics becomes part of the second
law of thermodynamics, it is possible for black hole area to decrease1as long as other processes ensure that, overall, entropy increases As thermodynamical
ob2ects with non)=ero temperature, black holes should emit thermal radiation .emi)classical calculations indicate that indeed they do, with the surface gravity
playing the role of temperature in 9lanck(s law ,his radiation is known as 0awking radiation *cf the -uantum theory section, below+
$"@8%
,here are other types of hori=ons &n an e/panding universe, an observer may find that some regions of the past cannot be observed *Aparticle hori=onA+, and some
regions of the future cannot be influenced *event hori=on+
$"@E%
!ven in flat Minkowski space, when described by an accelerated observer *>indler space+, there will
be hori=ons associated with a semi)classical radiation known as Knruh radiation
$"@#%
[edit]-ingularities
Main article: "pacetime singularity
Another general1and -uite disturbing1feature of general relativity is the appearance of spacetime boundaries known as singularities .pacetime can be e/plored
by following up on timelike and lightlike geodesics1all possible ways that light and particles in free fall can travel ;ut some solutions of !instein(s e-uations have
Aragged edgesA1regions known asspacetime singularities, where the paths of light and falling particles come to an abrupt end, and geometry becomes ill)defined
&n the more interesting cases, these are Acurvature singularitiesA, where geometrical -uantities characteri=ing spacetime curvature, such as the >icci scalar, take on
infinite values
$"B0%
Well)known e/amples of spacetimes with future singularities1where worldlines end1are the .chwar=schild solution, which describes a
singularity inside an eternal static black hole,
$"B"%
or the <err solution with its ring)shaped singularity inside an eternal rotating black hole
$"B:%
,he Friedmann)
4emaCtre)>obertson)Walker solutions and other spacetimes describing universes have past singularities on which worldlines begin, namely big bang singularities,
and some have future singularities *big crunch+ as well
$"B@%
Given that these e/amples are all highly symmetric1and thus simplified1it is tempting to conclude that the occurrence of singularities is an artefact of ideali=ation
$"BB%
,he famoussingularity theorems, proved using the methods of global geometry, say otherwiseG singularities are a generic feature of general relativity, and
unavoidable once the collapse of an ob2ect with realistic matter properties has proceeded beyond a certain stage
$"B7%
and also at the beginning of a wide class of
e/panding universes
$"B6%
0owever, the theorems say little about the properties of singularities, and much of current research is devoted to characteri=ing these
entities( generic structure *hypothesi=ed eg by the so)called ;<4 con2ecture+
$"B8%
,hecosmic censorship hypothesis states that all realistic future singularities *no
perfect symmetries, matter with realistic properties+ are safely hidden away behind a hori=on, and thus invisible to all distant observers While no formal proof yet
e/ists, numerical simulations offer supporting evidence of its validity
$"BE%
[edit]Evolution equations
Main article: Initial value formulation )general relativity*
!ach solution of !instein(s e-uation encompasses the whole history of a universe 1 it is not 2ust some snapshot of how things are, but a whole, possibly matter)
filled, spacetime &t describes the state of matter and geometry everywhere and at every moment in that particular universe Due to its general covariance,
!instein(s theory is not sufficient by itself to determine the time evolution of the metric tensor &t must be combined with a coordinate condition, which is analogous
to gauge fi/ing in other field theories
$"B#%
,o understand !instein(s e-uations as partial differential e-uations, it is helpful to formulate them in a way that describes the evolution of the universe over time
,his is done in so)called A@R"A formulations, where spacetime is split into three space dimensions and one time dimension ,he best)known e/ample is the ADM
formalism
$"70%
,hese decompositions show that the spacetime evolution e-uations of general relativity are well)behavedG solutions always e/ist, and
are uni-uely defined, once suitable initial conditions have been specified
$"7"%
.uch formulations of !instein(s field e-uations are the basis of numerical relativity
$"7:%
[edit]Glo!al and quasi$local quantities
Main article: Mass in general relativity
,he notion of evolution e-uations is intimately tied in with another aspect of general relativistic physics &n !instein(s theory, it turns out to be impossible to find a
general definition for a seemingly simple property such as a system(s total mass *or energy+ ,he main reason is that the gravitational field1like any physical field1
must be ascribed a certain energy, but that it proves to be fundamentally impossible to locali=e that energy
$"7@%
'evertheless, there are possibilities to define a system(s total mass, either using a hypothetical Ainfinitely distant observerA *ADM mass+
$"7B%
or suitable symmetries
*<omar mass+
$"77%
&f one e/cludes from the system(s total mass the energy being carried away to infinity by gravitational waves, the result is the so)called ;ondi
mass at null infinity
$"76%
Oust as in classical physics, it can be shown that these masses are positive
$"78%
Horresponding global definitions e/ist
for momentum and angular momentum
$"7E%
,here have also been a number of attempts to define quasi,local -uantities, such as the mass of an isolated system
formulated using only -uantities defined within a finite region of space containing that system ,he hope is to obtain a -uantity useful for general statements
about isolated systems, such as a more precise formulation of the hoop con2ecture
$"7#%
[edit]Relationshi" with quantum theory
&f general relativity is considered one of the two pillars of modern physics, -uantum theory, the basis of understanding matter from elementary particles to solid state
physics, is the other
$"60%
0owever, it is still an open -uestion as to how the concepts of -uantum theory can be reconciled with those of general relativity
[edit].uantum field theory in curved s"acetime
Main article: -uantum field theory in curved spacetime
5rdinary -uantum field theories, which form the basis of modern elementary particle physics, are defined in flat Minkowski space, which is an e/cellent
appro/imation when it comes to describing the behavior of microscopic particles in weak gravitational fields like those found on !arth
$"6"%
&n order to describe
situations in which gravity is strong enough to influence *-uantum+ matter, yet not strong enough to re-uire -uanti=ation itself, physicists have formulated -uantum
field theories in curved spacetime ,hese theories rely on classical general relativity to describe a curved background spacetime, and define a generali=ed -uantum
field theory to describe the behavior of -uantum matter within that spacetime
$"6:%
Ksing this formalism, it can be shown that black holes emit a blackbody spectrum
of particles known as 0awking radiation, leading to the possibility that they evaporate over time
$"6@%
As briefly mentioned above, this radiation plays an important
role for the thermodynamics of black holes
$"6B%
[edit].uantum gravity
Main article: -uantum gravity
"ee also: "tring theory, Canonical general relativity, .oop quantum gravity, and Causal sets.
,he demand for consistency between a -uantum description of matter and a geometric description of spacetime,
$"67%
as well as the appearance
of singularities *where curvature length scales become microscopic+, indicate the need for a full theory of -uantum gravityG for an ade-uate description of the interior
of black holes, and of the very early universe, a theory is re-uired in which gravity and the associated geometry of spacetime are described in the language of
-uantum physics
$"66%
Despite ma2or efforts, no complete and consistent theory of -uantum gravity is currently known, even though a number of promising
candidates e/ist
$"68%
9ro2ection of a Halabi)Fau manifold, one of the ways of compactifying the e/tra dimensions posited by string theory
Attempts to generali=e ordinary -uantum field theories, used in elementary particle physics to describe fundamental interactions, so as to include gravity have led to
serious problems At low energies, this approach proves successful, in that it results in an acceptable effective *-uantum+ field theory of gravity
$"6E%
At very high
energies, however, the result are models devoid of all predictive power *Anon)renormali=abilityA+
$"6#%
.imple spin network of the type used in loop -uantum gravity
5ne attempt to overcome these limitations is string theory, a -uantum theory not of point particles, but of minute one)dimensional e/tended ob2ects
$"80%
,he theory
promises to be a unified description of all particles and interactions, including gravity3
$"8"%
the price to pay is unusual features such as si/ e/tra dimensions of space
in addition to the usual three
$"8:%
&n what is called the second superstring revolution, it was con2ectured that both string theory and a unification of general relativity
and supersymmetry known as supergravity
$"8@%
form part of a hypothesi=ed eleven)dimensional model known as M)theory, which would constitute a uni-uely defined
and consistent theory of -uantum gravity
$"8B%
Another approach starts with the canonical -uanti=ation procedures of -uantum theory Ksing the initial)value)formulation of general relativity *cf the section on
evolution e-uations, above+, the result is the Wheeler)deWitt e-uation *an analogue of the .chr?dinger e-uation+ which, regrettably, turns out to be ill)defined
$"87%
0owever, with the introduction of what are now known as Ashtekar variables,
$"86%
this leads to a promising model known as loop -uantum gravity .pace is
represented by a web)like structure called a spin network, evolving over time in discrete steps
$"88%
Depending on which features of general relativity and -uantum theory are accepted unchanged, and on what level changes are introduced,
$"8E%
there are numerous
other attempts to arrive at a viable theory of -uantum gravity, some e/amples being dynamical triangulations,
$"8#%
causal sets,
$"E0%
twistor models
$"E"%
or the path)
integral based models of -uantum cosmology
$"E:%
All candidate theories still have ma2or formal and conceptual problems to overcome ,hey also face the common problem that, as yet, there is no way to put
-uantum gravity predictions to e/perimental tests *and thus to decide between the candidates where their predictions vary+, although there is hope for this to
change as future data from cosmological observations and particle physics e/periments becomes available
$"E@%
[edit]%urrent status
General relativity has emerged as a highly successful model of gravitation and cosmology, which has so far passed every unambiguous observational and
e/perimental test !ven so, there are strong indications the theory is incomplete
$"EB%
,he problem of -uantum gravity and the -uestion of the reality of spacetime
singularities remain open
$"E7%
5bservational data that is taken as evidence for dark energy and dark matter could indicate the need for new physics
$"E6%
!ven taken
as is, general relativity is rich with possibilities for further e/ploration Mathematical relativists seek to understand the nature of singularities and the fundamental
properties of !instein(s e-uations,
$"E8%
and increasingly powerful computer simulations *such as those describing merging black holes+ are run
$"EE%
,he race for the
first direct detection of gravitational waves continues apace,
$"E#%
in the hope of creating opportunities to test the theory(s validity for much stronger gravitational fields
than has been possible to date
$"#0%
More than ninety years after its publication, general relativity remains a highly active area of research
$"#"%