Refrigeration

1.1. Introduction
Refrigeration may be defined as the process of achieving and maintaining a
temperature below that of the surroundings, the aim being to cool some product or space to
the required temperature. One of the most important applications of refrigeration has been the
preservation of perishable food products by storing them at low temperatures. Refrigeration
systems are also used extensively for providing thermal comfort to human beings by means
of air conditioning. Air Conditioning refers to the treatment of air so as to simultaneously
control its temperature, moisture content, cleanliness, odour and circulation, as required by
occupants, a process, or products in the space.
Q: Which of the following can be called as a refrigeration process?
a) Cooling of hot ingot from 1000oC to room temperature
b) Cooling of a pot of water by mixing it with a large block of ice
c) Cooling of human beings using a ceiling fan
d) Cooling of a hot cup of coffee by leaving it on a table
e) Cooling of hot water by mixing it with tap water
f) Cooling of water by creating vacuum over it
Ans: b) and f)
1.2. Natural Refrigeration
In olden days refrigeration was achieved by natural means such as the use of ice or
evaporative cooling. In earlier times, ice was either:
1. Transported from colder regions,
2. Harvested in winter and stored in ice houses for summer use or,
3. Made during night by cooling of water by radiation to stratosphere
1.2.1. Art of Ice making by Nocturnal Cooling:
The art of making ice by nocturnal cooling was perfected in India. In this method ice
was made by keeping a thin layer of water in a shallow earthen tray, and then exposing the
tray to the night sky. Compacted hay of about 0.3 m thickness was used as insulation. The
water looses heat by radiation to the stratosphere, which is at around -55C and by early
morning hours the water in the trays freezes to ice. This method of ice production was very
popular in India.
1.2.2. Evaporative Cooling:
As the name indicates, evaporative cooling is the process of reducing the temperature
of a system by evaporation of water. Human beings perspire and dissipate their metabolic
heat by evaporative cooling if the ambient temperature is more than skin temperature.
Animals such as the hippopotamus and buffalo coat themselves with mud for evaporative
cooling. Evaporative cooling has been used in India for centuries to obtain cold water in
summer by storing the water in earthen pots. The water permeates through the pores of
earthen vessel to its outer surface where it evaporates to the surrounding, absorbing its latent
heat in part from the vessel, which cools the water.
Evaporative cooling by placing wet straw mats on the windows is also
very common in India. The straw mat made from khus adds its inherent perfume also to the
air. Now-a-days desert coolers are being used in hot and dry areas to provide cooling in
summer.
1.2.3. Cooling by Salt Solutions:
Certain substances such as common salt, when added to water dissolve in water and
absorb its heat of solution from water (endothermic process). This reduces the temperature of
the solution (water+salt). Sodium Chloride salt (NaCl) can yield temperatures up to -20C
and Calcium Chloride (CaCl2) up to - 50C in properly insulated containers. However, as it is
this process has limited application, as the dissolved salt has to be recovered from its solution
by heating.
Q. The disadvantages of natural refrigeration methods are:
a) They are expensive
b) They are uncertain
c) They are not environment friendly
d) They are dependent on local conditions
Ans: b) and d)
Q. Evaporative cooling systems are ideal for:
a) Hot and dry conditions
b) Hot and humid conditions
c) Cold and humid conditions
d) Moderately hot but humid conditions
Ans: a)
1.3. Artificial Refrigeration
Refrigeration as it is known these days is produced by artificial means. Though it is
very difficult to make a clear demarcation between natural and artificial refrigeration, it is
generally agreed that the history of artificial refrigeration began in the year 1755, when the
Scottish professor William Cullen made the first refrigerating machine, which could produce
a small quantity of ice in the laboratory. Based on the working principle, refrigeration
systems can be classified as vapour compression systems, vapour absorption systems, gas
cycle systems etc.
1.3.1. Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems:
The basis of modern refrigeration is the ability of liquids to absorb enormous
quantities of heat as they boil and evaporate. Professor William Cullen of the University of
Edinburgh demonstrated this in 1755 by placing some water in thermal contact with ether
under a receiver of a vacuum pump. The evaporation rate of ether increased due to the
vacuum pump and water could be frozen. This process involves two thermodynamic
concepts, the vapour pressure and the latent heat. A liquid is in thermal equilibrium with its
own vapor at a pressure called the saturation pressure, which depends on the temperature
alone. If the pressure is increased for example in a pressure cooker, the water boils at higher
temperature. The second concept is that the evaporation of liquid requires latent heat during
evaporation. If latent heat is extracted from the liquid, the liquid gets cooled. The temperature
of ether will remain constant as long as the vacuum pump maintains a pressure equal to
saturation pressure at the desired temperature.
This requires the removal of all the vapors
formed due to vaporization. If a lower temperature is desired, then a lower saturation pressure
will have to be maintained by the vacuum pump. The component of the modern day
refrigeration system where cooling is produced by this method is called evaporator.
If this process of cooling is to be made continuous the vapors have to be recycled by
condensation to the liquid state. The condensation process requires heat rejection to the
surroundings. It can be condensed at atmospheric temperature by increasing its pressure. Hence,
a compressor is required to maintain a high pressure so that the evaporating
vapours can condense at a temperature greater than that of the surroundings.
The man responsible for making a practical vapor compression refrigeration system
was James Harrison who took a patent in 1856 for a vapour compression system using ether,
alcohol or ammonia. Charles Tellier of France patented in 1864, a refrigeration system using
dimethyl ether which has a normal boiling point of 23.6C.
Carl von Linde in Munich introduced double acting ammonia compressor. It required
pressures of more than 10 atmospheres in the condenser. Since the normal boiling point of
ammonia is -33.3C, vacuum was not required on the low pressure side. Since then ammonia
is used widely in large refrigeration plants.
David Boyle, in fact made the first NH3 system in 1871 in San Francisco. John
Enright had also developed a similar system in 1876 in Buffalo N.Y. Franz Windhausen
developed carbon dioxide (CO2) based vapor compression system in Germany in 1886. The
carbon dioxide compressor requires a pressure of about 80 atmospheres and therefore a very
heavy construction. Linde in 1882 and T.S.C. Lowe in 1887 tried similar systems in USA.
The CO2 system is a very safe system and was used in ship refrigeration until 1960s. Raoul
Pictet used SO2 (NBP -10C) as refrigerant. Its lowest pressure was high enough to prevent
the leakage of air into the system.
Palmer used C2H5Cl in 1890 in a rotary compressor. He mixed it with C2H5Br to
reduce its flammability. Edmund Copeland and Harry Edwards used iso-butane in 1920 in
small refrigerators. It disappeared by 1930 when it was replaced by CH3Cl. Dichloroethylene
(Dielene or Dieline) was used by Carrier in centrifugal compressors in 1922-26.









Figure 1.3 shows the basic components of a vapour compression refrigeration system.
As shown in the figure the basic system consists of an evaporator, compressor, condenser and
an expansion valve. The refrigeration effect is obtained in the cold region as heat is extracted
by the vaporization of refrigerant in the evaporator. The refrigerant vapour from the
evaporator is compressed in the compressor to a high pressure at which its saturation
temperature is greater than the ambient or any other heat sink. Hence when the high pressure,
high temperature refrigerant flows through the condenser, condensation of the vapour into
liquid takes place by heat rejection to the heat sink. To complete the cycle, the high pressure
liquid is made to flow through an expansion valve. In the expansion valve the pressure and
temperature of the refrigerant decrease. This low pressure and low temperature refrigerant
vapour evaporates in the evaporator taking heat from the cold region. It should be observed
that the system operates on a closed cycle. The system requires input in the form of
mechanical work. It extracts heat from a cold space and rejects heat to a high temperature
heat sink.


A refrigeration system can also be used as a heat pump, in which the useful output is
the high temperature heat rejected at the condenser. Alternatively, a refrigeration system can
be used for providing cooling in summer and heating in winter. Such systems have been built
and are available now.
10.2. Vapour Compression Refrigeration Systems
As mentioned, vapour compression refrigeration systems are the most commonly used
among all refrigeration systems. As the name implies, these systems belong to the general
class of vapour cycles, wherein the working fluid (refrigerant) undergoes phase change at
least during one process. In a vapour compression refrigeration system, refrigeration is
obtained as the refrigerant evaporates at low temperatures. The input to the system is in
the form of mechanical energy required to run the compressor. Hence these systems are
also called as mechanical refrigeration systems. Vapour compression refrigeration systems are
available to suit almost all applications with the refrigeration capacities
ranging from few Watts to few megawatts. A wide variety of refrigerants can be used in
these systems to suit different applications, capacities etc. The actual vapour compression
cycle is based on Evans-Perkins cycle, which is also called as reverse Rankine cycle.
Before the actual cycle is discussed and analysed, it is essential to find the upper limit of
performance of vapour compression cycles. This limit is set by a completely reversible
cycle.
Carnot refrigeration cycle is a completely reversible cycle, hence is used as a model of
perfection for a refrigeration cycle operating between a constant temperature heat source
and sink. It is used as reference against which the real cycles are compared. Figures 10.1
(a) and (b) show the schematic of a Carnot vapour compression refrigeration system and
the operating cycle on T-s diagram.
As shown in Fig.10.1(a), the basic Carnot refrigeration system for pure vapour consists of
four components: compressor, condenser, turbine and evaporator. Refrigeration effect (q4-
1 = qe) is obtained at the evaporator as the refrigerant undergoes the process of
vaporization (process 4-1) and extracts the latent heat from the low temperature heat
source. The low temperature, low pressure vapour is then compressed isentropically in
the compressor to the heat sink temperature Tc. The refrigerant pressure increases from Pe
to Pc during the compression process (process 1-2) and the exit vapour is saturated. Next
the high pressure, high temperature saturated refrigerant undergoes the process of
condensation in the condenser (process 2-3) as it rejects the heat of condensation (q2-3 =
qc) to an external heat sink at Tc. The high pressure saturated liquid then flows through
the turbine and undergoes isentropic expansion (process 3-4). During this process, the
pressure and temperature fall from Pc,Tc to Pe, Te. Since a saturated liquid is expanded in
the turbine, some amount of liquid flashes into vapour and the exit condition lies in the
two-phase region. This low temperature and low pressure liquid-vapour mixture then
enters the evaporator completing the cycle. Thus as shown in Fig.10.1(b), the cycle
involves two isothermal heat transfer processes (processes 4-1 and 2-3) and two
isentropic work transfer processes (processes 1-2 and 3-4). Heat is extracted isothermally
at evaporator temperature Te during process 4-1, heat is rejected isothermally at
condenser temperature Tc during process 2-3. Work is supplied to the compressor during
the isentropic compression (1-2) of refrigerant vapour from evaporator pressure Pe to
condenser pressure Pc, and work is produced by the system as refrigerant liquid expands
isentropically in the turbine from condenser pressure Pc to evaporator pressure Pe. All the
processes are both internally as well as externally reversible, i.e., net entropy generation
for the system and environment is zero.
Applying first and second laws of thermodynamics to the Carnot refrigeration cycle,



now for the reversible, isothermal heat transfer processes 2-3 and 4-1, we can write:


thus the COP of Carnot refrigeration cycle is a function of evaporator and condenser
temperatures only and is independent of the nature of the working substance. This is the
reason why exactly the same expression was obtained for air cycle refrigeration systems
operating on Carnot cycle (Lesson 9). The Carnot COP sets an upper limit for
refrigeration systems operating between two constant temperature thermal reservoirs
(heat source and sink). From Carnots theorems, for the same heat source and sink
temperatures, no irreversible cycle can have COP higher than that of Carnot COP.

It can be seen from the above expression that the COP of a Carnot refrigeration system
increases as the evaporator temperature increases and condenser temperature decreases.
This can be explained very easily with the help of the T-s diagram (Fig.10.2). As shown
in the figure, COP is the ratio of area a-1-4-b to the area 1-2-3-4. For a fixed condenser
temperature Tc, as the evaporator temperature Te increases, area a-1-4-b (qe) increases
and area 1-2-3-4 (wnet) decreases as a result, COP increases rapidly. Similarly for a fixed
evaporator temperature Te, as the condensing temperature Tc increases, the net work input
(area 1-2-3-4) increases, even though cooling output remains constant, as a result the
COP falls. Figure 10.3 shows the variation of Carnot COP with evaporator temperature
for different condenser temperatures. It can be seen that the COP increases sharply with
evaporator temperatures, particularly at high condensing temperatures. COP reduces as
the condenser temperature increases, but the effect becomes marginal at low evaporator
temperatures. It will be shown later that actual vapour compression refrigeration systems
also behave in a manner similar to that of Carnot refrigeration systems as far as the
performance trends are concerned.

Practical difficulties with Carnot refrigeration system:
It is difficult to build and operate a Carnot refrigeration system due to the following
practical difficulties:
i. During process 1-2, a mixture consisting of liquid and vapour have to be compressed
isentropically in the compressor. Such a compression is known as wet compression due to
the presence of liquid. In practice, wet compression is very difficult especially with
reciprocating compressors. This problem is particularly severe in case of high speed
reciprocating compressors, which get damaged due to the presence of liquid droplets in
the vapour. Even though some types of compressors can tolerate the presence of liquid in
vapour, since reciprocating compressors are most widely is refrigeration, traditionally dry
compression (compression of vapour only) is preferred to wet compression.
ii. The second practical difficulty with Carnot cycle is that using a turbine and extracting
work from the system during the isentropic expansion of liquid refrigerant is not
economically feasible, particularly in case of small capacity systems. This is due to the
fact that the specific work output (per kilogram of refrigerant) from the turbine is given
by:

since the specific volume of liquid is much smaller compared to the specific volume of a
vapour/gas, the work output from the turbine in case of the liquid will be small. In
addition, if one considers the inefficiencies of the turbine, then the net output will be
further reduced. As a result using a turbine for extracting the work from the high pressure
liquid is not economically justified in most of the cases1.
One way of achieving dry compression in Carnot refrigeration cycle is to have two
compressors one isentropic and one isothermal as shown in Fig.10.4.

As shown in Fig.10.4, the Carnot refrigeration system with dry compression consists of
one isentropic compression process (1-2) from evaporator pressure Pe to an intermediate
pressure Pi and temperature Tc, followed by an isothermal compression process (2-3)
from the intermediate pressure Pi to the condenser pressure Pc. Though with this
modification the problem of wet compression can be avoided, still this modified system is
not practical due to the difficulty in achieving true isothermal compression using highspeed
compressors. In addition, use of two compressors in place of one is not
economically justified.
From the above discussion, it is clear that from practical considerations, the Carnot
refrigeration system need to be modified. Dry compression with a single compressor is
possible if the isothermal heat rejection process is replaced by isobaric heat rejection
process. Similarly, the isentropic expansion process can be replaced by an isenthalpic
throttling process. A refrigeration system, which incorporates these two changes is
known as Evans-Perkins or reverse Rankine cycle. This is the theoretical cycle on which
the actual vapour compression refrigeration systems are based.

10.4. Standard Vapour Compression Refrigeration System (VCRS)
Figure 10.5 shows the schematic of a standard, saturated, single stage (SSS) vapour
compression refrigeration system and the operating cycle on a T s diagram. As shown in
the figure the standard single stage, saturated vapour compression refrigeration system
consists of the following four processes:
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of saturated vapour in compressor
Process 2-3: Isobaric heat rejection in condenser
Process 3-4: Isenthalpic expansion of saturated liquid in expansion device
Process 4-1: Isobaric heat extraction in the evaporator
By comparing with Carnot cycle, it can be seen that the standard vapour compression
refrigeration cycle introduces two irreversibilities: 1) Irreversibility due to non-isothermal
heat rejection (process 2-3) and 2) Irreversibility due to isenthalpic throttling (process 3-
4). As a result, one would expect the theoretical COP of standard cycle to be smaller than
that of a Carnot system for the same heat source and sink temperatures. Due to these
irreversibilities, the cooling effect reduces and work input increases, thus reducing the
system COP. This can be explained easily with the help of the cycle diagrams on T s
charts. Figure 10.6(a) shows comparison between Carnot and standard VCRS in terms of
refrigeration effect.



thus there is a reduction in refrigeration effect when the isentropic expansion process of
Carnot cycle is replaced by isenthalpic throttling process of VCRS cycle, this reduction is
equal to the area d-4-4-c-d (area A2) and is known as throttling loss. The throttling loss
is equal to the enthalpy difference between state points 3 and 4, i.e,

It is easy to show that the loss in refrigeration effect increases as the evaporator
temperature decreases and/or condenser temperature increases. A practical consequence
of this is a requirement of higher refrigerant mass flow rate.
The heat rejection in case of VCRS cycle also increases when compared to Carnot cycle.

As shown in Fig.10.6(b), the heat rejection in case of Carnot cycle (1-2-3-4) is given
by:

Hence the increase in heat rejection rate of VCRS compared to Carnot cycle is equal to
the area 2-2-2 (area A1). This region is known as superheat horn, and is due to the
replacement of isothermal heat rejection process of Carnot cycle by isobaric heat
rejection in case of VCRS.
Since the heat rejection increases and refrigeration effect reduces when the Carnot cycle
is modified to standard VCRS cycle, the net work input to the VCRS increases compared
to Carnot cycle. The net work input in case of Carnot and VCRS cycles are given by:

To summarize the refrigeration effect and net work input of VCRS cycle are given by:

If we define the cycle efficiency, R as the ratio of COP of VCRS cycle to the COP of
Carnot cycle, then:

The cycle efficiency (also called as second law efficiency) is a good indication of the
deviation of the standard VCRS cycle from Carnot cycle. Unlike Carnot COP, the cycle
efficiency depends very much on the shape of T s diagram, which in turn depends on the
nature of the working fluid.
If we assume that the potential and kinetic energy changes during isentropic compression
process 1-2 are negligible, then the work input w1-2 is given by:

Now as shown in Fig.10.7, if we further assume that the saturated liquid line 3-f
coincides with the constant pressure line Pc in the subcooled region (which is a
reasonably good assumption), then from the 2nd Tds relation;


Substituting these expressions in the expression for net work input, we obtain the
compressor work input to be equal to area 1-2-3-f-1. Now comparing this with the earlier
expression for work input (area 1-2-3-4-c-d-4-1), we conclude that area A2 is equal to
area A3.
As mentioned before, the losses due to superheat (area A1) and throttling (area A2 A3)
depend very much on the shape of the vapor dome (saturation liquid and vapour curves)
on T s diagram. The shape of the saturation curves depends on the nature of refrigerant.
Figure 10.8 shows T s diagrams for three different types of refrigerants.

Refrigerants such as ammonia, carbon di-oxide and water belong to Type 1. These
refrigerants have symmetrical saturation curves (vapour dome), as a result both the
superheat and throttling losses (areas A1 and A3) are significant. That means deviation of
VCRS cycle from Carnot cycle could be significant when these refrigerants are used as
working fluids. Refrigerants such as CFC11, CFC12, HFC134a belong to Type 2, these
refrigerants have small superheat losses (area A1) but large throttling losses (area A3).
High molecular weight refrigerants such as CFC113, CFC114, CFC115, iso-butane
belonging to Type 3, do not have any superheat losses, i.e., when the compression inlet
condition is saturated (point 1), then the exit condition will be in the 2-phase region, as a
result it is not necessary to superheat the refrigerant. However, these refrigerants
experience significant throttling losses. Since the compressor exit condition of Type 3
refrigerants may fall in the two-phase region, there is a danger of wet compression
leading to compressor damage. Hence for these refrigerants, the compressor inlet
condition is chosen such that the exit condition does not fall in the two-phase region. This
implies that the refrigerant at the inlet to the compressor should be superheated, the
extent of which depends on the refrigerant.
Superheat and throttling losses:
It can be observed from the discussions that the superheat loss is fundamentally different
from the throttling loss. The superheat loss increases only the work input to the
compressor, it does not effect the refrigeration effect. In heat pumps superheat is not a
loss, but a part of the useful heating effect. However, the process of throttling is
inherently irreversible, and it increases the work input and also reduces the refrigeration
effect.
1Analysis of standard vapour compression refrigeration
system
A simple analysis of standard vapour compression refrigeration system can be carried out
by assuming a) Steady flow; b) negligible kinetic and potential energy changes across
each component, and c) no heat transfer in connecting pipe lines. The steady flow energy
equation is applied to each of the four components.
Evaporator: Heat transfer rate at evaporator or refrigeration capacity is given by:

Where is the refrigerant mass flow rate in kg/s, h1 and h4 are the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg)
at the exit and inlet to the evaporator, respectively. (h1 h4 ) is known as specific refrigeration
effect or simply refrigeration effect, which is equal to the heat transferred at
the evaporator per kilogram of refrigerant. The evaporator pressure Pe is the saturation
pressure corresponding to evaporator temperature Te, i.e.,

Compressor: Power input to the compressor, is given by:

where h2 and h1 are the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg) at the exit and inlet to the compressor,
respectively. (h 2 h1 ) is known as specific work of compression or simply work of
compression, which is equal to the work input to the compressor per kilogram of
refrigerant.
Condenser: Heat transfer rate at condenser, is given by:

where h3 and h2 are the specific enthalpies (kJ/kg) at the exit and inlet to the condenser,
respectively.
The condenser pressure Pc is the saturation pressure corresponding to evaporator Temperature,
i.e.,


Expansion device: For the isenthalpic expansion process, the kinetic energy change
across the expansion device could be considerable, however, if we take the control volume, well
downstream of the expansion device, then the kinetic energy gets dissipated
due to viscous effects, and


The exit condition of the expansion device lies in the two-phase region, hence applying
the definition of quality (or dryness fraction), we can write:

where x4 is the quality of refrigerant at point 4, hf,e, hg,e, hfg are the saturated liquid
enthalpy, saturated vapour enthalpy and latent heat of vaporization at evaporator
pressure, respectively

The COP of the system is given by:


At any point in the cycle, the mass flow rate of refrigerant can be written in terms of
volumetric flow rate and specific volume at that point, i.e.,

applying this equation to the inlet condition of the compressor,

where is the volumetric flow rate at compressor inlet and v1 is the specific volume at
compressor inlet. At a given compressor speed, V1 is an indication of the size of the
compressor. We can also write, the refrigeration capacity in terms of volumetric flow rate
as:

where is called as volumetric refrigeration effect (kJ
3
/m of refrigerant).


Generally, the type of refrigerant, required refrigeration capacity, evaporator temperature
and condenser temperature are known. Then from the evaporator and condenser
temperature one can find the evaporator and condenser pressures and enthalpies at the
exit of evaporator and condenser (saturated vapour enthalpy at evaporator pressure and
saturated liquid enthalpy at condenser pressure). Since the exit condition of the
compressor is in the superheated region, two independent properties are required to fix
the state of refrigerant at this point. One of these independent properties could be the
condenser pressure, which is already known. Since the compression process is isentropic,
the entropy at the exit to the compressor is same as the entropy at the inlet, s1 which is the
saturated vapour entropy at evaporator pressure (known). Thus from the known pressure
and entropy the exit state of the compressor could be fixed, i.e.,

The quality of refrigerant at the inlet to the evaporator (x4) could be obtained from the
known values of h3, hf,e and hg,e.
Once all the state points are known, then from the required refrigeration capacity and various
enthalpies one can obtain the required refrigerant mass flow rate, volumetric flow rate at
compressor inlet, COP, cycle efficiency etc.
Use of Pressure-enthalpy (P-h) charts:

























Q. Compared to natural refrigeration methods, artificial refrigeration methods are:
a) Continuous
b) Reliable
c) Environment friendly
d) Can work under almost all conditions
Ans. a), b) and d)
Q. In the evaporator of a vapour compression refrigeration system:
a) A low temperature is maintained so that heat can flow from the external fluid
b) Refrigeration effect is produced as the refrigerant liquid vaporizes
c) A low pressure is maintained so that the compressor can run
d) All of the above
Ans. a) and b)
Q. The function of a compressor in a vapour compression refrigeration system is to:
a) To maintain the required low-side pressure in the evaporator
b) To maintain the required high-side pressure in the condenser
c) To circulate required amount of refrigerant through the system
d) To safeguard the refrigeration system
Ans. a), b) and c)
Q. In a vapour compression refrigeration system, a condenser is primarily required so that:
a) A high pressure can be maintained in the system
b) The refrigerant evaporated in the evaporator can be recycled
c) Performance of the system can be improved
d) Low temperatures can be produced
Ans. b)
Q. The function of an expansion valve is to:
a) Reduce the refrigerant pressure
b) Maintain high and low side pressures
c) Protect evaporator
d) All of the above
Ans. b)
Q. In a domestic icebox type refrigerator, the ice block is kept at the top because:
a) It is convenient to the user
b) Disposal of water is easier
c) Cold air can flow down due to buoyancy effect
d) None of the above
Ans. c)
Q. An air conditioning system employs a refrigeration system to:
a) Cool and dehumidify air supplied to the conditioned space
b) To heat and humidify the air supplied to the conditioned space
c) To circulate the air through the system
d) To purify the supply air
Ans. a)
1.3.2. Vapour Absorption Refrigeration Systems:
John Leslie in 1810 kept H2SO4 and water in two separate jars connected together.
H2SO4 has very high affinity for water. It absorbs water vapour and this becomes the
principle of removing the evaporated water vapour requiring no compressor or pump. H2SO4
is an absorbent in this system that has to be recycled by heating to get rid of the absorbed
water vapour, for continuous operation. Windhausen in 1878 used this principle for
absorption refrigeration system, which worked on H2SO4. Ferdinand Carre invented
aquaammonia
absorption system in 1860. Water is a strong absorbent of NH3. If NH3 is kept in a
vessel that is exposed to another vessel containing water, the strong absorption potential of
water will cause evaporation of NH3 requiring no compressor to drive the vapours. A liquid
pump is used to increase the pressure of strong solution. The strong solution is then heated in
a generator and passed through a rectification column to separate the water from ammonia.
The ammonia vapour is then condensed and recycled. The pump power is negligible hence;
the system runs virtually on low- grade energy used for heating the strong solution to separate
the water from ammonia. These systems were initially run on steam. Later on oil and natural
gas based systems were introduced. Figure 1.4 shows the essential components of a vapour
absorption refrigeration system. In 1922, Balzar von Platen and Carl Munters, two students at
Royal Institute of Technology, Stockholm invented a three fluid system that did not require a
pump. A heating based bubble pump was used for circulation of strong and weak solutions
and hydrogen was used as a non-condensable gas to reduce the partial pressure of NH3 in the
evaporator. Geppert in 1899 gave this original idea but he was not successful since he was
using air as non-condensable gas. The Platen-Munters refrigeration systems are still widely
used in certain niche applications such as hotel rooms etc. Figure 1.5 shows the schematic of
the triple fluid vapour absorption refrigeration system.


Another variation of vapour absorption system is the one based on Lithium Bromide
(LiBr)-water. This system is used for chilled water air-conditioning system. This is a
descendent of Windhausens machine with LiBr replacing H2SO4. In this system LiBr is the
absorbent and water is the refrigerant. This system works at vacuum pressures. The
condenser and the generator are housed in one cylindrical vessel and the evaporator and the
absorber are housed in second vessel. This also runs on low-grade energy requiring a boiler
or process steam.

1.3.3. Solar energy based refrigeration systems:
Attempts have been made to run vapour absorption systems by solar energy with
concen
erious consideration to solar refrigeration systems was given since 1965, due to the
scarcity
termittent absorption systems based on solar energy have also been built and
operate
trating and flat plate solar collectors. Several small solar absorption refrigeration
systems have been made around 1950s in several countries. Professor G.O.G. Lf of
America is one of the pioneers in the area of solar refrigeration using flat plate collectors. A
solar refrigeration system that could produce 250 kg of ice per day was installed in Tashkent,
USSR in 1953. This system used a parabolic mirror of 10 m2 area for concentrating the solar
radiation. F. Trombe installed an absorption machine with a cylindro-parabolic mirror of 20
m2 at Montlouis, France, which produced 100 kg of ice per day.
S
of fossil fuel based energy sources. LiBr-water based systems have been developed
for air conditioning purposes. The first solar air conditioning system was installed in an
experimental solar house in University of Queensland, Australia in 1966. After this several
systems based on solar energy were built in many parts of the world including India. In 1976,
there were about 500 solar absorption systems in USA alone. Almost all these were based on
LiBr-water as these systems do not require very high heating temperatures. These systems
were mainly used for space air conditioning.
In
d successfully. In these systems, the cooling effect is obtained during the nighttime,
while the system gets charged during the day using solar energy. Though the efficiency of
these systems is rather poor requiring solar collector area, they may find applications in remote
and rural areas where space is not a constraint. In addition, these systems are
environment friendly as they use eco-friendly refrigerants and run on clean and renewable
solar energy.
Solar adsorption refrigeration system with ammoniacates, sodium thiocyanate,
activate
. Compared to the compression systems, vapour absorption refrigeration systems:
d charcoal, zeolite as adsorbents and ammonia, alcohols or fluorocarbons as
refrigerants have also been in use since 1950s. These systems also do not require a
compressor. The refrigerant vapour is driven by the adsorption potential of the adsorbent
stored in an adsorbent bed. This bed is connected to an evaporator/condenser, which consists
of the pure refrigerant. In intermittent adsorption systems, during the night the refrigerant
evaporates and is adsorbed in activated charcoal or zeolite providing cooling effect. During
daytime the adsorbent bed absorbs solar radiation and drives off the refrigerant stored in the
bed. This refrigerant vapour condenses in the condenser and stored in a reservoir for
nighttime use. Thus this simple system consists of an adsorbent bed and a heat exchanger,
which acts as a condenser during the nighttime and, as an evaporator during the night. Pairs
of such reactors can be used for obtaining a continuous cooling
Q Compared to the compression systems, vapour absorption refrigeration systems:
a) Are environment friendly
b) Use low-grade thermal energy for operation
c) Cannot be used for large capacity refrigeration systems
d) Cannot be used for small capacity refrigeration systems
Ans. a) and b)
Q. In absorption refrigeration systems, the compressor of vapour compression systems is
replaced by:
a) Absorber
b) Generator
c) Pump
d) All of the above
Ans. d)
Q. In a triple fluid vapour absorption refrigeration system, the hydrogen gas is used to:
a) Improve system performance
b) Reduce the partial pressure of refrigerant in evaporator
c) Circulate the refrigerant
d) Provide a vapour seal
Ans. b)
Q. Solar energy based refrigeration systems are developed to:
a) Reduce fossil fuel consumption
b) Provide refrigeration in remote areas
c) Produce extremely low temperatures
d) Eliminate compressors
Ans. a) and b)
Q. Solar energy based refrigeration systems:
a) Cannot be used for large capacity systems
b) Cannot be made continuous
c) Are not environment friendly
d) None of the above
Ans. d)
1.3.4. Gas Cycle Refrigeration:
If air at high pressure expands and does work (say moves a piston or rotates a
turbine), its temperature will decrease. This fact is known to man as early as the 18th century.
Dalton and Gay Lusaac studied this in 1807. Sadi Carnot mentioned this as a well-known
phenomenon in 1824. However, Dr. John Gorrie a physician in Florida developed one such
machine in 1844 to produce ice for the relief of his patients suffering from fever. This
machine used compressed air at 2 atm. pressure and produced brine at a temperature of 7oC,
which was then used to produce ice. Alexander Carnegie Kirk in 1862 made an air cycle
cooling machine. This system used steam engine to run its compressor. Using a compression
ratio of 6 to 8, Kirk could produce temperatures as low as 40oC. Paul Gifford in 1875
perfected the open type of machine. This machine was further improved by T B Lightfoot, A
Haslam, Henry Bell and James Coleman. This was the main method of marine refrigeration
for quite some time. Frank Allen in New York developed a closed cycle machine employing
high pressures to reduce the volume flow rates. This was named dense air machine. These
days air cycle refrigeration is used only in aircrafts whose turbo compressor can handle large
volume flow rates. Figure 1.6 shows the schematic of an open type air cycle refrigeration
system. The basic system shown here consists of a compressor, an expander and a heat
exchanger. Air from the cold room is compressed in the compressor. The hot and high
pressure air rejects heat to the heat sink (cooling water) in the heat exchanger. The warm but
high pressure air expands in the expander. The cold air after expansion is sent to the cold
room for providing cooling. The work of expansion partly compensates the work of
compression; hence both the expander and the compressor are mounted on a common shaft.

1.3.5. Steam Jet Refrigeration System:
If water is sprayed into a chamber where a low pressure is maintained, a part of the
water will evaporate. The enthalpy of evaporation will cool the remaining water to its
saturation temperature at the pressure in the chamber. Obviously lower temperature will
require lower pressure. Water freezes at 0oC hence temperature lower than 4oC cannot be
obtained with water. In this system, high velocity steam is used to entrain the evaporating
water vapour. High-pressure motive steam passes through either convergent or
convergentdivergent
nozzle where it acquires either sonic or supersonic velocity and low pressure of the
order of 0.009 kPa corresponding to an evaporator temperature of 4oC. The high momentum
of motive steam entrains or carries along with it the water vapour evaporating from the flash
chamber. Because of its high velocity it moves the vapours against the pressure gradient up to
the condenser where the pressure is 5.6-7.4 kPa corresponding to condenser temperature of
35-45oC. The motive vapour and the evaporated vapour both are condensed and recycled.
This system is known as steam jet refrigeration system. Figure 1.7 shows a schematic of the
system. It can be seen that this system requires a good vacuum to be maintained. Sometimes,
booster ejector is used for this purpose. This system is driven by low- grade energy that is
process steam in chemical plants or a boiler.

In 1838, the Frenchman Pelletan was granted a patent for the compression of steam by
means of a jet of motive steam. Around 1900, the Englishman Charles Parsons studied the
possibility of reduction of pressure by an entrainment effect from a steam jet. However, the
credit for constructing the steam jet refrigeration system goes to the French engineer, Maurice
Leblanc who developed the system in 1907-08. In this system, ejectors were used to produce
a high velocity steam jet ( 1200 m/s). Based on Leblancs design the first commercial
system was made by Westinghouse in 1909 in Paris. Even though the efficiency of the steam
jet refrigeration system was low, it was still attractive as water is harmless and the system can
run using exhaust steam from a steam engine. From 1910 onwards, stem jet refrigeration systems
were used mainly in breweries, chemical factories, warships etc. In 1926, the French
engineer Follain improved the machine by introducing multiple stages of vaporization and
condensation of the suction steam. Between 1928-1930, there was much interest in this type
of systems in USA. In USA they were mainly used for air conditioning of factories, cinema
theatres, ships and even railway wagons. Several companies such as Westinghouse, Ingersoll
Rand and Carrier started commercial production of these systems from 1930. However,
gradually these systems were replaced by more efficient vapour absorption systems using
LiBr-water. Still, some east European countries such as Czechoslovakia and Russia
manufactured these systems as late as 1960s. The ejector principle can also be used to
provide refrigeration using fluids other than water, i.e., refrigerants such as CFC-11, CFC-21,
CFC-22, CFC-113, CFC-114 etc. The credit for first developing these closed vapour jet
refrigeration systems goes to the Russian engineer, I.S. Badylkes around 1955. Using
refrigerants other than water, it is possible to achieve temperatures as low as 100oC with a
single stage of compression. The advantages cited for this type of systems are simplicity and
robustness, while difficult design and economics are its chief disadvantages.
1.3.6. Thermoelectric Refrigeration Systems:
In 1821 the German physicist T.J. Seebeck reported that when two junctions of
dissimilar metals are kept at two different temperatures, an electro motive force (emf) is
developed, resulting in flow of electric current. The emf produced is found to be proportional
to temperature difference. In 1834, a Frenchmen, J. Peltier observed the reverse effect, i.e.,
cooling and heating of two junctions of dissimilar materials when direct current is passed
through them, the heat transfer rate being proportional to the current. In 1838, H.F.E. Lenz froze
a drop of water by the Peltier effect using antimony and bismuth (it was later found that
Lenz could freeze water as the materials used were not pure metals but had some impurities
in them). In 1857, William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) proved by thermodynamic analysis that
Seebeck effect and Peltier effect are related and he discovered another effect called Thomson
effect after his name. According to this when current flows through a conductor of a
thermocouple that has an initial temperature gradient in it, then heat transfer rate per unit
length is proportional to the product of current and the temperature. As the current flow
through thermoelectric material it gets heated due to its electrical resistance. This is called the
Joulean effect, further, conduction heat transfer from the hot junction to the cold junction
transfers heat. Both these heat transfer rates have to be compensated by the Peltier Effect for
some useful cooling to be produced. For a long time, thermoelectric cooling based on the
Peltier effect remained a laboratory curiosity as the temperature difference that could be
obtained using pure metals was too small to be of any practical use. Insulating materials give
poor thermoelectric performance because of their small electrical conductivity while metals
are not good because of their large thermal conductivity. However, with the discovery of
semiconductor materials in 1949-50, the available temperature drop could be increased
considerably, giving rise to commercialization of thermoelectric refrigeration systems. Figure
1.8 shows the schematic of the thermoelectric refrigeration system based on semiconductor
materials. The Russian scientist, A. F. Ioffe is one of the pioneers in the area of
thermoelectric refrigeration systems using semiconductors. Several domestic refrigerators
based on thermoelectric effect were made in USSR as early as 1949. However, since 1960s
these systems are used mainly used for storing medicines, vaccines etc and in electronic
cooling. Development also took place in many other countries. In USA domestic
refrigerators, air conditioners, water coolers, air conditioned diving suits etc. were made

using these effects. System capacities were typically small due to poor efficiency. However
some large refrigeration capacity systems such as a 3000 kcal/h air conditioner and a 6 tonne
capacity cold storage were also developed. By using multistaging temperatures as low as
145oC were obtained. These systems due to their limited performance (limited by the
materials) are now used only in certain niche applications such as electronic cooling, mobile
coolers etc. Efforts have also been made to club thermoelectric systems with photovoltaic
cells with a view to develop solar thermoelectric refrigerators.
1.3.7. Vortex tube systems:
In 1931, the French engineer Georges Ranque (1898-1973) discovered an interesting
phenomenon, which is called Ranque effect or vortex effect. The tangential injection of
air into a cylindrical tube induces to quote his words a giratory expansion with
simultaneous production of an escape of hot air and an escape of cold air. Ranque was
granted a French patent in 1928 and a US patent in 1934 for this effect. However, the
discovery was neglected until after the second world war, when in 1945, Rudolph Hilsch, a
German physicist, studied this effect and published a widely read scientific paper on this
device. Thus, the vortex tube has also been known as the "Ranque-Hilsch Tube. Though the
efficiency of this system is quite low, it is very interesting due to its mechanical simplicity
and instant cooling. It is convenient where there is a supply of compressed air. The present day
vortex tube uses compressed air as a power source, it has no moving parts, and produces
hot air from one end and cold air from the other. The volume and temperature of these two
airstreams are adjustable with a valve built into the hot air exhaust. Temperatures as low as
46C and as high as 127C are possible. Compressed air is supplied to the vortex tube and
passes through nozzles that are tangential to an internal counter bore. These nozzles set the
air in a vortex motion. This spinning stream of air turns 90 and passes down the hot tube in
the form of a spinning shell, similar to a tornado. A valve at one end of the tube allows some
of the warmed air to escape. What does not escape, heads back down the tube as a second
vortex inside the low-pressure area of the larger vortex. This inner vortex loses heat and
exhausts through the other end as cold air. Currently vortex tube is used for spot cooling of
machine parts, in electronic cooling and also in cooling jackets for miners, firemen etc.


Q. In an air cycle refrigeration system, low temperatures are produced due to:
a) Evaporation of liquid air
b) Throttling of air
c) Expansion of air in turbine
d) None of the above
Ans. c)
Q. Air cycle refrigeration systems are most commonly used in:
a) Domestic refrigerators
b) Aircraft air conditioning systems
c) Cold storages
d) Car air conditioning systems
Ans. b)
Q. The required input to the steam jet refrigeration systems is in the form of:
a) Mechanical energy
b) Thermal energy
c) High pressure, motive steam
d) Both mechanical and thermal energy
Ans. c)
Q. A nozzle is used in steam jet refrigeration systems to:
a) To convert the high pressure motive steam into high velocity steam
b) To reduce energy consumption
c) To improve safety aspects
d) All of the above
Ans. a)
Q. The materials used in thermoelectric refrigeration systems should have:
a) High electrical and thermal conductivity
b) High electrical conductivity and low thermal conductivity
c) Low electrical conductivity and high thermal conductivity
c) Low electrical and thermal conductivity
Ans. b)
Q. A thermoelectric refrigeration systems requires:
a) A high voltage AC (alternating current) input
b) A low voltage AC input
c) A high voltage DC (direct current) input
d) A low voltage DC input
Ans. d).

Questions and answers:
1. In an ammonia-water system a rectification column is used mainly to:
a) To improve the COP of the system
b) To reduce the operating pressures
c) To minimize the concentration of water in refrigeration circuit
d) All of the above
Ans.: c)
2. In a reflux condenser:
a) Heat is extracted so that the vapour leaving is rich in ammonia
b) Heat is supplied so that the vapour leaving is rich in ammonia
c) Heat is extracted so that the vapour leaving is rich in water
d) Heat is supplied so that the vapour leaving is rich in ammonia
Ans.: a)
3. Due to the requirement of rectification:
a) The required generator pressure increases
b) The required generator temperature increases
c) The required generator heat input increases
d) All of the above
Ans.: c)
4. In pumpless vapour absorption refrigeration systems:
a) The evaporation process is non-isothermal
b) The system pressure is almost same everywhere
c) A pressure equalizing fluid is required to increase condenser pressure
d) A pressure equalizing fluid is required to increase evaporator pressure
Ans.: a), b) and d)
5. Which of the following statements regarding pumpless systems are TRUE:
a) Pumpless systems can use a wide variety of heat sources
b) Pumpless systems are silent, reliable and rugged
c) Pumpless systems offer high COPs
d) Pumpless systems operate at very low pressures
Ans.: a) and b)
6. Compared to compression systems, the performance of absorption systems:
a) Is very sensitive to evaporator temperature
b) Is not sensitive to load variations
c) Does not depend very much on evaporator superheat
d) All of the above
Ans.: b) and c)
7. Compared to compression systems, absorption systems:
a) Contain very few moving parts
b) Require regular maintenance
c) Offer less noise and vibration
d) Are compact for large capacities
Refrigerants
2.1. Introduction:
The development of refrigeration and air conditioning industry depended to a large
extent on the development of refrigerants to suit various applications and the development of
various system components. At present the industry is dominated by the vapour compression
refrigeration systems, even though the vapour absorption systems have also been developed
commercially. The success of vapour compression refrigeration systems owes a lot to the
development of suitable refrigerants and compressors. The theoretical thermodynamic
efficiency of a vapour compression system depends mainly on the operating temperatures.
However, important practical issues such as the system design, size, initial and operating
costs, safety, reliability, and serviceability etc. depend very much on the type of refrigerant
and compressor selected for a given application. This lesson presents a brief history of
refrigerants and compressors. The emphasis here is mainly on vapour compression
refrigeration systems, as these are the most commonly used systems, and also refrigerants and
compressors play a critical role here. The other popular type of refrigeration system, namely
the vapour absorption type has seen fewer changes in terms of refrigerant development, and
relatively less number of problems exist in these systems as far as the refrigerants are
concerned.
2.2. Refrigerant development a brief history
In general a refrigerant may be defined as any body or substance that acts as a
cooling medium by extracting heat from another body or substance. Under this general
definition, many bodies or substances may be called as refrigerants, e.g. ice, cold water, cold
air etc. In closed cycle vapour compression, absorption systems, air cycle refrigeration
systems the refrigerant is a working fluid that undergoes cyclic changes. In a thermoelectric
system the current carrying electrons may be treated as a refrigerant. However, normally by
refrigerants we mean the working fluids that undergo condensation and evaporation as in
compression and absorption systems. The history that we are talking about essentially refers
to these substances. Since these substances have to evaporate and condense at required
temperatures (which may broadly lie in the range of 100oC to +100oC) at reasonable
pressures, they have to be essentially volatile. Hence, the development of refrigerants started
with the search for suitable, volatile substances. Historically the development of these
refrigerants can be divided into three distinct phases, namely:
i. Refrigerants prior to the development of CFCs
ii. The synthetic fluorocarbon (FC) based refrigerants
iii. Refrigerants in the aftermath of stratospheric ozone layer depletion
2.2.1. Refrigerants prior to the development of CFCs
Water is one of the earliest substances to be used as a refrigerant, albeit not in a closed
system. Production of cold by evaporation of water dates back to 3000 B.C. Archaeological
findings show pictures of Egyptian slaves waving fans in front of earthenware jars to
accelerate the evaporation of water from the porous surfaces of the pots, thereby producing
cold water. Of course, the use of punkahs for body cooling in hot summer is very well
known in countries like India. Production of ice by nocturnal cooling is also well known.
People also had some knowledge of producing sub-zero temperatures by the use of
refrigerant mixtures. It is believed that as early as 4th Century AD people in India were
using mixtures of salts (sodium nitrate, sodium chloride etc) and water to produce
temperatures as low as 20oC. However, these natural refrigeration systems working with
water have many limitations and hence were confined to a small number of applications.
Water was the first refrigerant to be used in a continuous refrigeration system by
William Cullen (1710-1790) in 1755. William Cullen is also the first man to have
scientifically observed the production of low temperatures by evaporation of ethyl ether in
1748. Oliver Evans (1755-1819) proposed the use of a volatile fluid in a closed cycle to
produce ice from water. He described a practical system that uses ethyl ether as the
refrigerant. As already mentioned the credit for building the first vapour compression
refrigeration system goes to Jakob Perkins (1766-1849). Perkins used sulphuric (ethyl) ether
obtained from India rubber as refrigerant. Early commercial refrigerating machines
developed by James Harrison (1816-1893) also used ethyl ether as refrigerant. Alexander
Twining (1801-1884) also developed refrigerating machines using ethyl ether. After these
developments, ethyl ether was used as refrigerant for several years for ice making, in
breweries etc. Ether machines were gradually replaced by ammonia and carbon dioxide based
machines, even though they were used for a longer time in tropical countries such as India.
Ethyl ether appeared to be a good refrigerant in the beginning, as it was easier to handle it
since it exists as a liquid at ordinary temperatures and atmospheric pressure. Ethyl ether has a
normal boiling point (NBP) of 34.5oC, this indicates that in order to obtain low temperatures,
the evaporator pressure must be lower than one atmosphere, i.e., operation in vacuum.
Operation of a system in vacuum may lead to the danger of outside air leaking into the
system resulting in the formation of a potentially explosive mixture. On the other hand a
relatively high normal boiling point indicates lower pressures in the condenser, or for a given
pressure the condenser can be operated at higher condensing temperatures. This is the reason
behind the longer use of ether in tropical countries with high ambient temperatures.
Eventually due to the high NBP, toxicity and flammability problems ethyl ether was replaced
by other refrigerants. Charles Tellier (1828-1913) introduced dimethyl ether (NBP =
23.6oC) in 1864. However, this refrigerant did not become popular, as it is also toxic and
inflammable.
In 1866, the American T.S.C. Lowe (1832-1913) introduced carbon dioxide
compressor. However, it enjoyed commercial success only in 1880s due largely to the efforts
of German scientists Franz Windhausen (1829-1904) and Carl von Linde (1842-1934).
Carbon dioxide has excellent thermodynamic and thermophysical properties, however, it has
a low critical temperature (31.7oC) and very high operating pressures. Since it is nonflammable
and non-toxic it found wide applications principally for marine refrigeration. It
was also used for refrigeration applications on land. Carbon dioxide was used successfully for
about sixty years however, it was completely replaced by CFCs. It is ironic to note that ever
since the problem of ozone layer depletion was found, carbon dioxide is steadily making a
comeback by replacing the synthetic CFCs/HCFCs/HFCs etc.
One of the landmark events in the history of refrigerants is the introduction of
ammonia. The American David Boyle (1837-1891) was granted the first patent for ammonia
compressor in 1872. He made the first single acting vertical compressor in 1873. However,
the credit for successfully commercializing ammonia systems goes to Carl von Linde (1842-
1934) of Germany, who introduced these compressors in Munich in 1876. Linde is credited
with perfecting the ammonia refrigeration technology and owing to his pioneering efforts;
ammonia has become one of the most important refrigerants to be developed. Ammonia has a
NBP of 33.3
o
C, hence, the operating pressures are much higher than atmospheric.
Ammonia has excellent thermodynamic and thermophysical properties. It is easily available
and inexpensive. However, ammonia is toxic and has a strong smell and slight flammability.
In addition, it is not compatible with some of the common materials of construction such as
copper. Though these are considered to be some of its disadvantages, ammonia has stood the
test of time and the onslaught of CFCs due to its excellent properties. At present ammonia is
used in large refrigeration systems (both vapour compression and vapour absorption) and also
in small absorption refrigerators (triple fluid vapour absorption).
In 1874, Raoul Pictet (1846-1929) introduced sulphur dioxide (NBP=10.0oC).
Sulphur dioxide was an important refrigerant and was widely used in small refrigeration
systems such as domestic refrigerators due to its small refrigerating effect. Sulphur dioxide
has the advantage of being an auto-lubricant. In addition it is not only non-flammable, but
actually acts as a flame extinguisher. However, in the presence of water vapour it produces
sulphuric acid, which is highly corrosive. The problem of corrosion was overcome by an
airtight sealed compressor (both motor and compressor are mounted in the same outer casing).
However, after about sixty years of use in appliances such as domestic refrigerators,
sulphur dioxide was replaced by CFCs.
In addition to the above, other fluids such as methyl chloride, ethyl chloride, isobutane,
propane, ethyl alcohol, methyl and ethyl amines, carbon tetra chloride, methylene
chloride, gasoline etc. were tried but discarded due to one reason or other.
2.2.2. The synthetic CFCs/HCFCs:
Almost all the refrigerants used in the early stages of refrigeration suffered from one
problem or other. Most of these problems were linked to safety issues such as toxicity,
flammability, high operating pressures etc. As a result large-scale commercialization of
refrigeration systems was hampered. Hence it was felt that refrigeration industry needs a
new refrigerant if they expect to get anywhere. The task of finding a safe refrigerant was
taken up by the American Thomas Midgley, Jr., in 1928. Midgley was already famous for the
invention of tetra ethyl lead, an important anti-knock agent for petrol engines. Midgley along
with his associates Albert L. Henne and Robert R. McNary at the Frigidaire Laboratories
(Dayton, Ohio, USA) began a systematic study of the periodic table. From the periodic table
they quickly eliminated all those substances yielding insufficient volatility. They then
eliminated those elements resulting in unstable and toxic gases as well as the inert gases,
based on their very low boiling points. They were finally left with eight elements: carbon,
nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur, hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine and bromine. These eight elements
clustered at an intersecting row and column of the periodic table, with fluorine at the
intersection. Midgley and his colleagues then made three interesting observations:
i. Flammability decreases from left to right for the eight elements
ii. Toxicity generally decreases from the heavy elements at the bottom to the lighter
elements at the top
iii. Every known refrigerant at that time was made from the combination of those
eight Midgley elements.
A look at the refrigerants discussed above shows that all of them are made up of seven
out of the eight elements identified by Midgley (fluorine was not used till then). Other
researchers have repeated Midgleys search with more modern search methods and databases,
but arrived at the same conclusions (almost all the currently used refrigerants are made up of
Midgley elements, only exception is Iodine, studies are being carried out on refrigerants
containing iodine in addition to some of the Midgley elements). Based on their study,
Midgely and his colleagues have developed a whole range of new refrigerants, which are
obtained by partial replacement of hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons by fluorine and chlorine.
They have shown how fluorination and chlorination of hydrocarbons can be varied to obtain
desired boiling points (volatility) and also how properties such as toxicity, flammability are
influenced by the composition. The first commercial refrigerant to come out of Midgleys
study is Freon-12 in 1931. Freon-12 with a chemical formula CCl2F2, is obtained by replacing
the four atoms of hydrogen in methane (CH4) by two atoms of chlorine and two atoms of
fluorine. Freon-12 has a normal boiling point of 29.8oC, and is one of the most famous and
popular synthetic refrigerants. It was exclusively used in small domestic refrigerators, air
conditioners, water coolers etc for almost sixty years. Freon-11 (CCl3F) used in large
centrifugal air conditioning systems was introduced in 1932. This is followed by Freon-22
(CHClF2) and a whole series of synthetic refrigerants to suit a wide variety of applications.
Due to the emergence of a large number of refrigerants in addition to the existence of the
older refrigerants, it has become essential to work out a numbering system for refrigerants.
Thus all refrigerants were indicated with R followed by a unique number (thus Freon-12 is
changed to R12 etc). The numbering of refrigerants was done based on certain guidelines. For
all synthetic refrigerants the number (e.g. 11, 12, 22) denotes the chemical composition. The
number of all inorganic refrigerants begins with 7 followed by their molecular weight. Thus
R-717 denotes ammonia (ammonia is inorganic and its molecular weight is 17), R-718
denotes water etc.. Refrigerant mixtures begin with the number 4 (zeotropic) or 5
(azeotropic), e.g. R-500, R-502 etc.
The introduction of CFCs and related compounds has revolutionized the field of
refrigeration and air conditioning. Most of the problems associated with early refrigerants
such as toxicity, flammability, and material incompatibility were eliminated completely.
Also, Freons are highly stable compounds. In addition, by cleverly manipulating the
composition a whole range of refrigerants best suited for a particular application could be
obtained. In addition to all this, a vigorous promotion of these refrigerants as wonder gases
and ideal refrigerants saw rapid growth of Freons and equally rapid exit of conventional
refrigerants such as carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide etc. Only ammonia among the older
refrigerants survived the Freon magic. The Freons enjoyed complete domination for about
fifty years, until the Ozone Layer Depletion issue was raised by Rowland and Molina in
1974. Rowland and Molina in their now famous theory argued that the highly stable
chlorofluorocarbons cause the depletion of stratospheric ozone layer. Subsequent studies and
observations confirmed Rowland and Molina theory on stratospheric ozone depletion by
chlorine containing CFCs. In view of the seriousness of the problem on global scale, several
countries have agreed to ban the harmful Ozone Depleting Substances, ODS (CFCs and
others) in a phase-wise manner under Montreal Protocol. Subsequently almost all countries of
the world have agreed to the plan of CFC phase-out. In addition to the ozone layer depletion,
the CFCs and related substances were also found to contribute significantly to the problem of
global warming. This once again brought the scientists back to the search for safe
refrigerants. The safety now refers to not only the immediate personal safety issues such as
flammability, toxicity etc., but also the long-term environmental issues such as ozone layer
depletion and global warming.
2.2.3. Refrigerants in the aftermath of Ozone Layer Depletion:
The most important requirement for refrigerants in the aftermath of ozone layer
depletion is that it should be a non-Ozone Depleting Substance (non-ODS). Out of this
requirement two alternatives have emerged. The first one is to look for zero ODP synthetic
refrigerants and the second one is to look for natural substances. Introduction of
hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) and their mixtures belong to the first route, while the reintroduction
of carbon dioxide (in a supercritical cycle), water and various hydrocarbons and
their mixtures belong to the second route. The increased use of ammonia and use of other
refrigeration cycles such as air cycle refrigeration systems and absorption systems also come
under the second route. Both these routes have found their proponents and opponents. HFC-
134a (synthetic substance) and hydrocarbons (natural substances) have emerged as
alternatives to Freon-12. No clear pure fluid alternative has been found as yet for the other
popular refrigerant HCFC-22. However several mixtures consisting of synthetic and natural
refrigerants are being used and suggested for future use. Table 2.1 shows the list of
refrigerants being replaced and their alternatives. Mention must be made here about the other
environmental problem, global warming. In general the non-ODS synthetic refrigerants such
as HFC-134a have high global warming potential (GWP), hence they face an uncertain
future. Since the global warming impact of a refrigerant also depends on the energy
efficiency of the system using the refrigerant (indirect effect), the efficiency issue has become
important in the design of new refrigeration systems. Though the issues of ozone layer
depletion and global warming has led to several problems, they have also had beneficial
effects of making people realize the importance of environmental friendliness of
technologies. It is expected that with the greater awareness more responsible designs will
emerge which will ultimately benefit the whole mankind.


Q. Ethyl ether was the first refrigerant to be used commercially, because:
a) It exists as liquid at ambient conditions
b) It is safe
c) It is inexpensive
d) All of the above
Ans. a)
Q. Ammonia is one of the oldest refrigerants, which is still used widely, because:
a) It offers excellent performance
b) It is a natural refrigerant
c) It is inexpensive
d) All of the above
Ans. d)
Q. In the olden days Carbon dioxide was commonly used in marine applications as:
a) It has low critical temperature
b) Its operating pressures are high
c) It is non-toxic and non-flammable
d) It is odorless
Ans. c)
Q. Sulphur dioxide was mainly used in small refrigeration systems, because:
a) It is non-toxic and non-flammable
b) It has small refrigeration effect
c) It is expensive
d) It was easily available
Ans. b)
Q. Need for synthetic refrigerants was felt, as the available natural refrigerants:
a) Were not environment friendly
b) Suffered from several perceived safety issues
c) Were expensive
d) Were inefficient
Ans. b)
Q. The synthetic CFC based refrigerants were developed by:
a) Partial replacement of hydrogen atoms in hydrocarbons by chlorine, fluorine etc.
b) Modifying natural refrigerants such as carbon dioxide, ammonia
c) Modifying inorganic compounds by adding carbon, fluorine and chlorine
d) Mixing various hydrocarbons
Ans. a)
Q. The synthetic refrigerants were extremely popular as they are:
a) Environment friendly
b) Mostly non-toxic and non-flammable
c) Chemically stable
d) Inexpensive
Ans. b) and c)
Q. CFC based refrigerants are being replaced as they are found to:
a) Cause ozone layer depletion
b) Consume more energy
c) React with several materials of construction
d) Expensive
Ans. a)
Psychrometry
27.1. Introduction:
Atmospheric air makes up the environment in almost every type of air
conditioning system. Hence a thorough understanding of the properties of
atmospheric air and the ability to analyze various processes involving air is
fundamental to air conditioning design.
The study of the properties of moist air is known as psychrometry. The psychrometric properties
(temperature, humidity ratio, relative humidity, enthalpy etc.) are normally available in the form
of charts, known as psychrometric charts.

Psychrometry is the study of the properties of mixtures of air and water
vapour.
Atmospheric air is a mixture of many gases plus water vapour and a number
of pollutants (Fig.27.1). The amount of water vapour and pollutants vary from place
to place. The concentration of water vapour and pollutants decrease with altitude,
and above an altitude of about 10 km, atmospheric air consists of only dry air. The
pollutants have to be filtered out before processing the air. Hence, what we process
is essentially a mixture of various gases that constitute air and water vapour. This
mixture is known as moist air.
The moist air can be thought of as a mixture of dry air and moisture. For all
practical purposes, the composition of dry air can be considered as constant. In
1949, a standard composition of dry air was fixed by the International Joint
Committee on Psychrometric data. It is given in Table 27.1.


Based on the above composition the molecular weight of dry air is found to be
28.966 and the gas constant R is 287.035 J/kg.K.
As mentioned before the air to be processed in air conditioning systems is a
mixture of dry air and water vapour. While the composition of dry air is constant, the
amount of water vapour present in the air may vary from zero to a maximum
depending upon the temperature and pressure of the mixture (dry air + water
vapour).
At a given temperature and pressure the dry air can only hold a certain
maximum amount of moisture. When the moisture content is maximum, then the air
is known as saturated air, which is established by a neutral equilibrium between the
moist air and the liquid or solid phases of water.
For calculation purposes, the molecular weight of water vapour is taken as 18.015
and its gas constant is 461.52 J/kg.K.
27.2. Methods for estimating properties of moist air:
In order to perform air conditioning calculations, it is essential first to estimate
various properties of air. It is difficult to estimate the exact property values of moist
air as it is a mixture of several permanent gases and water vapour. However, moist
air upto 3 atm. pressure is found to obey perfect gas law with accuracy sufficient for
engineering calculations. For higher accuracy Goff and Gratch tables can be used
for estimating moist air properties. These tables are obtained using mixture models
based on fundamental principles of statistical mechanics that take into account the
real gas behaviour of dry air and water vapour. However, these tables are valid for a
barometric pressure of 1 atm. only. Even though the calculation procedure is quite
complex, using the mixture models it is possible to estimate moist air properties at other
pressures also. However, since in most cases the pressures involved are low,
one can apply the perfect gas model to estimate psychrometric properties.
27.2.1. Basic gas laws for moist air:
According to the Gibbs-Dalton law for a mixture of perfect gases, the total
pressure exerted by the mixture is equal to the sum of partial pressures of the
constituent gases. According to this law, for a homogeneous perfect gas mixture
occupying a volume V and at temperature T, each constituent gas behaves as
though the other gases are not present (i.e., there is no interaction between the
gases). Each gas obeys perfect gas equation. Hence, the partial pressures exerted
by each gas, p1,p2,p3 and the total pressure pt are given by:


where n1,n2,n3, are the number of moles of gases 1,2,3,
Applying this equation to moist air.

27.2.2. Important psychrometric properties:
Dry bulb temperature (DBT) is the temperature of the moist air as measured by a
standard thermometer or other temperature measuring instruments.
Saturated vapour pressure (psat) is the saturated partial pressure of water vapour at
the dry bulb temperature. This is readily available in thermodynamic tables and
charts. ASHRAE suggests the following regression equation for saturated vapour
pressure of water, which is valid for 0 to 100oC.

Relative humidity () is defined as the ratio of the mole fraction of water vapour in
moist air to mole fraction of water vapour in saturated air at the same temperature
and pressure. Using perfect gas equation we can show that:


Relative humidity is normally expressed as a percentage. When is 100
percent, the air is saturated.
Humidity ratio (W): The humidity ratio (or specific humidity) W is the mass of water
associated with each kilogram of dry air1. Assuming both water vapour and dry air to
be perfect gases2, the humidity ratio is given by:


Substituting the values of gas constants of water vapour and air Rv and Ra in
the above equation; the humidity ratio is given by:

For a given barometric pressure pt, given the DBT, we can find the saturated vapour
pressure psat from the thermodynamic property tables on steam. Then using the
above equation, we can find the humidity ratio at saturated conditions, Wsat.
It is to be noted that, W is a function of both total barometric pressure and
vapor pressure of water.
Dew-point temperature: If unsaturated moist air is cooled at constant pressure, then
the temperature at which the moisture in the air begins to condense is known as
dew-point temperature (DPT) of air. An approximate equation for dew-point
temperature is given by:

where is the relative humidity (in fraction). DBT & DPT are in oC. Of course, since
from its definition, the dew point temperature is the saturation temperature
corresponding to the vapour pressure of water vapour, it can be obtained from steam
tables or using Eqn.(27.3).
1 Properties such as humidity ratio, enthalpy and specific volume are based on 1 kg of dry
air. This is useful as the total mass of moist air in a process varies by the addition/removal of
water vapour, but the mass of dry air remains constant.
2 Dry air is assumed to be a perfect gas as its temperature is high relative to its saturation
temperature, and water vapour is assumed to be a perfect gas because its pressure is low
relative to its saturation pressure. These assumptions result in accuracies, that are, sufficient
for engineering calculations (less than 0.7 percent as shown by Threlkeld). However, more
accurate results can be obtained by using the data developed by Goff and Gratch in 1945.
Degree of saturation : The degree of saturation is the ratio of the humidity ratio W to
the humidity ratio of a saturated mixture Ws at the same temperature and pressure,
i.e.,

Enthalpy: The enthalpy of moist air is the sum of the enthalpy of the dry air and the
enthalpy of the water vapour. Enthalpy values are always based on some reference
value. For moist air, the enthalpy of dry air is given a zero value at 0oC, and for water
vapour the enthalpy of saturated water is taken as zero at 0oC.
The enthalpy of moist air is given by:

The unit of h is kJ/kg of dry air. Substituting the approximate values of cp and hg, we
obtain:

Humid specific heat: From the equation for enthalpy of moist air, the humid specific
heat of moist air can be written as:

Since the second term in the above equation (w.cpw) is very small compared
to the first term, for all practical purposes, the humid specific heat of moist air, cpm
can be taken as 1.0216 kJ/kg dry air.K
Specific volume: The specific volume is defined as the number of cubic meters of
moist air per kilogram of dry air. From perfect gas equation since the volumes
occupied by the individual substances are the same, the specific volume is also
equal to the number of cubic meters of dry air per kilogram of dry air, i.e.,

27.2.3. Psychrometric chart
A Psychrometric chart graphically represents the thermodynamic properties of
moist air. Standard psychrometric charts are bounded by the dry-bulb temperature
line (abscissa) and the vapour pressure or humidity ratio (ordinate). The Left Hand
Side of the psychrometric chart is bounded by the saturation line. Figure 27.2 shows
the schematic of a psychrometric chart. Psychrometric charts are readily available
for standard barometric pressure of 101.325 kPa at sea level and for normal
temperatures (0-50oC). ASHRAE has also developed psychrometric charts for other
temperatures and barometric pressures (for low temperatures: -40 to 10oC, high
temperatures 10 to 120oC and very high temperatures 100 to 120oC)


27.5. Psychrometer:
Any instrument capable of measuring the psychrometric state of air is called a
psychrometer.

1. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
a) The maximum amount of moisture air can hold depends upon its temperature and
barometric pressure
b) Perfect gas model can be applied to air-water mixtures when the total pressure is
high
c) The minimum number of independent properties to be specified for fixing the state
of moist air is two
d) The minimum number of independent properties to be specified for fixing the state
of moist air is three
Ans.: a) and d)
2. Which of the following statements are TRUE?
a) Straight-line law is applicable to any fluid-air mixtures
b) Straight-line law is applicable to any water-air mixtures only
c) Straight-line holds good as long as the Prandtl number is close to unity
d) Straight-line holds good as long as the Lewis number is close to unity
Ans.: b) and d)
7. Moist air at 1 atm. pressure has a dry bulb temperature of 32oC and a wet bulb
temperature of 26oC. Calculate a) the partial pressure of water vapour, b) humidity
ratio, c) relative humidity, d) dew point temperature, e) density of dry air in the
mixture, f) density of water vapour in the mixture and g) enthalpy of moist air using
perfect gas law model and psychrometric equations.
Ans.:
a) Using modified Apjohn equation and the values of DBT, WBT and barometric
pressure, the vapour pressure is found to be:
pv = 2.956 kPa (Ans.)
b) The humidity ratio W is given by:
W = 0.622 x 2.956/(101.325-2.956) = 0.0187 kgw/kgda (Ans.)
c) Relative humidity RH is given by:
RH = (pv/ps) x 100 = (pv/saturation pressure at 32oC) x 100
From steam tables, the saturation pressure of water at 32oC is 4.7552 kPa, hence,
RH = (2.956/4.7552) x 100 = 62.16% (Ans.)
d) Dew point temperature is the saturation temperature of steam at 2.956 kPa.
Hence using steam tables we find that:
DPT = Tsat(2.956 kPa) = 23.8oC (Ans.)
e) Density of dry air and water vapour
Applying perfect gas law to dry air:
Density of dry air a =(pa/RaT)=(ptpv)/RaT = (101.3252.956)/(287.035 x 305)x103
= 1.1236 kg/m3 of dry air (Ans.)
f) Similarly the density of water vapour in air is obtained using perfect gas law as:
Density of water vapour v = (pv/RvT) = 2.956 x 103/(461.52 x 305) = 0.021 kg/m3
(Ans.)
g) Enthalpy of moist air is found from the equation:
h = 1.005 x t+W(2501+1.88 x t) = 1.005 x 32 + 0.0187(2501+1.88 X 32)
h= 80.05 kJ/kg of dry air (Ans.)


























































1.3.1.2. Air conditioning systems:
Refrigeration systems are also used for providing cooling and dehumidification in
summer for personal comfort (air conditioning). The first air conditioning systems were used
for industrial as well as comfort air conditioning. Eastman Kodak installed the first air
conditioning system in 1891 in Rochester, At present comfort air conditioning is widely used in
residences, offices, commercial
buildings, air ports, hospitals and in mobile applications such as rail coaches, automobiles,
aircrafts etc. Industrial air conditioning is largely responsible for the growth of modern
electronic, pharmaceutical, chemical industries etc. Most of the present day air conditioning
systems use either a vapour compression refrigeration system or a vapour absorption
refrigeration system. The capacities vary from few kilowatts to megawatts.
Applications Of Refrigeration &
Air Conditioning
3.1. Introduction
refrigeration deals with cooling of bodies or fluids to
temperatures lower than those of surroundings. This involves absorption of heat at a
lower temperature and rejection to higher temperature of the surroundings. In olden days,

the main purpose of refrigeration was to produce ice, which was used for cooling
beverages, food preservation and refrigerated transport etc. Now-a-days refrigeration and
air conditioning find so many applications that they have become very essential for
mankind, and without refrigeration and air conditioning the basic fabric of the society
will be adversely affected. Refrigeration and air conditioning are generally treated in a
single subject due to the fact that one of the most important applications of refrigeration
is in cooling and dehumidification as required for summer air conditioning. Of course,
refrigeration is required for many applications other than air conditioning, and air
conditioning also involves processes other than cooling and dehumidification. Figure 3.1
shows the relation between refrigeration and air conditioning in a pictorial form.
temperatures cryogenic systems are more economical. Now-a-days refrigeration
has become an essential part of food chain- from post harvest heat removal to processing,
distribution and storage. Refrigeration has become essential for many chemical and
processing industries to improve the standard, quality, precision and efficiency of many
manufacturing processes. Ever-new applications of refrigeration arise all the time. Some
special applications require small capacities but are technically intriguing and
challenging.
As mentioned before, air-conditioning is one of the major applications of
refrigeration. Air-conditioning has made the living conditions more comfortable,
hygienic and healthy in offices, work places and homes. As mentioned in Lesson 1,
airconditioning
involves control of temperature, humidity, cleanliness of air and its
distribution to meet the comfort requirements of human beings and/or some industrial
requirements. Air-conditioning involves cooling and dehumidification in summer
months; this is essentially done by refrigeration. It also involves heating and
humidification in cold climates, which is conventionally done by a boiler unless a heat
pump is used.
The major applications of refrigeration can be grouped into following four major
equally important areas.
1. Food processing, preservation and distribution
2. Chemical and process industries
3. Special Applications
4. Comfort air-conditioning
3.5 Application of air conditioning:
Air-conditioning applications can be divided into two categories, namely,industrial and comfort
air-conditioning.

IAQ stands for Indoor Air Quality and it refers to the ways and means of reducing
and maintaining the pollutants inside the occupied space within tolerable levels. IAQ
involves specifying suitable levels of fresh air supply (ventilation), suitable air filters, use
of proper materials of construction, furniture, carpets, draperies etc.

Q. Air conditioning involves:
a) Control of temperature
b) Control of humidity
c) Control of air motion
d) Control of air purity
e) All of the above
Ans.: e)
Q. The purpose of industrial air conditioning is to:
a) Provide suitable conditions for products and processes
b) Provide at least a partial measure of comfort to workers
c) Reduce energy consumption
d) All of the above
Ans.: a) and b)
Q. Air conditioning is required in the manufacture of precision parts to:
a) Achieve close tolerances
b) Prevent rust formation
c) Provide clean environment
d) All of the above
Ans.: d)
Q. Modern electronic equipment require cooling due to:
a) Dissipation of relatively large amount of heat in small volumes
b) To prevent erratic behaviour
c) To improve life
d) All of the above
Ans.: d)
Q. Human beings need air conditioning as:
a) They continuously dissipate heat due to metabolic activity
b) Body regulatory mechanisms need stable internal temperatures
c) Efficiency improves under controlled conditions
d) All of the above
Ans.: d)
Q. Small residences and offices use:
a) Window air conditioners
b) Split air conditioners
c) Central air conditioning
d) All of the above
Ans.: a) and b)