Rdbms

SANKETIKA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE
DIPLOMA IN COMPUTER ENGINEERING

CME II YEAR III SEMESTER
LAB MANUAL
FOR RELATIONAL DATABASE MANAGEMENT
SYSTEM
C-09

AFFILIATED TO STATE BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
HYDERABAD


1. Students should be regular and come prepared for the lab practice.
GENERAL I NSTRUCTI ONS TO STUDENTS
2. In case a student misses a class, it is his/her responsibility to complete that missed experiment(s).

3. Students should bring the observation book, lab journal and lab manual.
Prescribed textbook and class notes can be kept ready for reference if required.

4. They should implement the given experiment individually.

5. While conducting the experiments students should see that their programs would meet the following
criteria:

Programs should be interactive with appropriate prompt messages, error messages if any, and
descriptive messages for outputs.
Programs should perform input validation (Data type, range error, etc.) and give appropriate error
messages and suggest corrective actions.
Comments should be used to give the statement of the problem and every function should indicate the
purpose of the function, inputs and outputs
Statements within the program should be properly indented
Use meaningful names for variables and functions.
Make use of Constants and type definitions wherever needed.

6. Once the experiment(s) get executed, they should show the program and results to the instructors and
copy the same in their observation book.

7. Questions for lab tests and exam need not necessarily be limited to the questions in the manual, but
could involve some variations and / or combinations of the questions.


MINIMUM HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
At least, your system should meet the following requirements:
1GB RAM
Requirement for swap space in Oracle installation is as follows:
o Available RAM Swap Space Required
o Between 1 GB and 2 GB 1.5 times the size of RAM
o Between 2 GB and 8 GB Equal to the size of RAM
o More than 8 GB .75 times the size of RAM
400MB free space in /tmp directory
Depending on type of the installation, 1.5-3.5 GB free space for Oracle Software
1.5GB free space if new Oracle Database is created


RDBMS LAB
Subject Title : RDBMS LAB

Subject Code : CM- 309

Periods per week : 03

Periods per Semester : 45

1. Know installation of Oracle
List of experiments
2. Exercise on creating tables
3. Exercise on inserting records
4. Exercise on updating records
5. Exercise on modifying the structure of the table
6. Exercise on Select command
7. Exercise on querying the table using clauses like WHERE, ORDER, IN,
AND, OR, NOT
8. Exercise on creating and deleting of indexes
9. Exercise on various group functions
10. Exercise on Number functions, character functions, conversion functions and
date functions
11. Exercise on set operators
12. Exercise on sub queries
13. Exercise on Joins
14. Exercise on various date and number format models
15. Exercise on Sequences
16. Exercise on synonyms
17. Exercise on views
18. Exercise on creating tables with integrity constraints
19. Write programs using PL/SQL control statements

20. Exercise on PL/SQL cursors
21. Exercise on PL/SQL exception handling
22. Exercise on Procedures
23. Exercise on Functions
24. Exercise on Recursion
25. Exercise on Triggers
26. Exercise on Packages
27. Exercise on Database Backup.


To access data from database a query language is required. For this purpose in mid 1970s IBM
developed a query language called as SEQUEL for its SYSTEM-R project. later it was renamed
as SQL because the previous name is chosen by an aircraft company.
INTRODUCTION
Later in 1979 oracle corporation introduced the commercially available implementation of SQL.
In 1986,ANSI standardized the SQL as a query language for
RDBMS because SQL works with one specific type of database, called a relational database.
SQL means Structured Query Language.
It acts as an interface between oracle database and the user. SQL is an integral part of a database
management system, a language and a tool for communicating with the RDBMS.
SQL is not really a complete computer language like COBOL, C, C++, or J ava
SQL is very easy to learn as it comprises of simple English words.
SQL is not case sensitive language.


SNO: 1 EXPERIMENT-1
DATE:

AIM
Using the Oracle Universal Installer, you install the Oracle Database 10g software and create a
database.
Installing Oracle Database 10g on Windows
To install the Oracle software, you must use the Oracle Universal installer.
1. For this installation you need either the DVDs or a downloaded version of the DVDs. In this tutorial, you
install from the downloaded version. From the directory where the DVD files were unzipped, double-
click setup.exe.

2. The Oracle Universal Installer starts.


3. You will perform a basic installation with a starter database. Enter orcl for the Global Database Name
and oracle for the Database Password and Confirm Password. Then click Next.

4. The installer now verifies that the system meets all the minimum requirements for installing and
configuring the chosen product. Please correct any reported errors (warnings are OK) before continuing.
When the check successfully completes (with or without warnings), click Next.

5. If you received any warnings, you can proceed. Click Yes.

6. Review the Summary window to verify what is to be installed. Then, click Install.

7. The progress window appears.

8. The Configuration Assistants window appears.

9. Your database is now being created.

10. When the database has been created, you can unlock the users you want to use. Click Password
Management.

11. Unlock SH, OE and HR users by clicking on the check mark in the Lock Account? column. Enter the
same name as the user in the New Password and Confirm Password fields. For example, to unlock SH
user, enter SH in the New Password and Confirm Password fields. Then, click OK.

12. Click OK again.

13. Click Exit.

14. Click Yes to confirm exit.

SNO: 2 EXPERIMENT-2
DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON CREATING TABLES
DESCRIPTION
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a table in a database.
The data type specifies what type of data the column can hold.
The empty table can be filled with data with the INSERT INTO statement.
SYNTAX
CREATE TABLE table_name
(
column_name1 data_type,
....
)
PROGRAM
CREATE TABLE Persons
(
P_Id int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),

City varchar(255)
)
OUTPUT
Table created.
SQL>Select * from Persons
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City

SNO: 3 EXPERIMENT-3
DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON INSERTING RECORDS
DESCRIPTION
The INSERT INTO statement is used to insert new records in a table.
It is also possible to only add data in specific columns.
SYNTAX
It is possible to write the INSERT INTO statement in two forms.
The first form doesn't specify the column names where the data will be inserted, only their
values:
INSERT INTO table_name
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)
The second form specifies both the column names and the values to be inserted:
INSERT INTO table_name (column1, column2, column3,...)
VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...)

PROGRAM
INSERT INTO Persons
VALUES (1,'Hansen', 'Ola', 'Timoteivn 10, 'Sandnes')

INSERT INTO Persons
VALUES (2,'Svendson', 'Tove', Borgvn 23, 'Stavanger')
OUTPUT

P_Id LastName Firstname Address City
1 Hansen Ola Timoteivn 10 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Stavanger

SNO: 4 EXPERIMENT-4
DATE:
AIM
EXERCISE ON UPDATING RECORDS
DESCRIPTION
The UPDATE statement is used to update existing records in a table.
The WHERE clause specifies which record or records that should be updated. If you omit the
WHERE clause, all records will be updated.
SYNTAX
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value, column2=value2,...
WHERE some_column=some_value
PROGRAM
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'
WHERE LastName='Tjessem' AND FirstName='J akob'
OUTPUT
3 Tjessem J akob Nissestien 67 Sandnes
If we had omitted the WHERE clause

PROGRAM
UPDATE Persons
SET Address='Nissestien 67', City='Sandnes'

OUTPUT
1 Hansen Ola Nissestien 67 Sandnes
2 Svendson Tove Nissestien 67 Sandnes

SNO: 5 EXPERIMENT-5
DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON MODYFYING THE STRCTURE OF THE TABLE
DESCRIPTION
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, delete, or modify columns in an existing table.
SYNTAX
To add a column in a table, use the following syntax
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype
To delete a column in a table, use the following syntax (notice that some database systems don't
allow deleting a column)
DROP COLUMN column_name

To change the column name in a table, use the following syntax

RENAME COLUMN t.c1_newtype TO c1

PROGRAM

ALTER TABLE Persons
ADD DateOfBirth date
OUTPUT
P_Id LastName FirstName Address City DateOfBirth
2 Svendson Tove Borgvn 23 Sandnes
3 Pettersen Kari Storgt 20 Stavanger

DROP COLUMN
to delete the column named "DateOfBirth" in the "Persons" table DROP COLUMN is used.
PROGRAM
ALTER TABLE Persons
DROP COLUMN DateOfBirth
OUTPUT


SNO: 6 EXPERIMENT-6
DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON SELECT COMMAND
DESCRIPTION
The SELECT statement is used to select data from a database.
SYNTAX
to select the content of the columns
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name

to select all the columns from the "Persons" table.
SELECT * FROM table_name

PROGRAM
SELECT LastName,FirstName FROM Persons
OUTPUT
LastName FirstName
Hansen Ola

Svendson Tove
Tjessem J akob

To select all the columns from the "Persons" table.
PROGRAM
SELECT * FROM Persons
OUTPUT

SNO: 7 EXPERIMENT-7
DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON QUERYING THE TABLE USING CLAUSES LIKE WHERE, ORDER,
IN, OUT, AND, OR, NOT
DESCRIPTION
The WHERE clause is used to extract only those records that fulfill a specified criterion.
The ORDER BY keyword is used to sort the result-set by a specified column.
The ORDER BY keyword sorts the records in ascending order.
to sort the records in a descending order, you can use the DESC keyword.
The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE clause.
The AND operator displays a record if both the first condition and the second condition are true.
The OR operator displays a record if either the first condition or the second condition is true.
This operator negates a Boolean input. It could be used to reverse output of any other logical
operator
WHERE :
SYNTAX
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator value
PROGRAM

WHERE City='Sandnes'
OUTPUT

ORDER BY
SYNTAX
FROM table_name
ORDER BY column_name(s) ASC|DESC
PROGRAM
ORDER BY LastName
OUTPUT

To sort the persons descending by their last name.
PROGRAM
ORDER BY LastName DESC
OUTPUT

SYNTAX
IN:

FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1,value2,...)
PROGRAM
WHERE LastName IN ('Hansen','Svendson')
OUTPUT
SYNTAX
AND:
SELECT *
FROM table_name
AND column_name operator value
PROGRAM
WHERE FirstName='Tove'
AND LastName='Svendson'
OUTPUT
SYNTAX
OR:
SELECT *
FROM table_name
OR column_name operator value

PROGRAM
WHERE FirstName='Tove'
OR FirstName='Ola'
OUTPUT

SELECT column_name1,column_name2------column_namen
FROM table_name
WHERE NOT column_name operator value
NOT:
PROGRAM
SELECT P_Id,LastName FROM Persons WHERE NOT city= 'Sandnes;
OUTPUT

SNO: 8 EXPERIMENT-8
DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON CREATING AND DELETING OF INDEXES
DESCRIPTION
An index can be created in a table to find data more quickly and efficiently.
The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.
Indexes allow the database application to find data fast; without reading the whole table.
Indexes, tables, and databases can easily be deleted/removed with the DROP statement.
The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.
SYNTAX
CREATE INDEX index_name
ON table_name (column_name)
PROGRAM
To create an index on a single column

create index custsity
on customer(cust_city);

OUTPUT

To create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the column names within the
parentheses, separated by commas:
PROGRAM
CREATE INDEX custcity_country<br>
ON customer(cust_city,cust_country);
OUTPUT

DROP INDEX
The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.

SYNTAX

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP INDEX index_name
PROGRAM
CREATE INDEX emp_id_ind ON Orders ([Employee ID]);
DROP INDEX Orders.emp_id_ind;

OUTPUT
Index deleted


SNO: 9 EXPERIMENT-9
DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON VARIOUS GROUP FUNCTIONS
DESCRIPTION
SQL has many built-in functions for performing calculations on data.
SQL aggregate functions return a single value, calculated from values in a column.
Useful aggregate functions:
AVG() - Returns the average value
COUNT() - Returns the number of rows
FIRST() - Returns the first value
LAST() - Returns the last value
MAX() - Returns the largest value
MIN() - Returns the smallest value
SUM() - Returns the sum
AVG() FUNCTION

DESCRIPTION
The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.
SYNTAX
SELECT AVG(column_name) FROM table_name
PROGRAM
SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) AS OrderAverage FROM Orders
OUTPUT
OrderAverage
950

To find the customers that have an OrderPrice value higher than the average OrderPrice
value.
PROGRAM

SELECT Customer FROM Orders
WHERE OrderPrice>(SELECT AVG(OrderPrice) FROM Orders)

OUTPUT

Customer
Hansen

Nilsen
J ensen

COUNT() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified criteria.
SYNTAX
SQL COUNT(column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(column_name) function returns the number of values (NULL values will not be counted) of
the specified column:
SELECT COUNT(column_name) FROM table_name

SQL COUNT(*) Syntax
The COUNT(*) function returns the number of records in a table
SELECT COUNT(*) FROM table_name
SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) Syntax
The COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) function returns the number of distinct values of the specified
column
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT column_name) FROM table_name
PROGRAM
SQL COUNT(column_name)
SELECT COUNT(Customer) AS CustomerNilsen FROM Orders
WHERE Customer='Nilsen'
OUTPUT
CustomerNilsen
2
SQL COUNT(*)
SELECT COUNT(*) AS NumberOfOrders FROM Orders

Output
NumberOfOrders
6

SQL COUNT(DISTINCT column_name)
SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT Customer) AS NumberOfCustomers FROM Orders

Output

NumberOfCustomers
3
FIRST() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
The FIRST() function returns the first value of the selected column.

SYNTAX
SELECT FIRST(column_name) FROM table_name
PROGRAM
SELECT FIRST(OrderPrice) AS FirstOrderPrice FROM Orders
if FIRST() function is not supported:
SELECT OrderPrice FROM Orders ORDER BY O_Id LIMIT 1

OUTPUT
ORDERPRICE
1000

LAST() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
The LAST() function returns the last value of the selected column.
SYNTAX
SELECT LAST(column_name) FROM table_name
PROGRAM
SELECT LAST(OrderPrice) AS LastOrderPrice FROM Orders
If LAST() function is not supported
SELECT OrderPrice FROM Orders ORDER BY O_Id DESC LIMIT 1
OUTPUT
LastOrderPrice
100
MAX() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTIOM
The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected column.
SYNTAX

SELECT MAX(column_name) FROM table_name
PROGRAM
SELECT MAX(OrderPrice) AS LargestOrderPrice FROM Orders
OUTPUT
LargestOrderPrice
2000

MIN() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.
SYNTAX
SELECT MIN(column_name) FROM table_name
PROGRAM
SELECT MIN(OrderPrice) AS SmallestOrderPrice FROM Orders
OUTPUT
SmallestOrderPrice
100

SUM() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric column.
SYNTAX
SELECT SUM(column_name) FROM table_name
PROGRAM
SELECT SUM(OrderPrice) AS OrderTotal FROM Orders
OUTPUT


OrderTotal
5700

SNO: 10 EXPERIMENT-10
DATE:
AIM
EXERCISE ON NUMBER FUNCTIONS,CHARACTER FUNCTIONS, CONVERSION
FUNCTIONS, AND DATE FUNCTIONS
DESCRIPTION
SQL functions are built into Oracle Database and are available for use in various appropriate SQL
statements. It performs an operation and returns a single value..
SQL supports many functions. All the functions are categorized into 2 types.
i. Single row functions.
ii. Multiple row functions.
1) Single row functions: They work with data of a single row at a time. They are also called

scalar
functions.
The types of single row functions are:
Numeric functions
Character functions
Date functions
Conversion functions

Numeric functions: These functions operates on numeric data. They are:
ABS MOD
CEIL POWER

FLOOR ROUND
LN SQRT
LOG TRUNC
We use dummy table called dual to perform these functions
ABS
DESCRIPTION
It returns an absolute value of a given number.i.e; a positive number.
SYNTAX
ABS(expression)
PROGRAM
SELECT ABS(-17.36)
FROM dual;
OUTPUT

CEIL() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
This SQL CEIL() will rounded up any positive or negative decimal value within the function
upwards.
SYNTAX
CEIL(expression)
PROGRAM
SELECT(CEIL(17.36))
FROM dual;

OUTPUT

FLOOR() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
The SQL FLOOR() rounded up any positive or negative decimal value down to the next least
integer value.
SYNTAX
FLOOR(expression)
PROGRAM
SELECT FLOOR(17.36)
FROM dual;
OUTPUT

LN() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
The SQL LN() function returns the natural logarithm of n, where n is greater than 0 and its base is
a number equal to approximately 2.71828183.
SYNTAX
LN(expression)
PROGRAM
SELECT LN(65) "natural_log of 65"
FROM dual;

OUTPUT

MOD() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
This SQL MOD() function returns the remainder from a division.
SYNTAX
MOD( dividend, divider )
PROGRAM
SELECT MOD(25,7)
FROM dual;
OUTPUT

LOG() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
LOG returns the logarithm, base m, of n. The base m can be any positive value other than 0 or 1
and n can be any positive value.
SYNTAX
LOG(X,Y)
PROGRAM
SELECT LOG(10,100) FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT

LOG(10,100)


2
POWER() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
This SQL POWER() function returns the value of a number raised to another, where both of the
numbers are passed as arguments.
Syntax
POWER( base, exponent )
PROGRAM
SELECT POWER(2,3)
FROM dual;

OUTPUT

ROUND() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
Returns the numeric value rounded off to the next value specified.
SYNTAX
ROUND(number, number of places)
PROGRAM
Select round(3.4573,2) from dual;
OUTPUT

round(3.4573,2)

3.46

SQRT() FUNCTION

DESCRIPTION
The SQL SQRT() returns the square root of given value in the argument.
SYNTAX
SQRT( expression )
PROGRAM
SELECT SQRT(36) FROM dual;
OUTPUT

TRUNC() FUNCTION

DESCRIPTION

The trunc function returns a number truncated to a certain number of decimal places

SYNTAX
trunc( number, [ decimal_places ] )

PROGRAM
select trunc(3.4573,2) from dual;
OUTPUT

trunc

3.45

CHARACTER FUNCTIONS
DESCRIPTION
A character or string function is a function which takes one or more characters or numbers as
parameters and returns a character value.
LOWER() FUNCTION

DESCRIPTION
The SQL LOWER() function is used to convert all characters of a string to lower case.
SYNTAX
LOWER(string)
PROGRAM
SELECT LOWER('TESTING FOR LOWER FUNCTION')
AS Testing_Lower
FROM dual;

OUTPUT

UPPER() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
The SQL UPPER() function is used to convert all characters of a string to uppercase.
SYNTAX
UPPER(string)
PROGRAM
SELECT UPPER('testing for upper function')
AS Testing_Upper
FROM dual;

OUTPUT

TRIM() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION

The SQL TRIM() removes leading and trailing characters(or both) from a character string.
SYNTAX
TRIM( [ [{LEADING | TRAILING | BOTH}] [removal_char]
FROM ] target_string [COLLATE collation_name])
PROGRAM
1. SELECT TRIM(TRAILING '1' FROM 1234567896541)
2. AS TRAILING_TRIM
3. FROM dual;
OUTPUT

LENGTH() FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
LENGTH returns the number of characters in char.
SYNTAX
LENGTH (char)

PROGRAM
select length(mohammed sami) from dual;
OUTPUT
LENGTH
13
LPAD
DESCRIPTION
Left pads a given string with a given character upto n number of characters.
SYNTAX
LPAD(char1,n [,char2])

PROGRAM
select lpad(ename,10,*) from emp;
OUTPUT

Ename

*****Smith

******John

**Mohammed

LTRIM
DESCRIPTION
Trims a given string from left.
SYNTAX
LTRIM(char [, set])
PROGRAM
select ltrim(GEORGE BUSH,GEORGE) from dual;
OUTPUT
Ltrim
--------------
BUSH

RPAD
DESCRIPTION
Right pads a given string with a given character to n number of characters.
SYNTAX
RPAD(char1,n [,char2 ])
PROGRAM

select rpad(ename,10,*) from emp;
OUTPUT
Ename
----------
Smith*****
John******
Mohammed**
Sami******

CONVERSION FUNCTIONS

DESCRIPTION
Conversion functions convert a value from one datatype to another. The first datatype is the input
datatype. The second datatype is the output datatype.
To_char
To_date
To_char
DESCRIPTION
This function converts a date or number to a character string.
SYNTAX
to_char( value, [ format_mask ], [ nls_language ] )

PROGRAM
to_char(sysdate, 'Month DD, YYYY');
OUTPUT
TO_CHAR(SYSDATE, 'MONTH DD, YYYY');
---------------------------
J uly 09, 2003'
THE TO_CHAR FUNCTION CONVERTS A NUMBER
PROGRAM
select to_char(12345.67,'99,999.9900') from dual;
OUTPUT

TO_CHAR(1234
------------
12,345.6700
TO_DATE FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
To_date function converts a string to a oracle date.
SYNTAX
TO_DATE ( String, [Format], [Optional Setting] )
PROGRAM
SELECT TO_DATE('99-J AN-05','YY-MON-DD') FROM dual;
OUTPUT
2099 01 05 00:00:00
MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS
DESCRIPTION
Miscellaneous means mixed or heterogeneous.
Nvl
Decode
Nvl
DESCRIPTION
It will substitute any null values in a table with a user defined value.
SYNTAX
NVL( string1, replace_with )
PROGRAM
select empno,ename,sal,comm from emp;
OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME SAL COMM
--------- ---------- - -------- ---------

7369 SMITH 800
7499 ALLEN 1600 300
7521 WARD 1250 500
7566 JONES 2975
7654 MARTIN 1250 1400
7698 BLAKE 2850
7782 CLARK 2450
7788 SCOTT 3000
7839 KING 5000
9 rows selected.
Except for empno 7499,7521,7654,7844 ,the commission for others are null.so to place
commission as 100 in all places where there is null,we use nvl ( ) function.
PROGRAM
select empno,nvl(comm,100) from emp;
OUTPUT
EMPNO NVL(COMM,100)
--------- - ------------
7369 100
7499 300
7521 500
7566 100
7654 1400
7698 100
7782 100
Decode: Decode is a very useful and handy function for Oracle queries.see the following explanation to
understand this function. It substitute values by using if-else-then logic.
PROGRAM

select * from employee;
OUTPUT
EMPNO DEPTNO
--------- --------- --------------------
590 10
652 20
754 30

PROGRAM
SQL> select empno,decode(deptno,10,'computer',20,'ece',30,'eee','none') from employee;

OUTPUT
EMPNO DECODE(D)

452 Computer
584 Ece
642 eee

DATE FUNCTIONS
ADD_MONTHS(date,n)
LAST_DAY(date)
MONTHS_BETWEEN(date1 , date2)
NEXT_DAY(date,day)
ADD_MONTHS
DESCRIPTION
The add_months function returns a date plus n months.
SYNTAX
add_months( date1, n )
PROGRAM
Select add_months(1-jan-05,5) from dual;
OUTPUT
ADD_MONTH

01-JUN-05


LAST_DAY FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
It returns the date of the last day of the month for a given date.
SYNTAX
last_day( date )
PROGRAM
SQL>select LAST_DAY ('12-J AN-99') from dual;
OUTPUT
LAST_DAY

31-JAN-99

MONTHS_BETWEEN FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
Function calculates the number of months between two dates and returns that difference as a
number.
SYNTAX
months_between( date1, date2 )
PROGRAM
SQL>select MONTHS_BETWEEN ('31-MAR-1995', '28-FEB-1994') from dual;
OUTPUT
MONTHS_BETWEEN('31-MAR-1995','28-FEB-1994')
-----------------------------------------------------------------------
13
NEXT_DAY
DESCRIPTION
This function returns the date of the first day after the specified date which falls on the specified
day of the week.

SYNTAX
PROGRAM
NEXT_DAY(date,day)
SQL>select NEXT_DAY ('15-AUG-2010','FRIDAY') from dual;
OUTPUT
NEXT_DAY
---------
20-AUG-10

DATE:
AIM
EXERCISE ON SET OPERATORS
DESCRIPTION
SET OPERATORS combines 2 or more queries into one result. The datatypes of corresponding
columns must be same.
The set operators are: UNION, INTERSECT, MINUS.
UNION
DESCRIPTION
The UNION operator is used to combine the result-set of two or more SELECT statements.

SYNTAX
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name1
UNION
PROGRAM

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_Norway
UNION
SELECT E_Name
FROM Employees_USA
OUTPUT

INTERSECT
DESCRIPTION
Intersect only returns the rows that are found in all select statements.
SYNTAX
INTERSECT
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2;
PROGRAM
E_Name
Hansen, Ola
Svendson, Tove
Svendson, Stephen
Pettersen, Kari
Turner, Sally
Kent, Clark
Scott, Stephen

SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_vizag
INTERSECT
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_chennai;
OUTPUT
E_Name
Stephen
MINUS:
DESCRIPTION
The SQL MINUS query returns all rows in the first SQL SELECT statement that are not returned
in the second SQL SELECT statement.
Each SQL SELECT statement within the SQL MINUS query must have the same number of
fields in the result sets with similar data types.
SYNTAX
MINUS
SELECT column_name(s) FROM table_name2;
PROGRAM
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_vizag
MINUS
SELECT E_Name FROM Employees_chennai;
OUTPUT
E_Name
tom
harry
Peter

DATE:
AIM
EXERCISE ON SUB QUERIES

DESCRIPTION
A query within another quey. A select statement whose output is substituted in the condition of another
select statement .(A query is a statement written for returning specific data). The subquery is executed
only once. A subquery is enclosed in parenthesis.
There are three broad divisions of subquery:
Single-row subqueries : The single-row
Multiple-row subqueries : These subqueries return sets of rows.
subquery returns one row.
Correlated subqueries
SINGLE-ROW SUBQUERIES
DESCRIPTION
The single-row subquery returns one row.
PROGRAM
SQL>select * from emp where sal =(select min(sal) from emp);

OUTPUT

EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR
HIREDATE
SAL DEPTNO
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 2800 20

MULTIPLE ROW SUB QUERY

DESCRIPTION
These subqueries return sets of rows.

PROGRAM
SQL>select empno,ename,job,sal,deptno from emp where
deptno in (select deptno from dept where loc ='CHICAGO');
OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME JOB SAL DEPTNO
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 3600 30
7524 WARD SALESMAN 3225 30
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 3222 30

3 rows selected.

DATE:
AIM

EXERCISE ON JOINS
Description
The J OIN keyword is used in an SQL statement to query data from two or more tables, based on a
relationship between certain columns in these tables.
Tables in a database are often related to each other with keys.
A primary key is a column (or a combination of columns) with a unique value for each row. Each primary
key value must be unique within the table.
Types of J OIN and the differences between them:
JOIN: Return rows when there is at least one match in both tables
LEFT JOIN: Return all rows from the left table, even if there are no matches in the right table
RIGHT JOIN: Return all rows from the right table, even if there are no matches in the left table
FULL JOIN: Return rows when there is a match in one of the tables
INNER JOIN
The INNER J OIN keyword returns rows when there is at least one match in both tables.
SYNTAX
FROM table_name1
INNER J OIN table_name2
ON table_name1.column_name=table_name2.column_name
PROGRAM
SELECT Persons.LastName, Persons.FirstName, Orders.OrderNo
FROM Persons
INNER J OIN Orders
ON Persons.P_Id=Orders.P_Id
ORDER BY Persons.LastName
OUTPUT
LastName FirstName OrderNo
Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562

Pettersen Kari 77895
LEFT JOIN
The LEFT J OIN keyword returns all rows from the left table (table_name1), even if there are no matches
in the right table (table_name2).
SYNTAX
FROM table_name1
LEFT J OIN table_name2
PROGRAM
FROM Persons
LEFT J OIN Orders
OUTPUT
Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
Svendson Tove
RIGHT JOIN
The RIGHT J OIN keyword returns all the rows from the right table (table_name2), even if there are no
matches in the left table (table_name1).
SYNTAX
FROM table_name1
RIGHT J OIN table_name2

PROGRAM
FROM Persons
RIGHT J OIN Orders
OUTPUT
Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562
34764
FULL JOIN
The FULL J OIN keyword return rows when there is a match in one of the tables.
SYNTAX
FROM table_name1
FULL J OIN table_name2
PROGRAM
FROM Persons
FULL J OIN Orders
OUTPUT
Hansen Ola 22456
Hansen Ola 24562

Svendson Tove
34764

DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON VARIOUS DATE AND NUMBER FORMAT MODELS
DESCRIPTION
A format model is a character literal that describes the format of datetime or numeric data stored in a
character string. A format model does not change the internal representation of the value in the database.
In SQL statements, you can use a format model as an argument of the to_char and to_date functions to
specify:
The format for Oracle to use to return a value from the database
The format for a value you have specified for Oracle to store in the database
NUMBER FORMAT MODELS
A number format model is composed of one or more number format elements.
The number format models in the following functions:
TO_CHAR
TO_NUMBER
TO_BINARY_FLOAT
TO_BINARY_DOUBLE
TO_CHAR FUNCTION
DESCRIPTION
To_char function converts a number or date to a string.
SYNTAX
to_char( value, [ format_mask ], [ nls_language ] )

PROGRAM
SELECT to_char(21, '000099') FROM dual;
OUTPUT
000021
TO_NUMBER
DESCRIPTION
The to_number function converts a string to a number.
SYNTAX

to_number( string1, [ format_mask ], [ nls_language ] )

PROGRAM
SELECT to_number('546', '999') FROM dual;
OUTPUT
546
TO_BINARY_FLOAT
DESCRIPTION
It returns a single-precision floating-point number.
SYNTAX
SELECT TO_BINARY_FLOAT(number)
FROM table_name;
PROGRAM
SELECT dec_num, TO_BINARY_FLOAT(dec_num)
FROM float_point_demo;

OUTPUT

DEC_NUM TO_BINARY_FLOAT(DEC_NUM)
---------- ------------------------
1234.56 1.235E+003

TO_BINARY_DOUBLE
DESCRIPTION
It returns a double-precision floating-point number.
SYNTAX
SELECT TO_BINARY_DOUBLE (number) FROM table_name;
PROGRAM
CREATE TABLE float_point_demo
(dec_num NUMBER(10,2), bin_double BINARY_DOUBLE, bin_float BINARY_FLOAT);

INSERT INTO float_point_demo
VALUES (1234.56,1234.56,1234.56);

SELECT * FROM float_point_demo;

OUTPUT

DEC_NUM BIN_DOUBLE BIN_FLOAT
---------- ---------- ----------
1234.56 1.235E+003 1.235E+003

PROGRAM
SELECT dec_num, TO_BINARY_DOUBLE(dec_num)
FROM float_point_demo;

OUTPUT

DEC_NUM TO_BINARY_DOUBLE(DEC_NUM)
---------- -------------------------
1234.56 1.235E+003

DATE FORMAT MODELS
In the To_ datetime functions to translate a character value that is in a format other than the
default format into a datetime value.
The to_ datetime functions are TO_CHAR, TO_DATE, TO_TIMESTAMP, TO_TIMESTAMP_TZ
TO_CHAR
PROGRAM
SELECT to_char(sysdate, 'Month DD, YYYY') FROM dual;
OUTPUT
J uly 09, 2003
TO_DATE
The to_date function converts a string to a date.
SYNTAX
to_date( string1, [ format_mask ], [ nls_language ] )
PROGRAM
SELECT to_date('2003/07/09', 'yyyy/mm/dd') FROM DUAL;
OUTPUT

JULY 9,2003
TO_TIMESTAMP
The to_timestamp function converts a string to a timestamp.
SYNTAX
to_timestamp( string1, [ format_mask ] [ 'nlsparam' ] )
PROGRAM
SELECT to_timestamp('2003/12/13 10:13:18', 'YYYY/MM/DD HH:MI:SS') FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT
13-DEC-03 10.13.18.000000000 AM
TO_TIMESTAMP_TZ
Convert a character string to a value of TIMESTAMP WITH TIME ZONE
SYNTAX
to_timestamp_tz( string1 , [ format_mask ] [ 'nlsparam' ] )

PROGRAM
SELECT TO_TIMESTAMP_TZ('1999-12-01 11:00:00 -8:00','YYYY-MM-DD HH:MI:SS TZH:TZM')
FROM DUAL;

OUTPUT

TO_TIMESTAMP_TZ('1999-12-0111:00:00-08:00','YYYY-MM-DDHH:MI:SSTZH:TZM')
--------------------------------------------------------------------
01-DEC-99 11.00.00.000000000 AM -08:00

DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON SEQUENCES
DESCRIPTION
Sequences are frequently used in databases because many applications require each row in a table
to contain a unique value, and sequences provide an easy way to generate them.
It is an object in oracle.It generates a series of numbers. It can generate unique sequential
numbers for using a primary key column of a table.
SYNTAX
CREATE SEQUENCE [schema_name . ] sequence_name
[ AS [ built_in_integer_type | user-defined_integer_type ] ]
[ START WITH <constant>]
[ INCREMENT BY <constant>]
[ { MINVALUE [ <constant>] } | { NO MINVALUE } ]
[ { MAXVALUE [ <constant>] } | { NO MAXVALUE } ]
[ CYCLE | { NO CYCLE } ]
[ { CACHE [ <constant>] } | { NO CACHE } ]
[ ; ]

PROGRAM
SQL>create sequence ss
minvalue 1
maxvalue 10
start with 1
increment by 1;

OUTPUT
Sequence created.
PROGRAM
SQL>select ss.nextval from dual;
OUTPUT
NEXTVAL
---------
1

SQL> select ss.nextval from dual;
NEXTVAL
---------
2
NEXTVAL

---------
3
SQL> select ss.currval from dual;
CURRVAL
---------
3
NEXTVAL
---------
4
SQL>alter sequence ss
2 maxvalue 5;
Sequence altered.
PROGRAM
OUTPUT
NEXTVAL
---------
5
PROGRAM
OUTPUT
select ss.nextval from dual
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-08004: sequence SS.NEXTVAL exceeds MAXVALUE and cannot be instantiated

DROPA SEQUENCE
SYNTAX
DROP SEQUENCE { [ database_name . [ schema_name ] . | schema_name. ] sequence_name } [ ,...n ]
[ ; ]

PROGRAM
SQL>drop sequence ss;
OUTPUT
Sequence dropped.
PROGRAM

SQL>create sequence ss
minvalue 1
maxvalue 5
start with 1
increment by 1;
OUTPUT
Sequence created.
PROGRAM
SQL>create table sports(spid number,spname varchar2(20));
Table created.
SQL>insert into sports values(ss.nextval,'cricket');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into sports values(ss.nextval,'chess');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into sports values(ss.nextval,'tennis');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into sports values(ss.nextval,'football');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into sports values(ss.nextval,'hockey');
1 row created.
PROGRAM
SQL> insert into sports values(ss.nextval,'volleyball');
OUTPUT
insert into sports values(ss.nextval,'volleyball')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-08004: sequence SS.NEXTVAL exceeds MAXVALUE and cannot be instantiated

PROGRAM
SQL>select * from sports;
OUTPUT
SPID SPNAME
--------- --------------------
1 cricket
2 chess
3 tennis
4 football
5 hockey
SQL>drop sequence ss;
OUTPUT
Sequence dropped.

DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON SYNONYMS
DESCRIPTION
A synonym is an alias or alternate name for a table, view, sequence, or other schema object.
They are used mainly to make it easy for users to access database objects owned by other users.
PROGRAM
SQL>create synonym workers for emp;
OUTPUT
Synonym created.
PROGRAM
SQL>create synonym employees for workers;
OUTPUT
Synonym created.
PROGRAM
SQL>select * from workers;
OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
--------- ---------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- -------------------------------------------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 2800 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 3600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 3250 500 30
7566 J ONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 4975 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 3250 1400 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 4850 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-J UN-81 4450 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 5000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 7-NOV-81 7000 10

7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 3500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 3100 20
7900 J AMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 2950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 5000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-J AN-82 3300 10
14 rows selected.
PROGRAM
SQL>select * from employees;
OUTPUT
EMPNO ENAME JOB MGR HIREDATE SAL COMM DEPTNO
--------- ---------- --------- --------- --------- --------- --------- -------------------------------------------
7369 SMITH CLERK 7902 17-DEC-80 2800 20
7499 ALLEN SALESMAN 7698 20-FEB-81 3600 300 30
7521 WARD SALESMAN 7698 22-FEB-81 3250 500 30
7566 J ONES MANAGER 7839 02-APR-81 4975 20
7654 MARTIN SALESMAN 7698 28-SEP-81 3250 1400 30
7698 BLAKE MANAGER 7839 01-MAY-81 4850 30
7782 CLARK MANAGER 7839 09-J UN-81 4450 10
7788 SCOTT ANALYST 7566 19-APR-87 5000 20
7839 KING PRESIDENT 7-NOV-81 7000 10
7844 TURNER SALESMAN 7698 08-SEP-81 3500 0 30
7876 ADAMS CLERK 7788 23-MAY-87 3100 20
7900 J AMES CLERK 7698 03-DEC-81 2950 30
7902 FORD ANALYST 7566 03-DEC-81 5000 20
7934 MILLER CLERK 7782 23-J AN-82 3300 10
14 rows selected.
DROP SYNONYM

PROGRAM
SQL> drop synonym workers;
OUTPUT
Synonym dropped.
PROGRAM
SQL> select * from employee;
OUTPUT
select * from employee
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00942: table or view does not exist

DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON VIEWS
DESCRIPTION
A VIEW is a virtual table, through which a selective portion of the data from one or more
tables can be seen. Views do not contain data of their own.
They are used to restrict access to the database or to hide data complexity. A view is stored as
a SELECT statement in the database.
DML operations on a view like INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE affects the data in the original
table upon which the view is based.
SYNTAX
CREATE VIEW view_name
AS
SELECT column_list
FROM table_name [WHERE condition];
PROGRAM
CREATE VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW AS
SELECT name, age
FROM CUSTOMERS;
View can also be queried as a table.
SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW;
OUTPUT
| name | age |
--------------------
| Ramesh | 32 |
| Khilan | 25 |
| kaushik | 23 |
| Chaitali | 25 |
| Hardik | 27 |
| Komal | 22 |
| Muffy | 24 |

UPDATE A VIEW
PROGRAM
UPDATE CUSTOMERS_VIEW
SET AGE =35

WHERE name='Ramesh';
OUTPUT

| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
------------------------------------------------------------
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
DELETING ROWS FROM A VIEW
PROGRAM
DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS_VIEW
WHERE age =22;
OUTPUT
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
| 1 | Ramesh | 35 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+----+----------+-----+-----------+----------+
DROP A VIEW
to drop the view if it is no longer needed.
SYNTAX
DROP VIEW view_name;
PROGRAM
DROP VIEW CUSTOMERS_VIEW;

OUTPUT
View dropped


AIM
EXERCISE ON CREATING TABLES WITH INTEGRITY CONSTRAINTS
DESCRIPTION
Constraints are used to limit the type of data that can go into a table.
Constraints can be specified when a table is created (with the CREATE TABLE statement) or after the
table is created (with the ALTER TABLE statement).
We will focus on the following constraints:
NOT NULL
UNIQUE
PRIMARY KEY
FOREIGN KEY
CHECK
DEFAULT
By default, a table column can hold NULL values.
SQL NOT NULL Constraint
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a column to NOT accept NULL values.
The NOT NULL constraint enforces a field to always contain a value. This means that you cannot
insert a new record, or update a record without adding a value to this field.
SYNTAX
(Column_name [data type] [NOT NULL],
OR
(Column_name data type [Constraint <name>] NOT NULL,

PROGRAM
SQL>create table persons(pid number not null,lastname varchar2(20) not null,firstname varchar2(20));
OUTPUT
Table created.
PROGRAM
SQL>insert into persons values(&pid,'&lastname','&firstname');
Enter value for pid: 1
DATE:

Enter value for lastname: priya
Enter value for firstname: sri
old 1: insert into persons values(&pid,'&lastname','&firstname')
new 1: insert into persons values(1,'priya','sri')
OUTPUT
1 row created.
SQL> /
Enter value for pid:
Enter value for lastname: kavya
new 1: insert into persons values(,'kavya','sri')
insert into persons values(,'kavya','sri')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00936: missing expression

PROGRAM
SQL> select * from persons;
OUTPUT
PID LASTNAME FIRSTNAME
--------- -------------------- --------------------
1 priya sri
SQL UNIQUE Constraint
The UNIQUE constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
The UNIQUE and PRIMARY KEY constraints both provide a guarantee for uniqueness for a
column or set of columns.
A PRIMARY KEY constraint automatically has a UNIQUE constraint defined on it.
SYNTAX
[Constraint <name>] UNIQUE (<column_name>);
PROGRAM
SQL>create table persons(pid number not null unique,lastname varchar2(20) not null,firstname

2 varchar2(20));
OUTPUT
Table created.
PROGRAM
SQL> desc persons;
OUTPUT
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------------------- -------- -----------------------------------
PID NOT NULL NUMBER
LASTNAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20)
FIRSTNAME VARCHAR2(20)
PROGRAM
OUTPUT
1 row created.
SQL> /
new 1: insert into persons values(1,'kavya','sri')
insert into persons values(1,'kavya','sri')

*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C001261) violated
PROGRAM
--------- -------------------- --------------------
1 priya sri
SQL PRIMARY KEY Constraint
The PRIMARY KEY constraint uniquely identifies each record in a database table.
Primary keys must contain unique values.
A primary key column cannot contain NULL values.
Each table should have a primary key, and each table can have only ONE primary key.
SYNTAX
(Column_name data type [Constraint <name>] PRIMARY KEY,
PROGRAM
SQL> create table persons(pid number primary key,lastname varchar2(20) not null,firstname
2 varchar2(20));
OUTPUT
Table created.
PROGRAM
SQL> desc persons;
OUTPUT
Name Null? Type
----------------------------------------------------- -------- -----------------------------------
PID NUMBER
LASTNAME NOT NULL VARCHAR2(20)

FIRSTNAME VARCHAR2(20)
PROGRAM
OUTPUT
1 row created.
SQL> /
new 1: insert into persons values(1,'kavya','sri')
insert into persons values(1,'kavya','sri')
*
ERROR at line 1:
ORA-00001: unique constraint (SCOTT.SYS_C001261) violated
--------- -------------------- --------------------
1 priya sri
SQL FOREIGN KEY Constraint
A FOREIGN KEY in one table points to a PRIMARY KEY in another table.
PROGRAM

SQL>create table persons(pid number(5) primary key,pname varchar2(20),city varchar2(20));
OUTPUT
Table created.
PROGRAM
SQL>create table orders(oid number(5),orderno number(5),pid number(5),constraint fk_persons foreign
key(pid) references persons(pid));
OUTPUT
Table created.
PROGRAM
SQL>insert into persons values(&pid,'&pname','&city');
Enter value for pname: madhu
Enter value for city: delhi
old 1: insert into persons values(&pid,'&pname','&city')
new 1: insert into persons values(1,'madhu','delhi')
OUTPUT
1 row created.
SQL> 2
SP2-0226: Invalid line number
SQL> /
Enter value for pname: nitish
Enter value for city: kolkata
new 1: insert into persons values(2,'nitish','kolkata')
OUTPUT
1 row created.

SQL> /
Enter value for pname: kamal
Enter value for city: chennai
new 1: insert into persons values(3,'kamal','chennai')
1 row created.
PROGRAM
OUTPUT
PID PNAME CITY
--------- -------------------- --------------------
1 madhu delhi
2 nitish kolkata
3 kamal Chennai


PL/SQL
INTRODUCTION
The PL/SQL programming language was developed by Oracle Corporation in the late 1980s as procedural
extension language for SQL and the Oracle relational database. Following are notable facts about
PL/SQL:
PL/SQL is a completely portable, high-performance transaction-processing language.
PL/SQL provides a built-in interpreted and OS independent programming environment.
PL/SQL can also directly be called from the command-line SQL*Plus interface.
Direct call can also be made from external programming language calls to database.
PL/SQL's general syntax is based on that of ADA and Pascal programming language.
Apart from Oracle, PL/SQL is available in TimesTen in-memory database and IBM DB2.

FEATURES OF PL/SQL
PL/SQL has the following features:
PL/SQL is tightly integrated with SQL.
It offers extensive error checking.
It offers numerous data types.
It offers a variety of programming structures.
It supports structured programming through functions and procedures.
It supports object oriented programming.
It supports developing web applications and server pages.
ADVANTAGES OF PL/SQL
PL/SQL has the following advantages:
SQL is the standard database language and PL/SQL is strongly integrated with SQL.
PL/SQL allows sending an entire block of statements to the database at one time. This reduces
network traffic and provides high performance for the applications.
PL/SQL give high productivity to programmers as it can query, transform, and update data in a
database.
PL/SQL saves time on design and debugging by strong features, such as exception handling,
encapsulation, data hiding, and object-oriented data types.
Applications written in PL/SQL are fully portable.
PL/SQL provides high security level.
PL/SQL provides access to predefined SQL packages.
PL/SQL provides support for Object-Oriented Programming.
PL/SQL provides support for Developing Web Applications and Server Pages


DATE:
AIM
WRITE A PROGRAM USING PL/SQL CONTROL STATEMENTS
DESCRIPTION
Decision making structures require that the programmer specify one or more conditions to be
evaluated or tested by the program, along with a statement or statements to be executed if the
condition is determined to be true, and optionally, other statements to be executed if the condition
is determined to be false.
PL/SQL programming language provides following types of decision making statements.
IF - THEN statement
IF-THEN-ELSE statement
IF-THEN-ELSIF statement
Case statement
IF - THEN STATEMENT
DESCRIPTION
The IF statement associates a condition with a sequence of statements enclosed by the keywords
THEN and END IF.
If the condition is TRUE, the statements get executed and if the condition is FALSE or NULL
then the IF statement does nothing.
SYNTAX:
IF condition THEN S;
END IF;
PROGRAM
DECLARE
a number(2) :=10;
BEGIN
a:=10;
-- check the boolean condition using if statement
IF( a <20 ) THEN
-- if condition is true then print the following
dbms_output.put_line('a is less than 20 ' );
END IF;
dbms_output.put_line('value of a is : ' || a);
END;
/
OUTPUT
a is less than 20
value of a is : 10

PL/SQL procedure successfully completed.
IF-THEN-ELSIF STATEMENT
DESCRIPTION


The IF-THEN-ELSIF statement allows you to choose between several alternatives
SYNTAX
IF(boolean_expression 1)THEN
S1; -- Executes when the boolean expression 1 is true
ELSIF( boolean_expression 2) THEN
ELSIF( boolean_expression 3) THEN
ELSE
S4; -- executes when the none of the above condition is true
END IF;
PROGRAM
DECLARE
a number(3) :=100;
BEGIN
IF ( a =10 ) THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Value of a is 10' );
ELSIF ( a =20 ) THEN
ELSIF ( a =30 ) THEN
ELSE
dbms_output.put_line('None of the values is matching');
END IF;
dbms_output.put_line('Exact value of a is: '|| a );
END;
/
OUTPUT
None of the values is matching
Exact value of a is: 100


CASE STATEMENT
DESCRIPTION
The CASE statement selects one sequence of statements to execute.

SYNTAX
CASE selector
WHEN 'value1' THEN S1;
...
ELSE Sn; -- default case
END CASE;

PROGRAM
DECLARE
grade char(1) :='A';
BEGIN

CASE grade
when 'A' then dbms_output.put_line('Excellent');
when 'B' then dbms_output.put_line('Very good');
when 'C' then dbms_output.put_line('Well done');
when 'D' then dbms_output.put_line('You passed');
when 'F' then dbms_output.put_line('Better try again');
else dbms_output.put_line('No such grade');
END CASE;
END;
/
OUTPUT
Excellent


LOOP STATEMENTS
DESCRIPTION
A loop statement allows us to execute a statement or group of statements multiple times.
PL/SQL provides the following types of loop to handle the looping requirements.
WHILE LOOP
FOR LOOP
WHILE LOOP
DESCRIPTION
A WHILE LOOP statement in PL/SQL programming language repeatedly executes a target
statement as long as a given condition is true.
SYNTAX
WHILE condition LOOP
sequence_of_statements
END LOOP;
PROGRAM
DECLARE
a number(2) :=10;
BEGIN
WHILE a <20 LOOP
dbms_output.put_line('value of a: ' || a);
a :=a +1;
END LOOP;
END;
/

OUTPUT
value of a: 10
value of a: 11
value of a: 12
value of a: 13
value of a: 14
value of a: 15
value of a: 16
value of a: 17
value of a: 18
value of a: 19

FOR LOOP
DESCRIPTION
A FOR LOOP is a repetition control structure that allows you to efficiently write a loop that needs to
execute a specific number of times.
Syntax:
FOR counter IN initial_value .. final_value LOOP
sequence_of_statements;
END LOOP;

PROGRAM

DECLARE
a number(2) ;
BEGIN
FOR a IN REVERSE 10 .. 20 LOOP
dbms_output.put_line('value of a: ' || a);
END LOOP;
END;
/
OUTPUT
value of a: 20
value of a: 19
value of a: 18
value of a: 17
value of a: 16
value of a: 15
value of a: 14
value of a: 13
value of a: 12
value of a: 11
value of a: 10



DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON PL/SQL CURSORS
DESCRIPTION
Oracle creates a memory area, known as context area, for processing an SQL statement, which
contains all information needed for processing the statement, for example, number of rows
processed etc.
A cursor is a pointer to this context area. PL/SQL controls the context area through a cursor. A
cursor holds the rows (one or more) returned by a SQL statement. The set of rows the cursor holds
is referred to as the active set.
You can name a cursor so that it could be referred to in a program to fetch and process the rows
returned by the SQL statement, one at a time. There are two types of cursors:
Implicit cursors
Explicit cursors

IMPLICIT CURSORS
DESCRIPTION
Implicit cursors are automatically created by Oracle whenever an SQL statement is executed, when
there is no explicit cursor for the statement.
Programmers cannot control the implicit cursors and the information in it.
PROGRAM
DECLARE
total_rows number(2);
BEGIN
UPDATE customers
SET salary =salary +500;
IF sql%notfound THEN
dbms_output.put_line('no customers selected');
ELSIF sql%found THEN
total_rows :=sql%rowcount;
dbms_output.put_line( total_rows || ' customers selected ');
END IF;
END;
/
OUTPUT
6 customers selected


EXPLICIT CURSOR
DESCRIPTION
Explicit cursors are programmer defined cursors for gaining more control over the context area.
An explicit cursor should be defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL Block. It is created
on a SELECT Statement which returns more than one row.
SYNTAX
CURSOR cursor_name IS select_statement;
PROGRAM
DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type;
c_name customers.name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;
CURSOR c_customers is
SELECT id, name, address FROM customers;
BEGIN
OPEN c_customers;
LOOP
FETCH c_customers into c_id, c_name, c_addr;
dbms_output.put_line(c_id || ' ' || c_name || ' ' || c_addr);
EXIT WHEN c_customers%notfound;
END LOOP;
CLOSE c_customers;
END;
/
OUTPUT
1 Ramesh Ahmedabad
2 Khilan Delhi
3 kaushik Kota
4 Chaitali Mumbai



DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON EXCEPTION HANDLING
DESCRIPTION
An error condition during a program execution is called an exception in PL/SQL. PL/SQL
supports programmers to catch such conditions using EXCEPTION block in the program and an
appropriate action is taken against the error condition.
There are two types of exceptions:
Systen-defined exceptions
User-defined exceptions

SYNTAX

DECLARE
<declarations section>
BEGIN
<executable command(s)>
EXCEPTION
<exception handling goes here >
WHEN exception1 THEN
exception1-handling-statements
........
WHEN others THEN
END;
PROGRAM
DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type :=&cc_id;
c_name customers.name%type;
c_addr customers.address%type;

-- user defined exception
ex_invalid_id EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF c_id <=0 THEN
RAISE ex_invalid_id;
ELSE
SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr

FROM customers
WHERE id =c_id;

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' || c_addr);
END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN ex_invalid_id THEN
dbms_output.put_line('ID must be greater than zero!');
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No such customer!');
WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
END;
/

OUTPUT
Enter value for cc_id: -6 (let's enter a value -6)
old 2: c_id customers.id%type :=&cc_id;
new 2: c_id customers.id%type :=-6;
ID must be greater than zero!



DATE:
AIM
EXERCISE ON PROCEDURES
DESCRIPTION
Procedures these subprograms do not return a value directly, mainly used to perform an action.
A procedure is created with the CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE statement.
SYNTAX
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE procedure_name
[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
<procedure_body >
END procedure_name;

PROGRAM
DECLARE
a number;
b number;
c number;

PROCEDURE findMin(x IN number, y IN number, z OUT number) IS
BEGIN
IF x <y THEN
z:=x;
ELSE
z:=y;
END IF;
END;

BEGIN
a:=23;
b:=45;
findMin(a, b, c);
dbms_output.put_line(' Minimum of (23, 45) : ' || c);
END;
/

OUTPUT
Minimum of (23, 45) : 23



PROGRAM
DECLARE
a number;
PROCEDURE squareNum(x IN OUT number) IS
BEGIN
x :=x * x;
END;
BEGIN
a:=23;
squareNum(a);
dbms_output.put_line(' Square of (23): ' || a);
END;
/

OUTPUT
Square of (23): 529



DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON FUNCTIONS
DESCRIPTION
A function is a named PL/SQL Block which is similar to a procedure. The major difference
between a procedure and a function is, a function must always return a value, but a procedure
may or may not return a value.
A standalone function is created using the CREATE FUNCTION statement.

SYNTAX

CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name
[(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [, ...])]
RETURN return_datatype
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
<function_body >
END [function_name];

PROGRAM
DECLARE
a number;
b number;
c number;
FUNCTION findMax(x IN number, y IN number)
RETURN number
IS
z number;
BEGIN
IF x >y THEN
z:=x;
ELSE
Z:=y;
END IF;

RETURN z;
END;
BEGIN
a:=23;
b:=45;

c :=findMax(a, b);

dbms_output.put_line(' Maximum of (23,45): ' || c);
END;
/

OUTPUT
Maximum of (23,45): 78



DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON RECURSION
DESCRIPTION
A program or subprogram may call another subprogram.
When a subprogram calls itself, it is referred to as a recursive call and the process is known as
recursion.
PROGRAM
DECLARE
num number;
factorial number;

FUNCTION fact(x number)
RETURN number
IS
f number;
BEGIN
IF x=0 THEN
f :=1;
ELSE
f :=x * fact(x-1);
END IF;
RETURN f;
END;

BEGIN
num:=6;
factorial :=fact(num);
dbms_output.put_line(' Factorial '|| num || ' is ' || factorial);
END;
/
OUTPUT
Factorial 6 is 720



DATE:
AIM
EXERCISE ON TRIGGERS
DESCRIPTION
Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically executed or fired when some events occur.
Triggers are in fact, written to be executed in response to any of the following events:
A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or UPDATE).
A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or DROP).
A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, or SHUTDOWN).
Triggers could be defined on the table, view, schema, or database with which the event is associated
SYNTAX
CREATE [OR REPLACE ] TRIGGER trigger_name
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE}
[OF col_name]
ON table_name
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN (condition)
DECLARE
Declaration-statements
BEGIN
Executable-statements
EXCEPTION
Exception-handling-statements
END;
PROGRAM
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER display_salary_changes
BEFORE DELETE OR INSERT OR UPDATE ON customers
FOR EACH ROW
WHEN (NEW.ID >0)
DECLARE
sal_diff number;
BEGIN
sal_diff :=:NEW.salary - :OLD.salary;
dbms_output.put_line('Old salary: ' || :OLD.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('New salary: ' || :NEW.salary);
dbms_output.put_line('Salary difference: ' || sal_diff);
END;

/
OUTPUT
Trigger created.

TRIGGERING A TRIGGER
PROGRAM
INSERT statement which will create a new record in the table:
INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)
VALUES (7, 'Kriti', 22, 'HP', 7500.00 );
OUTPUT
Old salary:
New salary: 7500
Salary difference:
UPDATE statement which will update an existing record in the table:
UPDATE customers
SET salary =salary +500
WHERE id =2;
OUTPUT
Old salary: 1500
New salary: 2000
Salary difference: 500


DATE:

AIM
EXERCISE ON PACKAGES
DESCRIPTION
PL/SQL packages are schema objects that groups logically related PL/SQL types, variables and
subprograms.
A package will have two mandatory parts:
Package specification
Package body or definition
SYNATX
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE proc_name [list of parameters]
IS
Declaration section
BEGIN
Execution section
EXCEPTION
Exception section
END;
PACKAGE SPECIFICATION
PROGRAM
CREATE PACKAGE cust_sal AS
PROCEDURE find_sal(c_id customers.id%type);
END cust_sal;
/
OUTPUT
Package created.
PACKAGE BODY
PROGRAM
CREATE OR REPLACE PACKAGE BODY cust_sal AS
PROCEDURE find_sal(c_id customers.id%TYPE) IS
c_sal customers.salary%TYPE;
BEGIN
SELECT salary INTO c_sal

FROM customers
WHERE id =c_id;
dbms_output.put_line('Salary: '|| c_sal);
END find_sal;
END cust_sal;
/
OUTPUT
Package body created.
USING PACKAGE ELEMENTS
DECLARE
code customers.id%type :=&cc_id;
BEGIN
cust_sal.find_sal(code);
END;
/
OUTPUT
Enter value for cc_id: 1
Salary: 3000


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SANKETIKA POLYTECHNIC COLLEGE

DIPLOMA IN COMPUTER ENGINEERING

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