This chapter consists of related literature and studies that discuss the impact of parental Involvement in Academic performance of Bachelor of Science in nursing of Cotabato Medical Foundation College Inc. Several sources of this literature and studies are excerpt from journals, published articles and thesis. Parental involvement Parental involvement is the level of participation that a parent has in their childs education and school. Many parents are tremendously involved, often volunteering to help in their childs classroom, communicating well with their childs teachers, assisting with homework, and understanding their childs individual academic strengths and weaknesses. Unfortunately there are also many parents who are not directly involved with their childs education. Many schools have programs aimed at increasing parental involvement such as game nights, home activities, and assorted opportunities for volunteers. Another reality of parental involvement is that it typically decreases as the child gets older.(http://teaching.about.com/od/J- Rteachingvocabulary/g/Parental-Involvement.htm)
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The Concept of Academic Performance. Academic performance refers to how students deal with their studies and how they cope with or accomplish different tasks given to them by their teachers. Academic performance is the ability to study and remember facts and being able to communicate your knowledge verbally or down on paper.(Ret. from http://wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_meant_by_academic_performance) Parental Involvement and Student Achievement: A Meta-Analysis The results of the meta-analysis indicate that parental involvement is associated with higher student achievement outcomes. These findings emerged consistently whether the outcome measures were grades, standardized test scores, or a variety of other measures, including teacher ratings. This trend holds not only for parental involvement overall but for most components of parental involvement that were examined in the meta- analysis. Moreover, the pattern holds not only for the overall student population but for minority students as well. For the overall population of students, on average, the achievement scores of children with highly involved parents was higher than children with less involved parents. This academic advantage for those parents who were highly involved in their education averaged about .5 .6 of a standard deviation for overall 12
educational outcomes, grades, and academic achievement. In other words, the academic achievement score distribution or range of scores for children whose parents were highly involved in their education was substantially higher than that of their counterparts whose parents were less involved.(http://www.hfrp.org/publications-resources/browse-our- publications/parental-involvement-and-student-achievement-a-meta- analysis) Parental Involvement Strongly Impacts Student Achievement Researchers Karen Smith Conway, professor of economics at the University of New Hampshire, and her colleague Andrew Houtenville, senior research associate at New Editions Consulting, found that parental involvement has a strong, positive effect on student achievement. Parents seemed particularly interested in the academic achievements of their daughters. The researchers found parents spent more time talking to their daughters about their school work during dinnertime discussions. There are a number of theories about why girls seem to garner more attention from their parents than boys. One possibility is that girls are more communicative with their parents so these conversations about academics are easier for parents to have with their daughters, Conway said. 13
The researchers also found that parents may reduce their efforts when school resources increase, thus diminishing the effects of improved school resources. As an economist, I look for reactions to a specific action so it is not surprising to me that parents may scale back their involvement with their childs education when a school adds resources. As a result, increasing school resources may not be as effective as we expect since they may diminish parental involvement, Conway said. The researchers used national data from more than 10,000 eighth- grade students in public and private schools, their parents, teachers, and school administrators. The researchers were particularly interested in how frequently parents discussed activities or events of particular interest to the child, discussed things the child studied in class, discussed selecting courses or programs at school, attended a school meeting, and volunteered at the childs school. To evaluate school resources, the researchers looked at per-pupil expenditures on instructional salaries and a set of five school characteristics: student-teacher ratio, lowest salary received by a teacher, percentage of teachers with a masters or a doctoral degree, percentage of the student body not in the schools subsidized lunch program, and percentage of nonminority students in the student body. 14
(Andrew J. Houtenville and Karen Smith Conway. Parental Effort, School Resources, and Student Achievement. J. Human Resources, XLIII (2): 437- 453) Parents Need an Attitude Adjustment to Improve Their Children's Homework Motivation. In the study published in Learning and Individual Differences, BGU researchers found that if parents had a more positive, supportive attitude and communicated the learning value as motivation, rather than focusing on completing an assignment or getting a higher grade, then the child's attitude and motivation would improve. Dr. Idit Katz, Dr. Avi Kaplan and doctoral student Tamara Buzukashvily, of BGU's Department of Education, recommend parents give their children some choices, including when or where to do homework. "Parents can improve a sense of competence by allowing children to structure their own tasks and by giving the child the feeling that he is loved and admired no matter how successful he or she is in math or language," the researchers said. The study also shows that parents should ask themselves about their own motivations, attitudes and competence before trying to "treat" or "change" the child. Moreover, educational programs that try to change the 15
attitude and motivation of students toward homework should not keep the parents "out of the loop" as their behavior is essential. "Little formal research has been conducted about the home environment where homework is taking place, although it has been an integral part of education and is a controversial yet often used educational practice," according to the study. "The home environment is just as important for instilling positive motivation as the school is." The researchers conducted the study at two elementary schools with 135 fourth graders and one of each child's parents. The students completed questionnaires regarding their level of motivation to do homework, while parents answered another survey on their willingness to help. This allowed perceptions of the home environment to be examined from both perspectives. Among the sample, more than 60 percent of parents reported being involved with their child's homework once a week and 35 percent indicated being involved every day or more than once a week. Only four percent said they are never involved in their child's homework.(Idit Katz, Avi Kaplan, Tamara Buzukashvily. The role of parents' motivation in students' autonomous motivation for doing homework. Learning and Individual Differences, 2011; 21 (4): 376 DOI)
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Parental Involvement in Homework According to Kathleen V. Hoover-Dempsey stated that taken together, this literature suggests that parents decide to become involved in students homework because they believe they should be involved, believe the involvement will make a difference, and perceive that their involvement is wanted and expected. Parents homework involvement, once engaged, includes a wide variety of activities, ranging from the establishment of home structures supportive of learning to complex patterns of interactive behavior intended to enhance the childs understanding of homework in particular and learning processes in general. The literature also suggests that parents involvement activities influence student outcomes through modeling, reinforcement, and instruction. Operating through these broad mechanisms, parents involvement activities have been positively related to student achievement and, perhaps even more importantly, to student attributes proximally related to achievement (e.g., attitudes toward homework, perceptions of personal competence, self-regulation).Although the literature as a whole supports these summary observations, the body of empirical work on parental involvement in homework might be strengthened in several respects. The most critical need is for theoretically and empirically grounded research focused specifically on the content, processes, and outcomes of parents involvement in homework. The studies have illuminated several aspects of parents involvement; most notably the range 17
of activities included in parents efforts to help their children with homework and selected outcomes associated with those involvement behaviors. The majority of these studies, however, has defined homework involvement in relatively unidimensional terms or has embedded the topic within inquiry focused more directly on related issues. The importance of parents to childrens school accomplishments and the success of notable homework intervention programs underscore the importance of continued inquiry into parents roles and influence in their childrens homework performance. Particularly in need of specific examination are parents motivations for engaging in homework help, the dynamics of effective parentchild interactions during homework involvement and the specific mechanisms responsible for involvements influence on student outcomes. Similarly important are continuing efforts, building on interventions examined in some of the studies reviewed here, to develop and test well-designed approaches to improving school invitations to involvement. Developmental and curricular considerations also suggest the importance of examining appropriate variations in parents homework involvement across time, as well as shifts in outcomes associated with parental involvement across the years of schooling. This set of efforts seems particularly important in light of findings that many parentsacross socioeconomic, ethnic, and geographic groupsassume that they should be involved in homework and value- specific guidance for involvement from schools and teachers. Implications 18
for schools in this body of work center in part on responses to parents motivations and abilities for involvement in homework. Parents become involved in homework In so far as they believe they have a role to play, believe their involvement will make a difference, and perceive that their children and teachers want their involvement. Schools may take specific steps to enhance each of these motivations. For example, they may communicate directly and specifically why and how involvement is important to childrens learning; they may offer specific suggestions for involvement that support parental assumptions that they do indeed have a role to play in their childrens success and that their activities make a difference. They may also offer explicit and specific invitations to involvement. Such steps have been successful in eliciting and enhancing parental involvement as reflected in studies incorporating both broad examinations of teachers involvement practices and relatively detailed inquiries into parents responses to school invitations. School practices may also be informed and improved by understanding the broad range of activities that characterize parents homework involvement and the varied student outcomes associated with involvement. The range of activities offers a wide set of suggestions for specific school invitations to involvement, appropriate for specific developmental levels or grades, learning content and family circumstances. The range of student outcomes associated with parents 19
involvement suggests that schools might well focus on specific proximal outcomesfor example, attitudes about homework, perceptions of personal competence, self-regulatory strategiesas particularly amenable to parental influence. The observed and potential benefits of parental support for childrens homework learning suggest strongly the wisdom of increased support for well-grounded research designed to illuminatesystematically, across developmental levels and varied learning taskswhy and under what conditions parents involvement benefits student learning. The success of schools and the children they serve can only be enhanced by increased understanding of parents roles, activities, and influence in the development of student success. (Kathleen V. Hoover-Dempsey, 2001.) Parental Involvement: A Research Brief for Practitioners Epstein stated that the draw three key conclusions about parental involvement. First, parental involvement tends to decline across the grades unless schools make conscious efforts to develop and implement partnerships with parents. Reasons for this declining pattern include parents lack of familiarity with curriculum at the higher grades; adolescents preferences to have their parents stay involved in less visible ways; parents decisions to return to the work force once their children gain more independence; and secondary teachers lack of awareness of how to effectively involve parents at the higher levels. Second, affluent parents tend to be involved in school more often and in positive ways, whereas 20
economically distressed parents have limited contact with schools, and usually in situations dealing with students achievement or behavior. Schools that work on building relationships with all parents, however, can equalize the involvement of all socioeconomic groups. Finally, single parents, employed parents, fathers, and parents who live far from the school, on average, are less involved in the school unless the school organizes opportunities that consider these parents needs and circumstances. Although these patterns are generally observable among schools, they can be overcome if schools develop programs that include families that otherwise would not become involved on their own. The degree and nature of impact on student achievement is somewhat debated in the literature. Fan and Chens (2001) meta-analysis of the literature concerning the connection between parental involvement and students academic achievement suggests a moderate to practically meaningful relationship. The relationship seems to be more general than specific, indicating that parental involvement has an overall effect on students success, rather than a direct effect on any particular subject area. Their research finds parents expectations and dreams for their childrens academic achievement are the strongest factor influencing students school performance. Bastiani (2000) echoes a similar challenge by raising the question of identifying a clear connection between parents contributions and student progress. 21
Despite the ambiguity in measuring the academic impact of parental involvement, various in-depth studies have established a relationship. Henderson and Berla (1994) synthesized over sixty studies regarding the effects of family involvement on student achievement. Their work attributes to parental involvement effects that include higher grades and test scores, increased homework completion, improved school attendance, more positive attitudes, fewer discipline problems, increased high school completion rates, decreased school leaving rates, and greater participation in postsecondary education. Importantly, like Epstein, Henderson and Berla suggest parents involvement can contribute to these outcomes from early childhood through high school. Studies conducted among specific grades and subject areas support the contention that parental involvement can influence students academic achievement regardless of the students age or subject. For example, Stegelin (2003), Wirtz & Schumacher (2003), and Hertz-Lazarowitz & Horovitz (2002) focused on early childhood education and literacy, noting a link between families who engage in literacy activities at home and their childrens success with reading and writing. Strategies such as reading with the child, discussing stories, and creating a book- friendly environment contribute to the development of childrens literacy skills and positive attitudes toward reading. Teachers attitudes toward involving parents influence the extent to which parents are involved in their childrens school. A report by West (2000) discusses an elementary 22
teachers efforts to increase parent teacher communication, and its effect on students success in reading. Findings from this study show that parent- teacher communication can motivate students to complete reading homework, which results in better quiz and test scores. This particular report demonstrates the importance of teachers initiating positive contact with parents, and the potential effect it can have on students achievement in school. Studies of the middle and secondary grades reflect the above findings. It is recognized that adolescents both desire and require more independence. Van Voorhis (2001) and Simon (2001) found that regardless of students background or prior school achievement, involving parents in various ways had a positive Impact on achievement, attendance, behavior, and course credits completed. Significantly, parental guidance and support of their adolescent students is critical to secondary students school and future success (Sanders & Epstein, 2000). Although parental involvement has reached a higher level of acceptance today as a key factor in improving schools, acceptance does not always translate into implementation, commitment, or creativity (Drake, 2000). Central to this challenge is educators and administrators uncertainty about initiating and maintaining involvement that is meaningful and mutually beneficial for the school, the family, and the student. 23
The most promising practices involving parents seem to be those that embrace collaboration among teachers, parents, and students. Fundamental to this type of cooperation is a shared definition of meaningful parental involvement. There is evidence of disjuncture between professionals and parents understanding of partnership. Fine (1993) for example, claims a hierarchical relationship between teachers and parents prevails, such that professionals may assume parents regard their position as equally influential, but parents themselves defer to professionals expertise. Beck and Murphy (1999) agree that although schools set up structures, such as school councils or collaborative teams, decision-making ultimately rests in the professionals who possess specialized knowledge inaccessible to most parents. They further contend that organizational changes such as site-based decision-making that attempts to include parents have the least positive effect on parents of minority groups. Researching the effects of parent involvement practices on student achievement in American schools under the No Child Left behind Act, D.Agostino, Hedges, Wong, and Borman (2001) also found that programs which attempt to involve parents at the school through school-sponsored activities or governance structures have a negligible impact on student achievement. Rather, parent programs that provide resources and assistance that parents may use with their children at home are more likely to have an effect on students academic progress. 24
Gewirtz, Bowe, and Balls (1995) study of school choice in Britain is important when considering diversity among parents. The school choice movement assumes a monolithic parent group; the idea that parents can and will respond similarly to opportunities to make decisions for their children, or participate in their childrens schools is, in fact, erroneous. Their study highlighted those inequalities in social and economic capital influence parents level of participation and ability to advocate for their children. Specifically, middle to upper income parents capitalize on opportunities to influence their childrens schooling, whereas lower income parents are disadvantaged because of circumstance or skill. Croziers (2000) qualitative study of parents, teachers, and students reinforces that central to understanding the nature of the parent-school relationship and the influences upon it is the issue of social-class Together, Fine, Beck and Murphy, Gewirtz, Bowe, and Ball, and Crozier point to the importance of dialogue between schools and families to identify encouraging and meaningful ways to engage all parents for the benefit of all children. Many studies have documented the importance of parental involvement in childrens homework. Callahan, Rademacher, and Hildreth (1998) find that parents involvement with at-risk sixth and seventh grade students improved students homework performance. Central to this success, however, is the schools development of training programs for 25
parents which aim to provide parents with strategies for assisting and supporting their children at home. There is some indication in the research that diverse educational backgrounds influence the nature and frequency of parents helping their children with homework assignments. Balli, Demo, and Wedman (1998) report that when teachers prompt parents to become involved with math homework, parent involvement significantly increases. Importantly, this study shows that two-parent families are more likely to help with homework than single-parent families. Home circumstances and family structures are therefore necessary considerations for schools aiming to increase the level of parental involvement with homework. Greene, Tichener, and Mercedes (2003) offer specific strategies for parents to participate in schools. Suggestions include individual activities with children, setting up homework space and routine, discussing needed resources for home supervision with teachers, or reflecting on ones own assumptions about school. Volunteering in the school and the community are other positive ways that parents can become involved, and on their own terms. Although certain types of parent involvement such as discussions about homework and school-related topics have positive effects on homework completion, there is research that contradicts this finding. Cooper, Lindsay, and Nye (2000) suggest that parenting style plays a part in the effectiveness of parents involvement in their childrens homework. In their survey of over 700 parents of elementary, middle, and high school students, 26
two-thirds of parents reported helping their children with homework was negative or inappropriate. Specifically, in some cases parents helped their children with homework in order to have them finish it faster, and in other cases parents made homework completion more difficult for the student. These findings speak to the importance of school-home discussions that will encourage interactions that support student learning. Comprehensive parent programs will incorporate the six keys into an action plan that is developed and implemented by an Action Team of parents, teachers, students, administration, and community members. Lunenberg and Irby (2002) summarize seven other models of parent involvement alongside Epsteins school-home-community partnership model including: (1) Gordons systems approach; (2) the Systems Development Corporation study; (3) Bergers role categories; (4) Chavkin and Williams parent involvement role; (5) Honigs early childhood education model; (6) Jones levels of parent involvement; and (7) language minority parents involvement approach. Their paper further suggests developing a family partnership center, establishing parent centers or cooperatives, and creating new options for parents as potential strategies for successfully engaging parents. At the heart of parental involvement seems to be open and effective communication. Much research is devoted to helping teachers and parents establish positive relationships. Swick (2003) examines the role 27
of culture in the communication process, and emphasizes cultural differences as a means to strengthen relationships. Sharing information, empowering parents, dismantling barriers to understanding and cooperation, and recognizing parents strengths, priorities, and perspectives is fundamental to building strong relationships between the home and the school. Part of this process implies a responsibility on the part of teachers to learn about their students families. Goodwin and King (2002) have produced a booklet entitled Culturally Responsive Parental Involvement: Concrete Understandings and Basic Strategies, which explores teachers culturally biased beliefs. Helpful concepts explored in this document include the myths about parents who do not visit school as being unconcerned, how to meet culturally diverse needs, and culturally sensitive strategies for involving parents. There are many concrete strategies for involving parents in schools discussed in the literature. Common to this corpus, however, is the need for schools to gauge their contexts in order to meet the needs of those they serve.(Bonnie Stelmack, Parental Involvement: A Research Brief for Practitioners, University of Alberta)
The Benefits of Parent Involvement: What Research Has to Say Researchers have evidence for the positive effects of parent involvement on children, families, and school when schools and parents 28
continuously support and encourage the children's learning and development (Eccles & Harold, 1993; Illinois State Board of Education, 1993). According to Henderson and Berla (1994), "the most accurate predictor of a student's achievement in school is not income or social status but the extent to which that student's family is able to: Create a home environment that encourages learning; Express high (but not unrealistic) expectations for their children's achievement and future careers; Become involved in their children's education at school and in the community. Henderson and Berla (1994) reviewed and analyzed eighty-five studies that documented the comprehensive benefits of parent involvement in children's education. This and other studies show that parent involvement activities that are effectively planned and well implemented result in substantial benefits to children, parents, educators, and the school. Benefits for the Children: Children tend to achieve more, regardless of ethnic or racial background, socioeconomic status, or parents' education level. Children generally achieve better grades, test scores, and attendance. Children consistently complete their homework. Children have better self- esteem, are more self-disciplined, and show higher aspirations and motivation toward school. Children's positive attitude about school often results in improved behavior in school and less suspension for disciplinary reasons. Fewer children are being placed in special education and remedial classes. Children from diverse cultural backgrounds tend to do better when 29
parents and professionals work together to bridge the gap between the culture at home and the culture in school. Junior high and high school students whose parents remain involved usually make better transitions and are less likely to drop out of school. Benefits for the Parents: Parents increase their interaction and discussion with their children and are more responsive and sensitive to their children's social, emotional, and intellectual developmental needs. Parents are more confident in their parenting and decision-making skills. As parents gain more knowledge of child development, there is more use of affection and positive reinforcement and less punishment on their children. Parents have a better understanding of the teacher's job and school curriculum. When parents are aware of what their children are learning, they are more likely to help when they are requested by teachers to become more involved in their children's learning activities at home. Parents' perceptions of the school are improved and there are stronger ties and commitment to the school. Parents are more aware of, and become more active regarding, policies that affect their children's education when parents are requested by school to be part of the decision-making team. Benefits for the Educators: When schools have a high percentage of involved parents in and out of schools, teachers and principals are more likely to experience higher morale. Teachers and principals often earn greater respect for their profession from the parents. Consistent parent involvement leads to 30
improved communication and relations between parents, teachers, and administrators. Teachers and principals acquire a better understanding of families' cultures and diversity, and they form deeper respect for parents' abilities and time. Teachers and principals report an increase in job satisfaction. Benefits for the School: Schools that actively involve parents and the community tend to establish better reputations in the community. Schools also experience better community support. School programs that encourage and involve parents usually do better and have higher quality programs than programs that do not involve parents.(M. F. G. Olsen, "The Benefits of Parent Involvement: What Research Has to Say," in Home School : Working Successfully with Parent and Family, New Jersey.USA, merrill, an imprint of Pearson Education Inc., 2008 edition, pp. 129-130.) Why Is Parental Involvement Important? When parents are involved in their childrens education, kids do better in school. Want to learn how to help your child achieve and succeed? Read on. In study after study, researchers discover how important it is for parents to be actively involved in their childs education. Here are some of the findings of major research into parental involvement: When parents are involved in their childrens education at home, they do better in school. And when parents are involved in school, children go farther in school and the schools they go to are better. The family makes critical contributions to 31
student achievement from preschool through high school. A home environment that encourages learning is more important to student achievement than income, educational level or cultural background. When children and parents talk regularly about school, children perform better academically. Three kinds of parental involvement at home are consistently associated with higher student achievement: actively organizing and monitoring a childs time, Why Is Parental Involvement Important? Helping with home work and discussing school matters. The earlier that parent involvement begins in a childs educational process, the more powerful the effects Positive results of parental involvement. (http://www.nieconnects.com/gearup/0801_pdf/gearup_jan_4.pdf.)