Introduction To Descriptive Geometry

April,2007 ME114 Descriptive Geometry Lectures 1
Introduction to Descriptive
Geometry
ME114
COMPUTER AIDED
ENGINEERING DRAWING II
Gaspard Monge(1746-1818), the father of
descriptive geometry, developed a
graphical protocol which creates three-
dimensional virtual space on a two-
dimensional plane.

Monge became a scientific and
mathematical aide to Napoleon during his
reign as general and emperor of France.

Descriptive Geometry
Definitions(1)
Projective Geometry [1]
The branch of geometry dealing with the
properties and invariants of geometric
figures under projection. In older literature,
projective geometry is sometimes called
"higher geometry," "geometry of position,"
or "descriptive geometry" (Cremona
1960, pp. v-vi).
Definitions(2)
Descriptive Geometry builds on the
practice, evolved over centuries, of
displaying two images of a single object
simultaneously; one image is seen from one
direction while a second image is seen from
a direction 90 rotated (e.g., a "front" and a
"side" view)[2].
Definitions(3)
Descriptive Geometry is a graphical
communication system, concerned with
describing space in a mathematical way,
so that the geometrical objects and their
interaction can be imagined and drawn[3].

Definitions(4)
Descriptive Geometry can be defined as the
projection of three-dimensional figures onto a
two-dimensional plane of paper in such a
manner as to allow geometric manipulations to
determine
lengths,
angles,
shapes
and other descriptive information
concerning the figures [8].
Projection
When representing a 3-D object on the 2-D
sheet of paper, the number of dimensions is
reduced from 3 to 2.
The general process of reducing the number of
dimensions of a given object is called
projection [6]. Mainly, there are two different
ways of doing this. According to the position of
observer;

Perpective and
Parallel Projections.
Perspective Projection
Perspective(Central) projection is a type of drawing, or rendering, that
graphically approximates on a planar (two-dimensional) surface (e.g. paper or
painting canvas) the images of three-dimensional objects so as to
approximate actual visual perception [4].
The projection or drawing
upon the plane is
produced by the points
where projectors pierce
the plane of projection
(piercing points). In this
case, where the observer
is relatively close to the
object, the projectors
form a cone of
projectors, resulting
projection is known as a
perspective projection[5].

Descriptive geometry uses the image-
creating technique of imaginary, parallel
projectors emanating from an imaginary
object and intersecting an imaginary plane
of projection at right angles. The
cumulative points of intersections create
the desired image.
Parallel Projection
Descriptive Geometry is based on Parallel Projection, in
most cases parallel, orthogonal projection [6].

Parallel Projection
In particular, an
orthogonal projection of a
three-dimensional object
onto a plane is obtained
by intersections of lines
drawn through all points
of the object orthogonally
to the plane of projection
[7].
Orthographic projection
Orthographic projection is a means of representing a three-dimensional
(3D) object in two dimensions (2D). It uses multiple views of the object, from
points of view rotated about the object's center through increments of 90.
Orthographic projection
Equivalently, the views may be considered to be obtained by rotating the
object about its center through increments of 90.
Protocols(1)
Project two images of an object into mutually
perpendicular, arbitrary directions. Each image
view accommodates three dimensions of space,
two dimensions displayed as full-scale, mutually-
perpendicular axes and one as an invisible
(point view) axis receding(going back) into the
image space (depth). Each of the two adjacent
image views shares a full-scale view of one of
the three dimensions of space.
Protocols(2)
Either of these images may serve as the
beginning point for a third projected view.
The third view may begin a fourth
projection, and on ad infinitum (continue
forever). These sequential projections
each represent a circuitous, 90 turn in
space in order to view the object from a
different direction.
Protocols(3)
Each new projection utilizes a dimension
in full scale that appears as point-view
dimension in the previous view. To
achieve the full-scale view of this
dimension and accommodate it within the
new view requires one to ignore the
previous view and proceed to the second
previous view where this dimension
appears in full-scale.
Protocols(4)
Each new view may be
created by projecting into
any of an infinite number
of directions,
perpendicular to the
previous direction of
projection. (Envision the
many directions of the
spokes of a wagon wheel
each perpendicular to the
direction of the axle.)
The result is one of stepping circuitously about an object in 90
turns and viewing the object from each step. Each new view is
added as an additional view to an orthographic projection layout
display and appears in an "unfolding of the glass box model".
Protocols(5)

Aside from the Orthographic, six standard
principal views (Front; Right Side; Left Side;
Top; Bottom; Rear), descriptive geometry
strives to yield three basic solution views:

the true length of a line (i.e., full size, not
foreshortened),
the point view (end view) of a line,
and the true shape of a plane (i.e., full size to
scale, or not foreshortened).
Protocols(5 contd)
These often serve to determine the direction of
projection for the subsequent view. By the 90
circuitous stepping process,
projecting in any direction from the point view
of a line yields its true length view;
projecting in a direction parallel to a true length
line view yields its point view,
projecting the point view of any line on a plane
yields the plane's edge view;
projecting in a direction perpendicular to the
edge view of a plane will yield the true shape
(to scale) view.
Protocols(contd)
These various views may be
called upon to help solve
engineering problems posed by
solid-geometry principles.
It promotes visualization and spatial
analytical abilities, as well as the intuitive
ability to recognize the direction of viewing
for best presenting a geometric problem
for solution.
Representative Examples(1)
The best direction to view:

Two skew lines (pipes, perhaps) in general
positions in order to determine the location of
their shortest connector (common perpendicular)
Two skew lines (pipes) in general positions such
that their shortest connector is seen in full scale
Two skew lines in general positions such the shortest
connector parallel to a given plane is seen in full scale (say,
to determine the position and the dimension of the shortest
connector at a constant distance from a radiating surface)
Representative Examples(2)
A plane surface such that a hole drilled perpendicular is
seen in full scale, as if looking through the hole (say, to
test for clearances with other drilled holes)
A plane equidistant from two skew lines in general
positions (say, to confirm safe radiation distance?)
The shortest distance from a point to a plane (say, to
locate the most economical position for bracing)
The line of intersection between two surfaces, including
curved surfaces (say, for the most economical sizing of
sections?)
The true size of the angle between two planes
Some Axioms
A few axioms of projective geometry are:

1. If A and B are distinct points on a plane, there is at
least one line containing both A and B.
2. If A and B are distinct points on a plane, there is not
more than one line containing both A and B.
3. Any two lines in a plane have at least one point of the
plane (which may be the point at infinity) in common.

(Veblen and Young 1938, Kasner and Newman 1989).
Geometric Elements: Point
A point is a theoretial location in space and it is without
dimensions.
A point must be projected perpendicularly onto at least two
principal planes to establish its true position. *

Geometric Elements: Line
Imagine a point in space:
Imagine that this point starts moving slowly.
Imagine now this point to move very fast in one
direction only.
As you see it move in your mind, it will leave a
trace: this trace will be a straight line.
A line is considered to be infinite in length, the
portion between any two points on it simply
specifies a segment.
Line Positions: A line may lie in two, one or none
of the principal planes of projection.
1. If it lies in two principal planes of projection, it will be seen normal
(seen with the true length) in the two of front, top or right side views;
and it is named for the planes it lies in. That line appear normal in
two principal planes will be seen as a point in the third view.
2. If it lies in one principal plane of projection, it will be seen normal
(seen with its true length) in only one of the principal planes and it is
named for the plane it lies in. That line lying in one principal plane of
projection may be inclined to the other two principal planes. An
auxiliary view is required to show the end view of that line.
3. If it lies in none of the principal planes of projection, it is called an
oblique line, will not appear normal in any of the principal views.
Two auxiliary views are required to show the normal and edge
views of that line.
Geometric Elements: Plane
Now imagine that straight line is stationary for a moment. You would
like it to move like the point moved, but you need a direction. Another
straight line will cross over this line, which we will call a. The line
which gives direction will be called b.

This movement again leaves a trace. In this case the trace is a plane.
A plane can be defined by three points, one point
and one line, two parallel lines, or two intersecting
lines. Planes are often to be infinite in size. The
definition of a plane simply sets its orientation in
3D space.
Plane Positions: A plane may be parallel to one
of the principal planes of projections, inclined to
two principal planes of projection, or inclined to all
three principal planes.
1. If the plane is parallel to one of the principal planes it receives its
name from that principal plane and it will be seen normal in that
principal plane.

2. If the plane is inclined to one of the principal planes it is also inclined
to another principal plane. It can not be seen normal in any of the
orthographic views. It will appear as a line (edge view) in one view. An
auxiliary view is required to show the normal view of the plane.
3. If the plane is inclined to all of the three principal planes, it is called
as oblique plane. It will not appear as a normal or as an edge view in
any of the principal views. Two auxiliary views are required to show the
edge and normal views of the plane.

Geometric
Elements: Plane
Location of a Point on a Line
The top and front views of line 1-2 are shown in the figure. Point O is
located on the line in the top view and it is required that the front view of
the point be found.
A point on a line that is shown orthographically can be found on the
front view by projection. The direction of the projection is perpendicular
to the reference line between the two views.
H
F
1
1
2
2
O
GIVEN
H
F
1
1
2
2
O
SOLUTION
O
Intersecting and Non-Intersecting
Lines
Lines that intersect have a point of intersection that lies on both lines
and is common to both. Point O is a point of intersection since it
projects to a common crossing point in the three views given in (a).
(b)
H
F
1
3
2
4
O
4
1
2
3
4 1
P
3
F ?
?
2
H
F
5
5
6
6
O
7
6
8
5
8
7
O
O
P
(a)
7
8
Visibility of Crossing Lines
Lines AB and CD do not intersect, however, it is necessary to
determine the visibility of the lines by analysis.
(a) (b)
B
H
F
A
A
C B
D
C
D
[CD] is HIGHER
[AB] is IN FRONT
H
F
A
A
C
B
B
D
C
D
Visibility of a Line and a Plane
Step 1.
Project the points where AB
crosses the plane in the front
view to the top view. These
projectors encounter lines 1-3
and 2-3 of the plane first;
therefore, the plane is in front of
the line, making the line invisible
in the front view.
Step 2.
Project the points where AB
crosses the plane in the top view
to the front view. These
projectors encounter line AB
first; the line is higher than the
plane, and the line is visible in
the top view.
REQUIRED: Find the visibility of the plane and the line in both views.
A Line on a Plane
A line, say AB, is given on the front view of the plane and it
is required to find the top view of that line.
A Point on a Plane
A point, say O, is given on the front view of plane 4-5-6 and it is
required to locate the point on the plane in the top view.

Step 2.
Project the ends of the
line to the top view and
the draw the line. Point O
is projected to the line.
Step 1.
Draw a line through the
given view of point O in
any convenient
direction except
vertical.

Piercing Points
Unless a line is in or parallel to a plane, it must intersect the
plane. This intersection point, called a piercing point, may
be within the limits of the line segment or plane as given, or
it may be necessary to extend one or both, in which case
the piercing point can be considered imaginary.

There are two methods to find the piercing points:

- Auxiliary-View Method
- Two-View Method
Piercing Points
Auxiliary-View Method: An edge view of a plane contains all points in the
plane. Therefore, in a view which shows the given plane in edge view, the point
at which the given line intersects the edge view of the plane is the point
common to both-the piercing point.
Piercing Points
Two-View Method: The piercing point of line EG with plane
ABC, may be found using only the given views as follows;
a. Any convenient cutting plane containing line EG is
introduced. A cutting plane perpendicular to one of the
principal planes is convenient because it appears in edge
view in a principal view. This simplifies the following step.
b. The line of intersection 1,2 between this cutting plane and
plane ABC is determined.
c. Since lines EG and 1,2 both lie in the cutting plane, they
intersect, locating point P.
d. Since line 1,2 also lies in plane ABC, point P is the
required piercing point of line EG with the plane ABC.
Piercing Points
Two-View Method
Piercing Points
Two-View Method
Angle Between Planes
Dihedral Angle: The angle formed by two intersecting planes is
called a dihedral angle. A view in which each of the given planes
appears in edge view shows the true size of the dihedral angle.
Angle Between Planes
Dihedral Angle - Line of Intersection Given
Parallelism
If two lines are oblique lines and they appear parallel in two
adjacent views, they are truly parallel.
Parallelism
Check of Parallelism of Principal Lines: However, lines which appear
normal, such as horizontal lines MN and OS in the figure, may appear
parallel in the F and P views but not really be parallel. Therefore, normal
lines may need to be checked in all three principal views.
A Line Parallel to a Plane
A line is parallel to a plane if the line remains parallel to a
corresponding line of the plane in all views.
First, a line BD parallel to line
1-2 is added to the plane in
the H view. Line BD is
projected into the plane in
the F view.
Second, line 1-2 is forced to
be parallel to BD in the F
view. Line 1-2 is now parallel
to the plane
Perpendicularity
If a line is perpendicular to a plane, it is perpendicular to
every line in the plane.
In orthographic
projection:
If two lines are
perpendicular, they
appear in any view
showing at least
one of the lines in
true length.
A Line Perpendicular to a Plane
A line is perpendicular to a plane when the line is true
length at a 90
0
angle to an edge view of the plane.

A line
perpendicular to a
plane is the
shortest distance
from a point to a
plane.
Shortest Distance from
a Point to a Line
The use of spatial analysis has practical applications. If, for example,
we want to hook up a waterline from a point in a house to the water
main, how can we find the shortest distance? The shortest distance
saves material costs, all other things being equal.
The shortest distance from a point to a line is a perpendicular from the
point to the line. The shortest distance shows true length when the
original line is a point view.
Shortest Distance
from a Line to a Line
In design work we may need the shortest connector between two lines
which are not parallel and do not intersect. Such lines are called skew
lines. We note that the shortest connector between two skew lines is the
connector perpendicular to each line.
Intersection of Two Planes
The intersection of two planes is a straight line common to the
plane, and its position is therefore determined by any two
points common to the planes. Points common to two planes
may be found by any one of the three general methods:

1.The auxiliary-view method
2.The two-view(piercing-point) method
3.The cutting-plane method.

Since the piercing-point of a line in a plane may be determined by
using only the two views, the line of intersection of two planes may
be located by applying this piercing-point method twice, or more if
necessary for accuracy.
Intersection of Planes with Solids
Problems involving the intersections of two surfaces in general may
be solved by one of two methods:

1.Lines in one surface are selected and their piercing points with the
other surface are found. For practical reasons, the selected lines
should be of a type convenient to handle, such as straight lines or
circles.
2.Additional cutting surfaces are introduced, cutting pairs of lines
from the given surfaces. The point of intersection of the two lines of
one pair is a point common to the given surfaces and is therefore on
their line of intersection. The additional cutting surfaces are usually
planes but may be spheres for certain problems.
The methods are employed in finding the intersections of planes with
the surfaces of solids.
Intersection of Planes with Solids
Example

References
[1] http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ProjectiveGeometry.html
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descriptive_geometry
[3] http://mathsisgoodforyou.com/topicsPages/geometry/descriptive.htm
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perspective_projection
[5] ME113 Lecture Notes, Chapter 3, METU
[6] An Analytical Introduction to Descriptive Geometry, Adrian B. Biran
[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonal_projection
[8] Engineering Design Graphics, James H. Earle, 4th Edition
[9] Descriptive Geometry, E.G.Pare, R.O. Loving, I.L.Hill, 3rd Edition

Introduction To Descriptive Geometry

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April,2007 ME114 Descriptive Geometry Lectures 1

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