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ln( ......(1)
= ( ......(2)
Where
= K
......(3)
where
= true stress
K = strength coefficient
......(4)
True Stress and true strain data is plotted on log-log graph and K and n
values are obtained for each of the curve. Youngs modulus (E) for each of the
curve is also calculated by collecting the data on the linear portion of the
engineering stress-strain diagram. The values of theses mechanical properties
(n, K and E values) are provided in table 1.
Table 1: strain hardening exponent (n), strength coefficient (K) and Youngs
modulus (E) of four different processed ZKQX alloy sheets
Sl.No ZKQX alloy n
value
K (MPa)
value
E(Youngs
modulus in
GPa)
1 TRC & rolled 0.22 490.9 42.3
2 TRC & Heat Treated 0.07 444.6 34.8
3 Extruded 0.11 503.5 34.8
4 Extruded & Heat Treated 0.09 480.3 34.8
4.2 STEP2 (Finite element modelling and simulation of LDH test set up)
Different tools used in limiting dome height test such as die, binder,
tool and draw bead are modelled in the eta/DYNAFORM version 5.7.1 software
along with the blank as shown in figure 4. Quarter model has been employed for
modelling and simulation because of less computational time. Two different
views of the model (X-Z view) front view and isometric view of the model are
shown in figure 3.The detailed geometrical properties used for the modelling are
mentioned in the table 2.
a) Front view of FE modelling b) Isometric view of FE modelling
Figure 4 Finite element modelling of limiting dome height set up
a) Front view b) Isometric view
Table 2: Geometrical properties considered for FE modelling
Sl.No Parameter Size(mm)
1 Thickness of the blank 1.2
2 Radius of the blank 47.4
3 Inner radius of the die, binder 27
4 Outer radius of the die, binder 90
5 Radius Radius of the hemispherical punch 25
6 Radius of the draw bead 36
7 Corner radius of the die 10
The designed model as shown in the above figures has been analysed
using LS-DYNA Program manager and simulated in ETA/post-processor 1.8.0
using material properties of the blank such as (n) strain-hardening exponent, (K)
strength coefficient and E (Youngs modulus). Simulation has been carried out
for all the four different types of alloy blank sheets. Many parameters were
assumed during the simulation.
Parameters assumed in the simulation:
1. Tooling such as die, binder, punch, draw bead are rigid bodies and blank
is deformable.
2. Static friction between the die and the blank is equal to 0.1.
3. Static friction between the punch and the blank is equal to 0.1.
4. Poissons ratio of all the alloys is 0.29.
5. Binder force applied on the blank is 5000N.
6. Von-Mises criterion is used as failure criteria for the blank.
7. Stroke distance is 30mm.
8. Stretching is considered to be symmetric along x-z and y-z planes.
Simulation for all the blanks has been carried in 150 steps and some of
these intermediate steps are shown in the figure 5. Limiting Dome Height is
obtained by measuring the height of the cup at one step before onset of
cracking. Forming limit diagrams are also obtained for each of the sheets and
the results have been discussed in section 5.2.
Thickness of the cup at various nodes at the limiting dome height has been
calculated as shown in the figure 6 and curvilinear distance of these points from
the centre of the cup is measured. Using this data, variation of the thickness of
the cup at the limiting dome height has been plotted against the curvilinear
distance from the centre of the cup.
Step120
Step150
Step90
Step60
Step1
Figure 5 Simulation of the stretch forming of TRC & rolled alloy sheet
Figure 6 Thickness distribution of the cup at the limiting dome height - top view
Chapter.5
5. Results and Discussion:-
5.1. Limiting Dome Height (LDH):-
It is the greatest depth that a material can withstand under the pure
stretching of a hemispherical punch .This is a standard measurement of
stretchability. LDH values of all the four sheets obtained from the simulation
are mentioned in Table 3.
Table 3: LDH values of different ZKQX alloy sheets
Sl.No ZKQX alloy n value UTS(M Pa) Yield
strength(M Pa)
LDH(mm)
1 TRC & rolled 0.22 285 177 25.17
2 TRC & Heat
Treated
0.07 342 320 15.53
3 Extruded 0.11 352 305 19.3081jj 19.30
4 Extruded &
Heat Treated
0.09 360 325 16.98
It is observed that TRC & rolled ZKQX sheet shows higher value of
limiting dome height of 25.17 mm compared to other sheets. Generally LDH
increases with decrease in yield strength. If yield strength is low, material starts
undergoing plastic deformation at an earlier stage. Since TRC & rolled ZKQX
sheet has very low yield strength value (177 M Pa) compared to other sheets, it
has shown exceptionally higher value of LDH or formability.
Extruded ZKQX sheet has shown LDH of 19.31 mm, higher than that of
TRC & heat Treated and extruded & heat treated ZKQX sheets because its yield
strength of 305MPa, slightly lower than that of them. LDH values of TRC &
heat treated sheet and extruded and heat treated sheet are close because their
yield strength values are close.
Though extruded and heat treated ZKQX sheet has slightly higher yield
strength than TRC & heat treated alloy, it has higher LDH. The reason for this
can be extruded & heat treated alloy has a wider plastic zone (between yield
strength and UTS) than the TRC & heat treated alloy.
The order of formability of sheets based on LDH values is as follows:
TRC & rolled > Extruded > Extruded and Heat treated > TRC & Heat treated
5.2. Forming limit diagram (FLD):-
5.2.1. FLD obtained through Keeler-Brazier equation:
FLDs for all the ZKQX alloy sheets were drawn by calculating
(Plain-strain intercept) using Keeler Brazier equation:
of
the respective sheet calculated from the above equation. These values are given
in table 4.
Table 4:
1 TRC & rolled 1.2 42.4
2 TRC & Heat treated 1.2 13.4
3 Extruded 1.2 21.5
4 Extruded and Heat
treated
1.2 16.3
FLDs of all the ZKQX alloy sheets obtained using Keeler-Brazier
equation are shown in the figure8.
Figure 7 Comparison of FLDs of ZKQX alloy sheets obtained through
Keeler-Brazier equation
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
-80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 40 60 80
M
a
j
o
r
E
n
g
i
n
e
e
r
i
n
g
S
t
r
a
i
n
,
%
Minor Engineering Strain,%
FLD of ZKQX alloy sheets
extruded and heat treated
Extruded
TRC
TRC and heat treated
represents higher
formability. It means the sheet can undergo more plastic deformation since it
has wider zone under the FLC curve in which no cracking takes place. TRC and
heat treated alloy has shown the lowest
values is as follows:
TRC & rolled > Extruded > Extruded and Heat treated > TRC & Heat treated.
This is in accordance with n-values of the four different processed sheets. It can
be observed that order of formability of the sheet based on LDH values and
FLD diagrams are the same.
5.2.2. FLD obtained from simulation:
Forming limit diagrams for all the ZKQX alloy sheets are also obtained
from the simulation of stretch forming of the sheets. This FLD has two
important curves which depict the strain limits for necking and fracturing of the
sheet metal. The region between the curves is a zone of critical deformation or
safety zone, where the material may be safe or may crack, so in practice it is
best not to apply those strains. The critical deformation that is likely to occur in
this zone is called necking, which is when the metal is stretched thinner in some
areas.
Forming limit diagrams obtained from the simulation are shown in the
figure .Their
%
(eng.strain)
%
(True strain)
theoretical
%
(True strain)
-simulation
Error
(%)
1 TRC &
rolled
42.4 35.3 35.2 0.43
2 TRC and
heat treated
13.4 12.6 12.7 -0.64
3 Extruded 21.5 19.5 19.3 1.03
4 Extruded
and heat
treated
16.3 15.1 14.9 1.66
The
value of the TRC & rolled ZKQX alloy sheet is found to much higher
than ingot cast ZKQX alloy sheets which means that it can undergo more
thinning and stretching than the other alloy sheets.
3. Failure location (minimum thickness) and thickness distribution of all the
four different processed ZKQX alloy sheets has been obtained.
Hence, automobile industries should use TRC and rolled ZKQX alloy
than ingot cast ZKQX alloy sheets for better formability and for better
automotive applications.
7. References :-
1. Magnesium Vision 2020: A North American AutomotiveStrategic Vision for
Magnesium. Southfield, MI: U.S.Council for Automotive Research, 2006.
2. Effect of reverse dome stretching on dome height and forming limits of sheet
materials by M.Jain, J.Allin, X.Duan, D.J.Lloyd
DOI: 10.1016/j.msea.2004.08.038
3. C.L. Mendis, K. Oh-ishi, K. Hono, Scripta Mater. 57 (2007) 485
4. Microstructures and tensile properties of a twin roll cast and
heat-treated Mg2.4Zn0.1Ag0.1Ca0.1Zr alloy by C.L. Mendis, J.H. Bae,
N.J. Kim and K. Hono
5. Twin-roll strip casting of magnesium alloys in China by DING Pei-dao
, PAN Fu-sheng , JIANG Bin , WANG Jian ,LI Hua-lun , WU Jiang-cai
, XU Yue-wang , WEN Yu
6. Product Manufacturing and Cost Estimating using CAD/CAE: The Computer
Aided Engineering Design Series By Kuang-Hua Chang PgNo:150