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Basic Electronics Course

Definition of Electronics

Difference between Electronic & Electrical

Electronic Components

Electronics Terms

Electronics Theories & Laws

Definition of electronics: Electronics is the branch of science that deals with the study of flow and control of
electrons (electricity) and the study of their behavior and effects in vacuums, gases, and semiconductors, and with devices
using such electrons. This control of electrons is accomplished by devices that resist, carry, select, steer, switch, store,
manipulate, and exploit the electron.
Difference in Electronics and Electrical:
Electronics deals with flow of charge (electron) through non-metal conductors (semi-conductors).
Electrical deals with the flow of charge through metal conductors.
Example: Flow of charge through silicon which is not a metal would come under electronics whereas flow of charge through
copper which is a metal would come under electrical.
Electronics Components:
An electronic component is a basic electronic element having two or more connecting leads or pins. Electronic components
are intended to be connected together usually by soldering to a printed circuit board, in order to create an electronic circuit
with a particular function for example an Rectifier, Amplifier or Oscillator.
Electronic Components are of 2 types: Passive and Active
Passive electronic components are those that do not have gain or directionality and capable of operating without an external
power source. They are also called Electrical elements or electrical components. e.g. resistors, capacitors, Inductors and simple
diodes.
Active components are those that have gain or directionality and they require a source of power to operate e.g. transistors , LED,
SCRs, TRIACs and integrated circuits or ICs, logic gates.

Active Electronic Components

Resistor

Capacitor

Diode

Inductor

Passive Electronic Components

Junction field effect
transistor

Metal oxide field effect
transistor (MOSFET)

Bipolar Transistor

Operational amplifier

Logic gates
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Components and their functions in Electronics and Electrical:
1. Cable & Wires: for connecting components in circuits.
2. Terminals and Connectors: Components to make electrical connection.
3. Switches: Components that may be made to either conduct (closed) or not (open).
4. Resistors: Components used to resist current.
5. Capacitors: Components that store electrical charge in an electrical field.
6. Inductors & Transformers: These are Electrical components that use magnetism.
7. Network Components: Components that use more than 1 type of Passive Component.
8. Piezoelectric devices, crystals: Passive components that use piezoelectric effect.
9. Semiconductors: Electronic control components with no moving parts.
10. Diodes: Components that conduct electricity in only one direction.
11. Zener Diodes: for voltage regulation.
12. Bridge Rectifier: for full wave rectifier.
13. LEDs: for light indications or source.
14. Transistors: A semiconductor device capable of amplification.
15. Thyristors: to control AC or DC
16. Opto Electronic Components: Light sensor, photo cell, photo diode, couplers.
17. Integrated Circuits or ICs: A microelectronic computer circuit incorporated into a chip or
semiconductor; a whole system rather than a single component.
Cables & Wires: These are used for crossing and joining electronic circuits. Some common symbols are shown below.

Wiring Symbols
Terminals and Connectors:
Battery clips and holders
The standard battery clip fits a 9V PP3.
Battery holder with 6 AA cells. This is used for more current or
longer battery life.

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Terminal blocks and PCB terminals
Terminal blocks are used to connect wires in Circuits
PCB mounting terminal blocks provide an easy way of
making semi-permanent connections to PCBs.

Crocodile clips
The crocodile clips are used for many purposes including
test leads. They have a solder contact and lugs which fold
down to grip the cable's insulation, increasing the strength
of the joint.

4mm plugs, sockets and terminals
These are the standard single pole connectors used on meters
and other electronic equipment.
Plugs
Plugs may have a screw or solder terminal to hold the cable.
Sockets
These are usually described as 'panel mounting' because they
are designed to be fitted to a case with a mounting nut.
Terminals
In addition to a socket these have provision for attaching a wire
by threading it through a hole (or wrapping it around the post)
and tightening the top nut by hand.

PCB
terminal

block
Terminal block

Crocodile clips

4mm terminal

and solder tag

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DC power plugs and sockets
These 2-pole plugs and sockets ensure that the polarity of a
DC supply cannot be accidentally reversed.

Jack plugs and sockets
These are intended for audio signals so mono
and stereo versions are available.
Screened plugs have metal bodies connected
to the COM contact. Most connections are
soldered because usually these are designed
for PCB or chassis mounting.
L = left channel signal
R = right channel signal
COM = common (0V,
screen)

BNC plugs and sockets
These are designed for screened cables carrying high
frequency signals where an undistorted and noise free
signal is essential, for example oscilloscope leads. BNC
plugs are connected with a push and twist action, to
disconnect you need to twist and pull.

" (6.3mm) jack plug and socket

3.5mm jack plug and socket

3.5mm jack line socket
(for fitting to a cable)

3.5mm jack plug and socket connections
(the R connection is not present on mono plugs)

BNC plug

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D connectors
These are multi-pole connectors with provision for screw fittings to make semi-permanent
connections, for example on computer equipment. The D shape prevents incorrect connection.

IDC communication connectors
These multi-pole insulation displacement connectors are
used for computer and telecommunications equipment.
The 8-way RJ45 is the standard connector for modern
computer networks.

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Switches
Selecting a Switch
There are three important features to consider when selecting a switch:

Contacts (e.g. single pole, double throw)

Ratings (maximum voltage and current)

Method of Operation (toggle, slide, key etc.)

Switch Contacts
Several terms are used to describe switch contacts:

Pole - number of switch contact sets.

Throw - number of conducting positions, single or double.

Way - number of conducting positions, three or more.

Momentary - switch returns to its normal position when released.

Open - off position, contacts not conducting.

Closed - on position, contacts conducting, there may be several on positions.
For example: the simplest on-off switch has one set of contacts (single pole) and one switching
position which conducts (single throw). The switch mechanism has two positions: open (off)
and closed (on), but it is called 'single throw' because only one position conducts.
Switch Contact Ratings
Switch contacts are rated with a maximum voltage and current, and there may be different
ratings for AC and DC. The AC values are higher because the current falls to zero many times
each second and an arc is less likely to form across the switch contacts.
For low voltage electronics projects the voltage rating will not matter, but you may need to
check the current rating. The maximum current is less for inductive loads (coils and motors)
because they cause more sparking at the contacts when switched off.
Standard Switches
Type of Switch Circuit Symbol Example
ON-OFF
Single Pole, Single Throw = SPST
A simple on-off switch. This type can be used to
switch the power supply to a circuit.
When used with mains electricity this type of
switch must be in the live wire, but it is better to
use a DPST switch to isolate both live and
neutral.

SPST toggle switch

Circuit symbol for a

simple on-off switch

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(ON)-OFF
Push-to-make = SPST Momentary
A push-to-make switch returns to its normally
open (off) position when you release the button,
this is shown by the brackets around ON. This
is the standard doorbell switch.

Push-to-make switch
ON-(OFF)
Push-to-break = SPST Momentary
A push-to-break switch returns to its normally
closed (on) position when you release the
button.

Push-to-break switch
ON-ON
Single Pole, Double Throw = SPDT
This switch can be on in both positions,
switching on a separate device in each case. It
is often called a changeover switch. For
example, a SPDT switch can be used to switch
on a red lamp in one position and a green lamp
in the other position.
A SPDT toggle switch may be used as a simple on-off
switch by connecting to COM and one of the A or B
terminals shown in the diagram. A and B are
interchangeable so switches are usually not labelled.
ON-OFF-ON
SPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT switch.
It has a third switching position in the centre
which is off. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON)
versions are also available where the switch
returns to the central off position when
released.

SPDT toggle switch

SPDT slide switch
(PCB mounting)

SPDT rocker switch
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Dual ON-OFF
Double Pole, Single Throw = DPST
A pair of on-off switches which operate together
(shown by the dotted line in the circuit symbol).

A DPST switch is often used to switch mains
electricity because it can isolate both the live
and neutral connections.

DPST rocker switch
Dual ON-ON
Double Pole, Double Throw = DPDT
A pair of on-on switches which operate together
(shown by the dotted line in the circuit symbol).

A DPDT switch can be wired up as a reversing
switch for a motor as shown in the diagram.
ON-OFF-ON
DPDT Centre Off
A special version of the standard SPDT switch.
It has a third switching position in the centre
which is off. This can be very useful for motor
control because you have forward, off and
reverse positions. Momentary (ON)-OFF-(ON)
versions are also available where the switch
returns to the central off position when
released.

DPDT slide switch

Wiring for Reversing Switch

Special Switches
Type of Switch Example
Push-Push Switch (e.g. SPST = ON-OFF)
This looks like a momentary action push switch but it is a
standard on-off switch: push once to switch on, push again to
switch off. This is called a latching action.

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Microswitch (usually SPDT = ON-ON)
Microswitches are designed to switch fully open or closed in
response to small movements. They are available with levers and
rollers attached.

Keyswitch
A key operated switch. The example shown is SPST.

Tilt Switch (SPST)
Tilt switches contain a conductive liquid and when tilted this
bridges the contacts inside, closing the switch. They can be used
as a sensor to detect the position of an object. Some tilt switches
contain mercury which is poisonous.

Reed Switch (usually SPST)
The contacts of a reed switch are closed by bringing a small
magnet near the switch. They are used in security circuits, for
example to check that doors are closed. Standard reed switches
are SPST (simple on-off) but SPDT (changeover) versions are
also available.

DIP Switch (DIP = Dual In-line Parallel)
This is a set of miniature SPST on-off switches, the example
shown has 8 switches. The package is the same size as a
standard DIL (Dual In-Line) integrated circuit.
This type of switch is used to set up circuits, e.g. setting the code
of a remote control.

Multi-pole Switch
The picture shows a 6-pole double throw switch, also known as a
6-pole changeover switch. It can be set to have momentary or
latching action

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Multi-way Switch
Multi-way switches have 3 or more conducting positions. They
may have several poles (contact sets). A popular type has a
rotary action and it is available with a range of contact
arrangements from 1-pole 12-way to 4-pole 3 way.
The number of ways (switch positions) may be reduced by adjusting a stop
under the fixing nut. For example if you need a 2-pole 5-way switch you can
buy the 2-pole 6-way version and adjust the stop.
Contrast this multi-way switch (many switch positions) with the multi-pole
switch (many contact sets) described above.

Multi-way rotary switch

1-pole 4-way switch symbol

Resistors
Example:
Circuit symbol:

Function
Resistors restrict the flow of electric current, for example a resistor is placed in series with a
light-emitting diode (LED) to limit the current passing through the LED.
Resistor values - the resistor colour code
Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega .
Resistor values are normally shown using coloured bands.
Each colour represents a number as shown in the table.
Most resistors have 4 bands:

The first band gives the first digit.

The second band gives the second digit.

The third band indicates the number of zeros.

The fourth band is used to shows the tolerance (precision) of the
resistor, this may be ignored for almost all circuits but further details
are given below.

The Resistor
Colour Code
Colour

Number

Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange

3
Yellow

4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
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This resistor has red (2), violet (7), yellow (4 zeros) and gold bands.
So its value is 270000 = 270 k .
On circuit diagrams the is usually omitted and the value is written 270K.
Small value resistors (less than 10 ohm)
The standard colour code cannot show values of less than 10 . To show these small values
two special colours are used for the third band: gold which means 0.1 and silver which
means 0.01. The first and second bands represent the digits as normal.
For example:
red, violet, gold bands represent 27 0.1 = 2.7

green, blue, silver bands represent 56 0.01 = 0.56

Tolerance of resistors (fourth band of colour code)
The tolerance of a resistor is shown by the fourth band of the colour code. Tolerance is the
precision of the resistor and it is given as a percentage. For example a 390

resistor with a
tolerance of 10% will have a value within 10% of 390 , between 390 - 39 = 351

and 390 +
39 = 429

(39 is 10% of 390).
A special colour code is used for the fourth band tolerance:
silver 10%, gold 5%, red 2%, brown 1%.
If no fourth band is shown the tolerance is 20%.
Tolerance may be ignored for almost all circuits because precise resistor values are rarely
required.
Real resistor values (the E6 and E12 series)
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 20% tolerance)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases.
The E12 series (12 values for each multiple of ten, for resistors with 10% tolerance)
10, 12, 15, 18, 22, 27, 33, 39, 47, 56, 68, 82, ... then it continues 100, 120, 150 etc.
The E12 series is the one most frequently used for resistors. It allows you to choose a value
within 10% of the precise value you need.
Power Resistors
Electrical energy is converted to heat when current flows through
a resistor. The resistor must be able to withstand the heating
effect and and for high currents power resistors are used.

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Variable Resistors
Construction
Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at
both ends and a wiper which moves along the track as you turn
the spindle. The track may be made from carbon, cermet (ceramic
and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances). The track
is usually rotary but straight track versions, usually called sliders,
are also available.
Variable resistors are often called potentiometers.They are
specified by their maximum resistance, linear or logarithmic track,
and their physical size.
Rheostat
.
Rheostats are often used to vary current, for example to control
the brightness of a lamp or the rate at which a capacitor charges.
Potentiometer
Variable resistors used as potentiometers have all three terminals
connected.
This arrangement is normally used to vary voltage, for example to
set the switching point of a circuit with a sensor, or control the
volume (loudness) in an amplifier circuit.
Presets
These are miniature versions of the standard variable resistor. They
are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and
adjusted only when the circuit is built.

Standard Variable Resistor

Rheostat Symbol

Potentiometer Symbol

Preset Symbol

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Multiturn presets are used where very precise adjustments must be made. The screw must
be turned many times (10+) to move the slider from one end of the track to the other, giving
very fine control.

Preset
(open style)

Presets
(closed style)

Multiturn preset
Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)

An LDR is an input transducer (sensor) which converts brightness (light) to resistance. It is
made from cadmium sulphide (CdS) and the resistance decreases as the brightness of light
falling on the LDR increases.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance in darkness and bright light, these are the
typical results for a standard LDR:

Darkness: maximum resistance, about 1M .

Very bright light: minimum resistance, about 100 .
For many years the standard LDR has been the ORP12, now the NORPS12, which is about
13mm diameter. Miniature LDRs are also available and their diameter is about 5mm.
An LDR may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required when
soldering.

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Thermistor

A thermistor is an input transducer (sensor) which converts temperature
(heat) to resistance. Almost all thermistors have a negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) which means their resistance decreases as their temperature
increases. It is possible to make thermistors with a positive temperature
coefficient (resistance increases as temperature increases) but these are
rarely used. Always assume NTC if no information is given.
A multimeter can be used to find the resistance at various temperatures, these
are some typical readings for example:

Icy water 0C: high resistance, about 12k .

Room temperature 25C: medium resistance, about 5k .

Boiling water 100C: low resistance, about 400 .
Suppliers usually specify thermistors by their resistance at 25C (room temperature).
Thermistors take several seconds to respond to a sudden temperature change, small
thermistors respond more rapidly.
A thermistor may be connected either way round and no special precautions are required
when soldering. If it is going to be immersed in water the thermistor and its connections should
be insulated because water is a weak conductor; for example they could be coated with
polyurethane varnish.
circuit symbol

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Capacitors
Function
Capacitors store electric charge. They are used to smooth varying DC supplies by acting as a
reservoir of charge. They are also used in filter circuits because capacitors easily pass AC (but
they block DC signals.

Polarised capacitors (large values, 1F +)
Examples: Circuit symbol:

Electrolytic Capacitors
Electrolytic capacitors are polarized and they must be connected the correct way round, at
least one of their leads will be marked + or -.
There are two designs of electrolytic capacitors; axial where the leads are attached to each
end (220F in picture) and radial where both leads are at the same end (10F in picture).
Tantalum Capacitors
Tantalum bead capacitors are polarized and have low voltage ratings like electrolytic
capacitors. They are expensive but very small, so they are used where a large capacitance is
needed in a small size.
Unpolarised capacitors (small values, up to 1F)
Examples: Circuit symbol:

Small value capacitors are un-polarized and may be connected either way round. There are
many types of them and several different labeling systems!
Many small value capacitors have their value printed but without a multiplier, so you need to
use experience to work out what the multiplier should be!
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For example: 102 means 1000pF = 1nF (not 102pF!)
Capacitor Colour Code
A colour code was used on polyester capacitors for many years. It is now
obsolete, but of course there are many still around. The colours should be
read like the resistor code, the top three colour bands giving the value in pF.
Ignore the 4th band (tolerance) and 5th band (voltage rating).
For example:
brown, black, orange means 10000pF = 10nF = 0.01F.
For example:
wide red, yellow means 220nF = 0.22F.
Polystyrene Capacitors
This type is rarely used now. Their value (in pF) is normally printed without units. Polystyrene
capacitors can be damaged by heat when soldering (it melts the polystyrene!) so you should
use a heat sink (such as a crocodile clip). Clip the heat sink to the lead between the capacitor
and the joint.

The E3 series (3 values for each multiple of ten)
10, 22, 47, ... then it continues 100, 220, 470, 1000, 2200, 4700, 10000 etc.
Notice how the step size increases as the value increases (values roughly double each time).
The E6 series (6 values for each multiple of ten)
10, 15, 22, 33, 47, 68, ... then it continues 100, 150, 220, 330, 470, 680, 1000 etc.
Notice how this is the E3 series with an extra value in the gaps.
The E3 series is the one most frequently used for capacitors because many types cannot be
made with very accurate values.

Colour Code
Colour

Number

Black 0
Brown 1
Red 2
Orange

3
Yellow

4
Green 5
Blue 6
Violet 7
Grey 8
White 9
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Variable capacitors
Variable capacitors are mostly used in radio tuning circuits and they
are sometimes called 'tuning capacitors'. They have very small
capacitance values, typically between 100pF and 500pF
(100pF = 0.0001F).
.
Trimmer capacitors
Trimmer capacitors (trimmers) are miniature variable capacitors.
They are designed to be mounted directly onto the circuit board and
adjusted only when the circuit is built.
Uses of Capacitors
Capacitors are used for several purposes:
Timing - for example with a 555 timer IC controlling the charging and discharging.
Smoothing - for example in a power supply.
Coupling - for example between stages of an audio system and to connect a loudspeaker.
Filtering - for example in the tone control of an audio system.
Tuning - for example in a radio system.
Storing energy - for example in a camera flash circuit.

Variable Capacitor Symbol

Variable Capacitor

Trimmer Capacitor Symbol

Trimmer Capacitor
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Piezo transducer
Piezo transducers are output transducers which convert an electrical
signal to sound. They require a driver circuit (such as a 555 astable) to
provide a signal and if this is near their natural (resonant) frequency of
about 3kHz they will produce a particularly loud sound.
Piezo transducers require a small current, usually less than 10mA, so
they can be connected directly to the outputs of most ICs. They are
ideal for buzzes and beeps, but are not suitable for speech or music
because they distort the sound. They are sometimes supplied with red
and black leads, but they may be connected either way round. PCB-
mounting versions are also available.
Piezo transducers can also be used as input transducers for
detecting sudden loud noises or impacts, effectively behaving as a crude microphone.
Semiconductors
A Semiconductor can be defined as a material that has the characteristics and ability to conduct a small
amount of electrical current
Silicon is the most widely used semiconductor material. Few other materials used in making
semiconductor are germanium, gallium arsenide, and silicon carbide.
Chemicals to be used need to be pure and free from any impurity. The process of adding controlled
impurities to a semiconductor is known as doping. Silicon wafers are an important ingredient in
manufacturing semiconductors.
Semiconductor Manufacturing Process:
1. Design / Mask Creation: During this phase, the function of the semiconductor / IC is defined, the
electric circuit is designed, and a mask for IC manufacturing is created based on the design.
2. Patterning: This procedure is used for the formation of a circuit pattern during various front-end
processes.
3. Wafer Fabrication: During this phase, an IC is created on a silicon substrate (wafer).
4. Device Formation / Device Insulation Layer Formation: A device insulation layer (field oxide-
film) is formed for electrical isolation of the devices.
5. Device Formation / Transistor Formation: Transistors are formed in the active regions to control
the flow of electrons.
6. Metallization: Devices, such as transistors, are interconnected to form an electronic circuit.
7. Assembly and Testing: During this phase, the IC chips created during the wafer fabrication phase
are encapsulated into packages, and thoroughly inspected before becoming completed products.

circuit symbol
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Diodes
Function
Diodes allow electricity to flow in only one direction. The arrow of the circuit symbol shows the
direction in which the current can flow. Diodes are the electrical version of a valve and early
diodes were actually called valves.
Example:

Circuit symbol:

Forward Voltage Drop
There is a small voltage across a conducting diode, it is called the forward voltage drop and
is about 0.7V for all normal diodes which are made
from silicon.
Reverse Voltage
When a reverse voltage is applied a perfect diode does not conduct, however, all diodes have
a maximum reverse voltage (usually 50V or more) and if this is exceeded the diode will fail
and pass a large current in the reverse direction, this is called breakdown.
Signal diodes (small current)
Signal diodes are used to process information (electrical signals) in circuits, so they are only
required to pass small currents of up to 100mA.
General purpose signal diodes such as the 1N4148 are made from silicon and have a forward
voltage drop of 0.7V.
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Germanium diodes such as the OA90 have a lower forward voltage drop of 0.2V and this
makes them suitable to use in radio circuits as detectors which extract the audio signal from
the weak radio signal.
Protection diodes for relays
Signal diodes are also used with relays to protect transistors and integrated circuits from the
brief high voltage produced when the relay coil is switched off.

Rectifier diodes
(large current)
Rectifier diodes are used in power supplies to convert
alternating current (AC) to direct current (DC), a process
called rectification. They are also used elsewhere in circuits
where a large current must pass through the diode.
All rectifier diodes are made from silicon and therefore have
a forward voltage drop of 0.7V. The table shows maximum
current and maximum reverse voltage for some popular rectifier diodes. The 1N4001 is
suitable for most low voltage circuits with a current of less than 1A.

Diode

Maximum

Current
Maximum

Reverse

Voltage

1N4001

1A 50V
1N4002

1A 100V
1N4007

1A 1000V
1N5401

3A 100V
1N5408

3A 1000V
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Bridge rectifiers
There are several ways of connecting diodes to make a rectifier to convert AC to DC. The
bridge rectifier is one of them and it is available in special packages containing the four diodes
required. Bridge rectifiers are rated by their maximum current and maximum reverse voltage.
They have four leads or terminals: the two DC outputs are labelled + and -, the two AC inputs
are labelled .
The diagram shows the operation of a bridge rectifier as it converts AC to DC. Notice how
alternate pairs of diodes conduct.

Various types of Bridge Rectifiers
Note that some have a hole through their centre for attaching to a heat sink
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Zener diodes
Example: Circuit symbol:
a = anode, k = cathode
Zener diodes are used to maintain a fixed voltage. They are designed to 'breakdown' in a
reliable and non-destructive way so that they can be used in reverse to maintain a fixed
voltage across their terminals. The diagram shows how they are connected, with a resistor in
series to limit the current.
Zener diodes are rated by their breakdown voltage and maximum power:
Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs)
Example: Circuit symbol:

Function
LEDs emit light when an electric current passes through them.
Connecting and soldering
LEDs must be connected the correct way round, the diagram may be labelled a or + for anode
and k or - for cathode (yes, it really is k, not c, for cathode!). The cathode is the short lead and
there may be a slight flat on the body of round LEDs.
LEDs can be damaged by heat when soldering, but the risk is small unless you are very slow.
No special precautions are needed for soldering most LEDs.
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Testing an LED
Never connect an LED directly to a battery or power supply!
It will be destroyed almost instantly because too much current will pass through and burn it out.
LEDs must have a resistor in series to limit the current to a safe value, for quick testing
purposes a 1k

resistor is suitable for most LEDs if your supply voltage is 12V or less.
Remember to connect the LED the correct way round!

Colours of LEDs
LEDs are available in red, orange, amber, yellow, green, blue and white. Blue and white LEDs
are much more expensive than the other colours.
The colour of an LED is determined by the semiconductor material, not by the colouring of the
'package' (the plastic body). LEDs of all colours are available in uncoloured packages which
may be diffused (milky) or clear (often described as 'water clear'). The coloured packages are
also available as diffused (the standard type) or transparent.
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Tri-colour LEDs
The most popular type of tri-colour LED has a red and a green LED combined in one package
with three leads. They are called tri-colour because mixed red and green light appears to be
yellow and this is produced when both the red and green LEDs are on.
The diagram shows the construction of a tri-colour LED. Note the different lengths of the three
leads. The centre lead (k) is the common cathode for both LEDs, the outer leads (a1 and a2)
are the anodes to the LEDs allowing each one to be lit separately, or both together to give the
third colour.

Reading a table of technical data for LEDs
Suppliers' catalogues usually include tables of technical data for components such as LEDs.
These tables contain a good deal of useful information in a compact form but they can be
difficult to understand if you are not familiar with the abbreviations used.
The table below shows typical technical data for some 5mm diameter round LEDs with diffused
packages (plastic bodies). Only three columns are important and these are shown in bold.
Please see below for explanations of the quantities.
Type Colour
I
F
max.

V
F
typ.

V
F

max.

V
R

max.

Luminous
intensity

Viewing

angle

Wavelength

Standard Red 30mA

1.7V

2.1V

5V 5mcd @ 10mA 60 660nm
Standard Bright red

30mA

2.0V

2.5V

5V 80mcd @ 10mA

60 625nm
Standard Yellow 30mA

2.1V

2.5V

5V 32mcd @ 10mA

60 590nm
Standard Green 25mA

2.2V

2.5V

5V 32mcd @ 10mA

60 565nm
High intensity

Blue 30mA

4.5V

5.5V

5V 60mcd @ 20mA

50 430nm
Super bright

Red 30mA

1.85V

2.5V

5V 500mcd @ 20mA

60 660nm
Low current

Red 30mA

1.7V

2.0V

5V 5mcd @ 2mA 60 625nm
I
F
max. Maximum forward current, forward just means with the LED connected
correctly.
25
V
F
typ. Typical forward voltage, V
L
in the LED resistor calculation.
This is about 2V, except for blue and white LEDs for which it is about 4V.
V
F

max. Maximum forward voltage.
V
R
max. Maximum reverse voltage
You can ignore this for LEDs connected the correct way round.

Luminous
intensity
Brightness of the LED at the given current, mcd = millicandela.
Viewing angle Standard LEDs have a viewing angle of 60, others emit a narrower beam
of about 30.
Wavelength The peak wavelength of the light emitted, this determines the colour of the
LED.
nm = nanometre.

LED Displays
LED displays are packages of many LEDs arranged in a pattern, the most familiar pattern
being the 7-segment displays for showing numbers (digits 0-9). The pictures below illustrate
some of the popular designs:

Bargraph 7-segment Starburst Dot matrix
Pin connections of LED displays
There are many types of LED display and a supplier's
catalogue should be consulted for the pin connections. The
diagram on the right shows an example from one Electronics
catalogue. Like many 7-segment displays, this example is
available in two versions: Common Anode (SA) with all the
LED anodes connected together and Common Cathode (SC)
with all the cathodes connected together. Letters a-g refer to
the 7 segments, A/C is the common anode or cathode as
appropriate (on 2 pins). Note that some pins are not present
(NP) but their position is still numbered.
Pin connections diagram
26
Transistors
Function
Transistors amplify current, for example they can be used to amplify the
small output current from a logic chip so that it can operate a lamp, relay or other high current
device. In many circuits a resistor is used to convert the changing current to a changing
voltage, so the transistor is being used to amplify voltage.
A transistor may be used as a switch (either fully on with maximum current, or fully off with no
current) and as an amplifier (always partly on).
The amount of current amplification is called the current gain, symbol h
FE
.

Types of transistor
There are two types of standard transistors, NPN and PNP, with
different circuit symbols. The letters refer to the layers of
semiconductor material used to make the transistor. Most
transistors used today are NPN because this is the easiest type to
make from silicon. If you are new to electronics it is best to start by
learning how to use NPN transistors.
The leads are labelled base (B), collector (C) and emitter (E).

Transistor circuit symbols

27
Connecting
Transistors have three leads which must be
connected the correct way round. Please take
care with this because a wrongly connected
transistor may be damaged instantly when you
switch on.
If you are lucky the orientation of the transistor will
be clear from the PCB or stripboard layout
diagram, otherwise you will need to refer to a
supplier's catalogue to identify the leads.
The drawings on the right show the leads for
some of the most common case styles.
Please note that transistor lead diagrams show
the view from below with the leads towards you.
This is the opposite of IC (chip) pin diagrams
which show the view from above.
Please see below for a table showing the case styles of some common transistors.
Testing a transistor
Transistors can be damaged by heat when soldering or by misuse in a circuit. If you suspect
that a transistor may be damaged there are two easy ways
to test it:
1. Testing with a multimeter
Use a Multimeter or a Simple tester (battery, resistor and
LED) to check each pair of leads for conduction. Set a
digital multimeter to diode test and an analogue multimeter
to a low resistance range.
Test each pair of leads both ways (six tests in total):

The base-emitter (BE) junction should behave like a
diode and conduct one way only.

The base-collector (BC) junction should behave like
a diode and conduct one way only.

The collector-emitter (CE) should not conduct either way.
The diagram shows how the junctions behave in an NPN transistor. The diodes are reversed in
a PNP transistor but the same test procedure can be used.

Transistor leads for some common case styles.

Testing an NPN transistor
28
2. Testing in a simple switching circuit
Connect the transistor into the circuit shown on the right which
uses the transistor as a switch. The supply voltage is not
critical, anything between 5 and 12V is suitable. This circuit can
be quickly built on breadboard for example. Take care to
include the 10k

resistor in the base connection or you will
destroy the transistor as you test it!
If the transistor is OK the LED should light when the switch is
pressed and not light when the switch is released.
To test a PNP transistor use the same circuit but reverse the
LED and the supply voltage.
Some multimeters have a 'transistor test' function which provides a
known base current and measures the collector current so as to display
the transistor's DC current gain h
FE
.
Integrated Circuits (Chips)
Integrated Circuits are usually called ICs or chips. They are complex circuits which have been
etched onto tiny chips of semiconductor (silicon). The chip is packaged in a plastic holder with
pins spaced on a 0.1" (2.54mm) grid which will fit the holes on stripboard and breadboards.
Very fine wires inside the package link the chip to the pins.
Pin numbers
The pins are numbered anti-clockwise around the IC (chip)
starting near the notch or dot. The diagram shows the
numbering for 8-pin and 14-pin ICs, but the principle is the
same for all sizes.
Thyristors and triacs
A Silicon Controlled Rectifier is one type of thyrister used where the power to be controlled is
unidirectional. The Triac is a thyrister used where AC power is to be controlled.
Both types are normally off but may be triggered on by a low current pulse to an input called the
gate. Once triggered on, they remain on until the current flowing through the main terminals of the
device goes to zero.
Both SCRs and Triacs are 4 layer PNPN structures. The usual way an SCR is described is with an
analogy to a pair of cross connected transistors - one is NPN and the other is PNP.

A simple switching circuit
to test an NPN transistor
29
Inductor (coil)

Inductor (miniature) Ferrite rod Symbol of Inductor (Coil)
An inductor is a coil of wire which may have a core of air, iron or ferrite (a brittle material made
from iron). Its electrical property is called inductance and the unit for this is the henry, symbol
H. 1H is very large so mH and H are used, 1000H = 1mH and 1000mH = 1H. Iron and ferrite
cores increase the inductance. Inductors are mainly used in tuned circuits and to block high
frequency AC signals (they are sometimes called chokes). They pass DC easily, but block AC
signals, this is the opposite of capacitors.
Inductors are rarely found in simple projects, but one exception is the tuning coil of a radio
receiver. This is an inductor which you may have to make yourself by neatly winding
enamelled copper wire around a ferrite rod. Enamelled copper wire has very thin insulation,
allowing the turns of the coil to be close together, but this makes it impossible to strip in the
usual way - the best method is to gently pull the ends of the wire through folded emery paper.
Note: Transformers are a special case of inductive components, and will be covered separately.
There are a number of different symbols for inductors, and three of them are shown below. Somewhat
perversely perhaps, I use the "standard" symbol most of the time, since this is what is supported best by
my schematic drawing package.

Inductor Symbols
30
Relays
A relay is an electrically operated switch. Current flowing
through the coil of the relay creates a magnetic field which
attracts a lever and changes the switch contacts. The coil
current can be on or off so relays have two switch positions
and they are double throw (changeover) switches.
Relays allow one circuit to switch a second circuit which can
be completely separate from the first. For example a low
voltage battery circuit can use a relay to switch a 230V AC
mains circuit. There is no electrical connection inside the
relay between the two circuits, the link is magnetic and
mechanical.
The coil of a relay passes a relatively large current, typically
30mA for a 12V relay, but it can be as much as 100mA for
relays designed to operate from lower voltages. Most ICs
(chips) cannot provide this current and a transistor is usually
used to amplify the small IC current to the larger value
required for the relay coil. The maximum output current for
the popular 555 timer IC is 200mA so these devices can
supply relay coils directly without amplification.
Relays are usually SPDT or DPDT but they can have many
more sets of switch contacts, for example relays with 4 sets
of changeover contacts are readily available. For further
information about switch contacts and the terms used to
describe them please see the page on switches.
Most relays are designed for PCB mounting but you can
solder wires directly to the pins providing you take care to
avoid melting the plastic case of the relay.
The supplier's catalogue should show you the relay's
connections. The coil will be obvious and it may be
connected either way round. Relay coils produce brief high
voltage 'spikes' when they are switched off and this can
destroy transistors and ICs in the circuit. To prevent damage
you must connect a protection diode across the relay coil.
The animated picture shows a working relay with its coil and switch contacts. You can see a
lever on the left being attracted by magnetism when the coil is switched on. This lever moves
the switch contacts. There is one set of contacts (SPDT) in the foreground and another behind
them, making the relay DPDT.

Circuit symbol for a relay

Relays

Relay showing coil and switch contacts

31
The relay's switch connections are usually labeled COM, NC and NO:
COM = Common, always connect to this, it is the moving part of the switch.
NC = Normally Closed, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is off.
NO = Normally Open, COM is connected to this when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NO if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is on.
Connect to COM and NC if you want the switched circuit to be on when the relay coil is off.
Optoelectronic devices
o Opto-Isolator, Opto-Coupler, Photo-Coupler - Photodiode, BJT, JFET, SCR, TRIAC,
Zero-crossing TRIAC, Open collector IC, CMOS IC, Solid State Relay (SSR)
o Opto Switch, Opto Interrupter, Optical Switch, Optical Interrupter, Photo switch, Photo
Interrupter
o LED Display - Seven-segment display, Sixteen-segment display, Dot matrix display

32

Electronics Terms:
AC, DC and Electrical Signals
AC means Alternating Current and DC means Direct Current. AC and DC are also used when
referring to voltages and electrical signals which are not currents! For example: a 12V AC
power supply has an alternating voltage (which will make an alternating current flow). An
electrical signal is a voltage or current which conveys information, usually it means a voltage.
The term can be used for any voltage or current in a circuit.

Alternating Current (AC)
Alternating Current (AC) flows one way, then the
other way, continually reversing direction.
An AC voltage is continually changing between
positive (+) and negative (-).
The rate of changing direction is called the
frequency of the AC and it is measured in hertz
(Hz) which is the number of forwards-backwards
cycles per second.
Mains electricity in the UK has a frequency of
50Hz.
See below for more details of signal properties.
An AC supply is suitable for powering some
devices such as lamps and heaters but almost all
electronic circuits require a steady DC supply (see below).

Direct Current (DC)

AC from a power supply
This shape is called a sine wave.

This triangular signal is AC because it changes
between positive (+) and negative (-).

Steady DC
from a battery or regulated power supply,
33
Direct Current (DC) always flows in the same
direction, but it may increase and decrease.
A DC voltage is always positive (or always
negative), but it may increase and decrease.
Electronic circuits normally require a steady DC
supply which is constant at one value or a smooth
DC supply which has a small variation called
ripple.
Cells, batteries and regulated power supplies
provide steady DC which is ideal for electronic
circuits.
Power supplies contain a transformer which
converts the mains AC supply to a safe low
voltage AC. Then the AC is converted to DC by a
bridge rectifier but the output is varying DC which
is unsuitable for electronic circuits.

Resistance
Resistance
Resistance is the property of a component which restricts the flow of electric current.
Energy is used up as the voltage across the component drives the current through it and this
energy appears as heat in the component.
Resistance is measured in ohms, the symbol for ohm is an omega .
1 is quite small for electronics so resistances are often given in k

and M .
1 k

= 1000 1 M

= 1000000 .
Resistors used in electronics can have resistances as low as 0.1 or as high as 10 M .

Resistors connected in Series
this is ideal for electronic circuits.

Smooth DC
from a smoothed power supply,
this is suitable for some electronics.

Varying DC
from a power supply without smoothing,
this is not suitable for electronics.

34
When resistors are connected in series their combined resistance is equal to the individual
resistances added together. For example if resistors R1 and R2 are connected in series their
combined resistance, R, is given by:
Combined resistance in series: R = R1 + R2
This can be extended for more resistors: R = R1 + R2 + R3 + R4 + ...
Note that the combined resistance in series will always be greater than any of the individual
resistances.

Resistors connected in Parallel
When resistors are connected in parallel their combined resistance is less than any of the
individual resistances. There is a special equation for the combined resistance of two resistors
R1 and R2:
Combined resistance of
two resistors in parallel:

R =

R1 R2

R1 + R2

For more than two resistors connected in parallel a more difficult equation must be used. This
adds up the reciprocal ("one over") of each resistance to give the reciprocal of the combined
resistance, R:
1

=
1

+
1

+
1

+ ...
R

R1 R2 R3
The simpler equation for two resistors in parallel is much easier to use!
35
Capacitance and Uses of Capacitors
Capacitance
Capacitance (symbol C) is a measure of a capacitor's ability to
store charge. A large capacitance means that more charge can be
stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F
is very large, so prefixes (multipliers) are used to show the smaller
values:

(micro) means 10
-6
(millionth), so 1000000F = 1F

n (nano) means 10
-9
(thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F

p (pico) means 10
-12
(million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF

Charge and Energy Stored
The amount of charge (symbol Q) stored by a capacitor is given by:
Charge, Q = C V

where:

Q = charge in coulombs (C)
C = capacitance in farads (F)

V = voltage in volts (V)
When they store charge, capacitors are also storing energy:
Energy, E = QV = CV where E = energy in joules (J).

Note that capacitors return their stored energy to the circuit. They do not 'use up' electrical
energy by converting it to heat as a resistor does. The energy stored by a capacitor is much
smaller than the energy stored by a battery so they cannot be used as a practical source of
energy for most purposes.

Capacitive Reactance Xc
Capacitive reactance (symbol Xc) is a measure of a capacitor's opposition to AC (alternating
current). Like resistance it is measured in ohms, , but reactance is more complex than
resistance because its value depends on the frequency (f) of the electrical signal passing
through the capacitor as well as on the capacitance, C.
Capacitive reactance, Xc =

1

where:

Xc = reactance in ohms ( )
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
C = capacitance in farads (F)

2 fC

The reactance Xc is large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies. For steady DC
which is zero frequency, Xc is infinite (total opposition), hence the rule that capacitors pass
AC but block DC.

unpolarised capacitor symbol

polarised capacitor symbol

36
For example a 1F capacitor has a reactance of 3.2k

for a 50Hz signal, but when the
frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16 .
Note: the symbol Xc is used to distinguish capacitative reactance from inductive reactance X
L
which is a property of inductors. The distinction is important because X
L
increases with
frequency (the opposite of Xc) and if both X
L
and Xc are present in a circuit the combined
reactance (X) is the difference between them. For further information please see the page on
Impedance.

Capacitors in Series and Parallel
Combined capacitance (C) of
capacitors connected in series:

1

=

1

+

1

+

1

+ ...

C

C1

C2

C3

Combined capacitance (C) of
capacitors connected in parallel:

C = C1 + C2 + C3 + ...

Two or more capacitors are rarely deliberately connected in series in real circuits, but it can be
useful to connect capacitors in parallel to obtain a very large capacitance, for example to
smooth a power supply.

Capacitive reactance, Xc
Xc =

1

where:

Xc = reactance in ohms ( )
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
C = capacitance in farads (F)

2 fC

Xc is large at low frequencies and small at high frequencies.
For steady DC which is zero frequency, Xc is infinite (total opposition),
hence the rule that capacitors pass AC but block DC.

For example: a 1F capacitor has a reactance of 3.2k

for a 50Hz signal,
but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is only 16 .

Inductive reactance, X
L
37
X
L

= 2 fL

where:

X
L
= reactance in ohms ( )
f = frequency in hertz (Hz)
L = inductance in henrys (H)

X
L
is small at low frequencies and large at high frequencies.
For steady DC (frequency zero), X
L
is zero (no opposition),
hence the rule that inductors pass DC but block high frequency AC.

For example: a 1mH inductor has a reactance of only 0.3

for a 50Hz signal,
but when the frequency is higher at 10kHz its reactance is 63 .
Capacitance
This is a measure of a capacitor's ability to store charge. A large capacitance means that more
charge can be stored. Capacitance is measured in farads, symbol F. However 1F is very large,
so prefixes are used to show the smaller values.
Three prefixes (multipliers) are used, (micro), n (nano) and p (pico):

means 10
-6
(millionth), so 1000000F = 1F

n means 10
-9
(thousand-millionth), so 1000nF = 1F

p means 10
-12
(million-millionth), so 1000pF = 1nF
Capacitor values can be very difficult to find because there are many types of capacitor with
different labelling systems!
Ohm's Law
To make a current flow through a resistance there must be a voltage across that resistance.
Ohm's Law shows the relationship between the voltage (V), current (I) and resistance (R). It
can be written in three ways:
V = I R or I =

V

R

or R =

V

I

where: V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A)
R = resistance in ohms ( )
or: V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in milliamps (mA)
R = resistance in kilohms (k )
For most electronic circuits the amp is too large and the ohm is too small, so we often measure
current in milliamps (mA) and resistance in kilohms (k ). 1 mA = 0.001 A and 1 k

= 1000 .
38
The Ohm's Law equations work if you use V, A and , or if you use V, mA and k . You must
not mix these sets of units in the equations so you may need to convert between mA and A or
k

and .
The VIR triangle
You can use the VIR triangle to help you remember the three versions of Ohm's
Law.
Write down V, I and R in a triangle like the one in the yellow box on the right.

To calculate voltage, V: put your finger over V,
this leaves you with I R, so the equation is V = I R

To calculate current, I: put your finger over I,
this leaves you with V over R, so the equation is I =
V
/
R

To calculate resistance, R: put your finger over R,
this leaves you with V over I, so the equation is R =
V
/
I

Ohm's Law Calculations
Use this method to guide you through calculations:
1. Write down the Values, converting units if necessary.
2. Select the Equation you need (use the VIR triangle).
3. Put the Numbers into the equation and calculate the answer.
It should be Very Easy Now!

3 V is applied across a 6 resistor, what is the current?
o Values: V = 3 V, I = ?, R = 6

o Equation: I =
V
/
R
o Numbers: Current, I =
3
/
6
= 0.5 A

A lamp connected to a 6 V battery passes a current of 60 mA, what is the lamp's
resistance?
o Values: V = 6 V, I = 60 mA, R = ?
o Equation: R =
V
/
I
o Numbers: Resistance, R =
6
/
60
= 0.1 k

= 100

(using mA for current means the calculation gives the resistance in k )

A 1.2 k

resistor passes a current of 0.2 A, what is the voltage across it?
o Values: V = ?, I = 0.2 A, R = 1.2 k

= 1200

(1.2 k

is converted to 1200 because A and k

must not be used together)
o Equation: V = I R
V

I R
Ohm's Law
triangle

V

I R
39
o Numbers: V = 0.2 1200 = 240 V
Power and Energy
What is power?
Power is the rate of using or supplying energy:
Power =

Energy

Power is measured in watts (W)

Energy is measured in joules (J)

Time is measured in seconds (s)

Time
Electronics is mostly concerned with small quantities of power, so the power is often measured
in milliwatts (mW), 1mW = 0.001W. For example an LED uses about 40mW and a bleeper
uses about 100mW, even a lamp such as a torch bulb only uses about 1W.
The typical power used in mains electrical circuits is much larger, so this power may be
measured in kilowatts (kW), 1kW = 1000W. For example a typical mains lamp uses 60W and a
kettle uses about 3kW.

Calculating power using current and voltage
There are three ways of writing an equation for power, current and voltage:
Power = Current Voltage so P = I V

or

I =

P

V

or

V =

P

I

where: P = power in watts (W)

V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in amps (A)
or: P = power in milliwatts (mW)

V = voltage in volts (V)
I = current in milliamps (mA)
You can use the PIV triangle to help you remember the three versions of the power
equations. Use it in the same way as the Ohm's Law triangle. For most electronic
circuits the amp is too large, so we often measure current in milliamps (mA) and
power in milliwatts (mW). 1mA = 0.001A and 1mW = 0.001W.

Calculating power using resistance and current or voltage
Using Ohm's Law V = I R we can convert P = I V to:
P = I R

or
P = V / R

where:

P = power in watts (W)
I = current in amps (A)
R = resistance in ohms ( )
V = voltage in volts (V)

P

I V
P

I R
V

P R
PIR triangle

VPR triangle

40

Circuit Symbols
Circuit symbols are used in circuit diagrams which show how a circuit is connected together.
The actual layout of the components is usually quite different from the circuit diagram. To build
a circuit you need a different diagram showing the layout of the parts on stripboard or
printed circuit board.
Wires and connections

Component

Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Wire

To pass current very easily from one part of a
circuit to another.
Wires joined

A 'blob' should be drawn where wires are
connected (joined), but it is sometimes omitted.
Wires connected at 'crossroads' should be
staggered slightly to form two T-junctions, as
shown on the right.
Wires not joined

In complex diagrams it is often necessary to draw
wires crossing even though they are not
connected. I prefer the 'bridge' symbol shown on
the right because the simple crossing on the left
may be misread as a join where you have
forgotten to add a 'blob'!
Power Supplies

Component

Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Cell

Supplies electrical energy.
The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
A single cell is often called a battery, but strictly a battery is
two or more cells joined together.

Battery

Supplies electrical energy. A battery is more than
one cell.
The larger terminal (on the left) is positive (+).
DC supply

Supplies electrical energy.
DC = Direct Current, always flowing in one
direction.
AC supply

Supplies electrical energy.
AC = Alternating Current, continually changing
direction.
Fuse

A safety device which will 'blow' (melt) if the
current flowing through it exceeds a specified
41
value.
Transformer

Two coils of wire linked by an iron core.
Transformers are used to step up (increase) and
step down (decrease) AC voltages. Energy is
transferred between the coils by the magnetic field
in the core. There is no electrical connection
between the coils.
Earth
(Ground)

A connection to earth. For many electronic circuits
this is the 0V (zero volts) of the power supply, but
for mains electricity and some radio circuits it really
means the earth. It is also known as ground.
Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

Component

Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Lamp (lighting)

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
light. This symbol is used for a lamp providing
illumination, for example a car headlamp or torch
bulb.
Lamp (indicator)

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
light. This symbol is used for a lamp which is an
indicator, for example a warning light on a car
dashboard.
Heater

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
heat.
Motor

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
kinetic energy (motion).
Bell

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
sound.
Buzzer

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
sound.
Inductor
(Coil, Solenoid)

A coil of wire which creates a magnetic field when
current passes through it. It may have an iron
core inside the coil. It can be used as a
transducer converting electrical energy to
mechanical energy by pulling on something.
42
Switches

Component

Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Push Switch
(push-to-make)

A push switch allows current to flow only when
the button is pressed. This is the switch used
to operate a doorbell.
Push-to-Break
Switch

This type of push switch is normally closed
(on), it is open (off) only when the button is
pressed.
On-Off Switch
(SPST)

SPST = Single Pole, Single Throw.
An on-off switch allows current to flow only
when it is in the closed (on) position.
2-way Switch
(SPDT)

SPDT = Single Pole, Double Throw.
A 2-way changeover switch directs the flow of
current to one of two routes according to its
position. Some SPDT switches have a central
off position and are described as 'on-off-on'.
Dual On-Off
Switch
(DPST)

DPST = Double Pole, Single Throw.
A dual on-off switch which is often used to
switch mains electricity because it can isolate
both the live and neutral connections.
Reversing
Switch
(DPDT)

DPDT = Double Pole, Double Throw.
This switch can be wired up as a reversing
switch for a motor. Some DPDT switches have
a central off position.
Relay

An electrically operated switch, for example a
9V battery circuit connected to the coil can
switch a 230V AC mains circuit.
NO = Normally Open, COM = Common, NC = Normally
Closed.
Resistors

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Resistor

A resistor restricts the flow of current, for
example to limit the current passing through an
LED. A resistor is used with a capacitor in a
timing circuit.
Some publications still use the old resistor symbol:

43
Variable Resistor

(Rheostat)

This type of variable resistor with 2 contacts (a
rheostat) is usually used to control current.
Examples include: adjusting lamp brightness,
adjusting motor speed, and adjusting the rate of
flow of charge into a capacitor in a timing circuit.
Variable Resistor

(Potentiometer)

This type of variable resistor with 3 contacts (a
potentiometer) is usually used to control voltage.
It can be used like this as a transducer
converting position (angle of the control spindle)
to an electrical signal.
Variable Resistor

(Preset)

This type of variable resistor (a preset) is
operated with a small screwdriver or similar tool.
It is designed to be set when the circuit is made
and then left without further adjustment. Presets
are cheaper than normal variable resistors so
they are often used in projects to reduce the
cost.
Capacitors

Component Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Capacitor

A capacitor stores electric charge. A capacitor
is used with a resistor in a timing circuit. It can
also be used as a filter, to block DC signals but
pass AC signals.
Capacitor,
polarized

A capacitor stores electric charge. This type
must be connected the correct way round. A
capacitor is used with a resistor in a timing
circuit. It can also be used as a filter, to block
DC signals but pass AC signals.
Variable Capacitor

A variable capacitor is used in a radio tuner.
Trimmer Capacitor

This type of variable capacitor (a trimmer) is
operated with a small screwdriver or similar
tool. It is designed to be set when the circuit is
made and then left without further adjustment.
Diodes

Component

Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Diode

A device which only allows current to flow in one
direction.
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LED
Light Emitting Diode

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
light.
Zener Diode

A special diode which is used to maintain a fixed
voltage across its terminals.
Photodiode

A light-sensitive diode.
Transistors

Component

Circuit Symbol

Function of Component
Transistor NPN

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.
Transistor PNP

A transistor amplifies current. It can be used with other
components to make an amplifier or switching circuit.
Phototransistor

A light-sensitive transistor.
Audio and Radio Devices

Component Circuit Symbol

Function of Component
Microphone

A transducer which converts sound to electrical
energy.
Earphone

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
sound.
Loudspeaker

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
sound.
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Piezo Transducer

A transducer which converts electrical energy to
sound.
Amplifier
(general symbol)

An amplifier circuit with one input. Really it is a block
diagram symbol because it represents a circuit rather
than just one component.
Aerial
(Antenna)

A device which is designed to receive or transmit radio
signals. It is also known as an antenna.
Meters and Oscilloscope

Component

Circuit Symbol Function of Component
Voltmeter

A voltmeter is used to measure voltage.
The proper name for voltage is 'potential difference', but most
people prefer to say voltage!
Ammeter

An ammeter is used to measure current.
Galvanometer

A galvanometer is a very sensitive meter which is
used to measure tiny currents, usually 1mA or
less.
Ohmmeter

An ohmmeter is used to measure resistance. Most
multimeters have an ohmmeter setting.
Oscilloscope

An oscilloscope is used to display the shape of
electrical signals and it can be used to measure
their voltage and time period.
Sensors (input devices)

Component

Circuit Symbol Function of Component
LDR

A transducer which converts brightness (light) to
resistance (an electrical property).
LDR = Light Dependent Resistor
Thermistor

A transducer which converts temperature (heat) to
resistance (an electrical property).
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Logic Gates
Logic gates process signals which represent true (1, high, +Vs, on) or false (0, low, 0V, off).
For more information please see the Logic Gates page.
There are two sets of symbols: traditional and IEC (International Electrotechnical Commission).

Gate
Type

Traditional
Symbol
IEC Symbol Function of Gate
NOT

A NOT gate can only have one input. The 'o'
on the output means 'not'. The output of a
NOT gate is the inverse (opposite) of its
input, so the output is true when the input is
false. A NOT gate is also called an inverter.
AND

An AND gate can have two or more inputs.
The output of an AND gate is true when all its
inputs are true.
NAND

A NAND gate can have two or more inputs.
The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
that it is a Not AND

gate. The output of a
NAND gate is true unless all its inputs are
true.
OR

An OR gate can have two or more inputs.
The output of an OR gate is true when at
least one of its inputs is true.
NOR

A NOR gate can have two or more inputs.
The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
that it is a Not OR

gate. The output of a NOR
gate is true when none of its inputs are true.
EX-OR

An EX-OR gate can only have two inputs.
The output of an EX-OR gate is true when its
inputs are different (one true, one false).
EX-
NOR

An EX-NOR gate can only have two inputs.
The 'o' on the output means 'not' showing
that it is a Not EX-OR

gate. The output of an
EX-NOR gate is true when its inputs are the
same (both true or both false).