VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3 HVAC&R RESEARCH JULY 2006

429
A Method for Tuning Refrigerant Charge
in Modeling Off-Design Performance
of Unitary Equipment (RP-1173)
Bo Shen James E. Braun, PhD Eckhard A. Groll, PhD
Student Member ASHRAE Fellow ASHRAE Member ASHRAE
Received September 26, 2005; accepted December 19, 2005
Existing models do not accurately predict the effect of off-design refrigerant charge even when
tuned at the design operating condition. Based on experimental testing and theoretical analyses,
multiple factors that cause inaccuracies in charge prediction are identified in this paper. The
factors include unaccounted liquid volumes, refrigerant dissolved in the compressor lubricant,
inaccurate void fraction models, and an inaccurate estimate of the subcooled liquid length.
Some of these factors lead to errors that change with operating conditions and amount of
charge. This paper presents a method for adjusting refrigerant charge using a charge correc-
tion equation that requires data for two operating points for parameter tuning. The approach
associates the variable charge errors with the subcooled liquid length and considers all other
errors to be constant offsets. The ability of a system model to predict off-design charge effects is
significantly improved through the use of this tuning approach. This was confirmed though com-
parisons with measured results and predictions obtained with existing tuning approaches. The
tuning approach was tested for two R-410A units and different operating conditions, using two
public domain simulation models.
INTRODUCTION
Vapor compression system simulation models have wide application in the industry. How-
ever, existing models do not work as well at off-design conditions as they do at design condi-
tions. One of the deficiencies is the ability of the models to accurately predict the impact of
off-design refrigerant charge levels on performance. Large prediction errors can occur at very
high or low charge levels. The objective of the work described in this paper was to find an effec-
tive method to improve model predictions over a large range of off-design charge levels.
Factors Affecting Charge Inventory Predictions
Charge inventory predictions employ integration of the density over all internal volumes.
Hence, the direct factors that affect charge inventory predictions are the refrigerant density and
the internal volume in each of the components.
Accurate knowledge of internal volumes is more important in components having larger
refrigerant densities. Usually, refrigerant charge within the compressor discharge suction lines is
small due to the low refrigerant density of gases. Also, the refrigerant distributor has a small
amount of refrigerant because of its small volume. The most important internal volumes are
located where subcooled liquid resides, including the liquid line and the filter/drier. Errors in
internal volumes for these components can lead to significant inaccuracies in charge modeling.
Bo Shen is a PhD candidate and James E. Braun and Eckhard A. Groll are professors in the Mechanical Engineering
School, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana.
2006, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. (www.ashrae.org). Published in HVAC&R Research, Vol. 12,
No. 3, July 2006. For personal use only. Additional distribution in either paper or digital form is not permitted without ASHRAEs permission.
430 HVAC&R RESEARCH
However, the errors are fairly constant with changes in operating conditions since these compo-
nents typically always contain subcooled liquid.
The refrigerant mass inside the compressor is composed of refrigerant vapor and refrigerant
dissolved in the compressor lubricant. The dissolved part is determined by the amount of the
lubricant and its solubility. The lubricant solubility is a function of temperature and pressure.
The lubricant temperature is usually measured at the compressor bottom and the pressure is
equal to the suction pressure if the compressor has a low pressure shell. Usually, the refrigerant
mass inside the compressor is relatively constant for different operating conditions.
The condenser and evaporator tend to have variable charges depending on both the overall
system charge level and the operating conditions. Variation in overall charge inventory leads to
phase reallocation within the condenser and evaporator. The charge inside the condenser
strongly depends on the liquid length, and the charge inside the evaporator strongly depends on
the vapor length. In a system simulation model, inaccurate heat transfer calculations lead to
inaccurate liquid length and vapor length and will impact charge inventory predictions.
Harms et al. (2002) studied charge distribution for three vapor compression systems that
employ a thermal expansion valve (TXV). Harms et al. concluded that the condenser contains
the largest part of the charge, and when refrigerant is added to the system it tends to accumulate
in the condenser. In general, condenser subcooling increases directly with system charge. In all
the TXV systems studied by Harms et al., the evaporator maintained a relatively constant refrig-
erant charge regardless of operating conditions.
Large percentages of a condenser and evaporator contain two-phase refrigerant. It is more dif-
ficult to calculate two-phase refrigerant density than liquid and vapor refrigerant densities due to
inaccuracies in void fraction models. Most of the void fraction models were developed using
data for water and steam flow and may not always be appropriate for refrigerants. Many investi-
gators have addressed the importance of void faction models for improving charge inventory
predictions.
Void Fraction Models
Void fraction is the ratio of a cross-sectional area of gas to the total two-phase flow area. An
accurate void fraction model leads to accurate two-phase density, which is important for predict-
ing charge inventory. Two-phase flow in horizontal tubes is subject to the influence of gravity.
In addition, mass flux and vapor quality have impacts on flow regimes. Generally, two-phase
flow in horizontal tubes can be classified according to different flow patterns. The most typical
flow patterns for heat pump and unitary air conditioners are annular flow, wavy flow, slug flow,
and plug flow. The flow regimes can also be separated into three main categories by evaluating
the mixing degree of the two phases: separated flow, intermittent flow, distributed flow. In sepa-
rated flow, the two phases are separated in continuous cross sections. The typical models of sep-
arated flow are stratified flow, wavy flow, and annular flow without entrainment. Slug flow and
plug flow are typical examples of intermittent flow, in which the void fraction varies largely
along the tube. Distributed flow is the best-mixed flow, such as bubbly flow and mist flow.
Rice (1987) reviewed 10 void fraction models and classified void fraction models according to
mass-flux-independent and mass-flux-dependent attributes. For the mass-flux-independent mod-
els, void fraction predictions are not influenced by mass flux. Harms et al. (2002) performed a
comprehensive literature review for void fraction models and studied 12 void fraction models.
The list of void fraction models in Table 1 is compiled from Harms et al. (2002) and Rice (1987).
Thome et al. (2005) developed an optical measurement technique to dynamically measure void
faction and dry angle inside two horizontal smooth tubes. The behaviors of R-22 and R-410A were
investigated. Thome et al. investigated fully stratified flow, stratified-wavy flow, and annular flow
with partial dry-out. The technique was also able to measure the void fraction of gas slugs in slug
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 431
flow. They validated four different void fraction models using these optical measurements. They
concluded that the Rouhani and Axelsson (1970) model as modified by Steiner (1993) was the best
at predicting void fraction data for separated flow inside horizontal tubes.
There is no general agreement in the literature regarding which void fraction model is the best
for modeling unitary heat pumps and air conditioners. Void fraction is sensitive to flow pattern,
and the dependence of mass flux on charge inventory could be associated with the dependence
on flow pattern. None of the available void fraction models can be used for multiple flow pat-
terns. The charge prediction may be improved by predicting flow pattern transitions and com-
bining void fraction models particular to each different flow pattern.
Model Descriptions
Two public domain vapor compression system simulation models were used to validate the
new charge tuning method developed in this paper: ACMODEL (Shen et al. 2005) and Mark VII
(Rice 2005).
ACMODEL is a flexible and efficient steady-state simulation model for single-stage air-to-air
vapor compression systems that was initially developed by Rossi (1995) and has been extended
and enhanced by Shen et al. (2005). Major modeling approaches and assumptions within
ACMODEL include:
1. Finite difference modeling of heat exchangers with each tube divided into small segments.
An -NTU approach is used for heat transfer calculations within each segment.
2. Consideration of both refrigerant and air-side heat transfer and pressure drop. A variety of
different heat transfer correlations are implemented within the model.
3. Simplification of each air-side fin as an equivalent annular fin and use of the Schmidt (1949)
equation to obtain fin efficiency.
Table 1. List of Available Void Fraction Models
Model Category Flow Pattern
Lockhart and Martinelli (1949) Mass-flux-independent Separated flow
Baroczy (1965) Mass-flux-independent Separated flow
Yashar et al. (2001) Mass-flux-dependent Separated flow
Rigot (1973) Mass-flux-independent Separated flow
Thom (1964) Mass-flux-independent Separated flow
Rouhani and Axelsson (1970)
modified by Steiner (1993)
Mass-flux-dependent Separated flow
Zivi (1964) Mass-flux-independent Annular flow
Tandon et al. (1985) Mass-flux-dependent Annular flow
Smith (1969) Mass-flux-independent Annular flow
Premoli et al. (1971) Mass-flux-dependent Annular flow
Taitel and Barnea (1990) Mass-flux-dependent Slug and plug flow
Bankoff (1960) Mass-flux-dependent Bubbly flow
Hughmark (1962) Mass-flux-dependent Bubbly flow
432 HVAC&R RESEARCH
4. Use of the ARI compressor map formulations (ANSI/ARI 1999) to predict mass flow rate
and power consumption with consideration of suction density correction and an energy bal-
ance to obtain compressor exit enthalpy.
5. Use of the Payne and ONeal (1998, 1999, 2004) correlations for modeling fixed-area expan-
sion orifices (FEO). For modeling systems that use a TXV, the superheat of the refrigerant
leaving the evaporator is assumed to be maintained constant.
6. Consideration of detailed charge inventory after specification of either system charge or con-
denser subcooling. A variety of different void fraction correlations are implemented within
the model.
ACMODEL and Mark VII used many of the same heat transfer and pressure drop correla-
tions, expansion device correlations, etc. The major differences between ACMODEL and Mark
VII are summarized as follows:
1. Mark VII uses moving interface models to simulate the heat exchangers. The moving inter-
face models track boundaries between single and two-phase regions of the heat exchangers
and treat the phase regions using lumped analysis techniques. The models iteratively deter-
mine surface areas for each region and apply lumped exchanger analyses to each region with
average unit conductances to determine the heat transfer rates and exit states. In addition,
pressure drops and refrigerant charge inventory are determined through appropriate integra-
tions in each region.
2. Mark VII uses the Hughmark (1962) model to calculate the two-phase void fraction, while
ACMODEL uses the Baroczy (1965) model for most system simulation results presented in
this paper. Mark VII does not consider refrigerant mass dissolved in compressor oil, while
ACMODEL does.
Conventional One-Point Charge Tuning
Because of uncertainties in internal volumes, heat transfer coefficients, and void fraction esti-
mates, tuning approaches are necessary for achieving good modeling accuracy. Rossi (1995)
developed a tuning approach for ACMODEL that requires measurements at one design point for
the inlets and outlets of each component and air-side boundary conditions. First, the compressor
model is used to predict refrigerant mass flow rate. For either condenser or evaporator, the inlet
conditions and the refrigerant mass flow rate are input to the heat exchanger model, and then the
air-side and refrigerant-side heat transfer coefficients are tuned with one multiplier to give an
outlet enthalpy that matches the value given by the outlet pressure and temperature measure-
ments. After these calculations, the simulated system charge is predicted by integration of the
density over all internal volumes. The deviation between the simulated and actual charges is the
unaccounted charge, which can be added as a constant offset for other working conditions. The
physical meaning of the unaccounted charge could be the charge mass in the unaccounted vol-
umes, such as part of the liquid line. In addition, using upstream and downstream pressure and
temperature measurements, the fixed-area expansion device model can be tuned by adjusting a
multiplier of the calculated mass flow rate to match the measured refrigerant mass flow rate. The
tuning multipliers for heat transfer and the expansion device can be used for other working con-
ditions. It makes sense to tune the system charge with a constant offset after the heat transfer cal-
culations in the heat exchangers are fixed. In this way, the adjusted system charge will directly
lead to the correct subcooling degree and superheat degree at the design condition. The process
for implementing ACMODELs one-point tuning method is shown in Figure 1.
The unaccounted charge determined using a single-point tuning method, such as the approach
presented in Figure 1, is most often used as a constant offset that is added to the actual charge
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 433
level when considering variations in simulated charge level. LeRoy et al. (2000) compared the
accuracy of this approach with laboratory measurements and with a method where simulated
charge was adjusted by the same percentage as that associated with the laboratory tests. Neither
of the two approaches properly accounted for the effect of charge on cooling capacity and com-
pressor power. The authors suggested that tuning the system charge at one design condition was
not sufficient to allow good performance predictions for other refrigerant charges.
EQUIPMENT AND LABORATORY TEST DESCRIPTION
The experimental results presented in this paper were obtained from a three-ton R-410A
split-system air conditioner and a three-ton R-410A packaged air conditioner tested within envi-
ronmental chambers. The split system was tested first with a thermal expansion valve (TXV)
and then with a fixed-area expansion orifice (FEO). The packaged unit used an FEO. Both units
had drier/filters in the liquid line. Additional information for the units is given in Table 2. Both
units were tested over an extensive range of charge levels with different condenser and evapora-
tor air inlet conditions, as summarized in Table 3.
The mass of refrigerant charge for each system and each test was measured using a digital
scale accurate to 0.005 kg. In addition to typical measurements necessary to determine air-side
and refrigerant-side cooling capacity, wire thermocouples were soldered and insulated on the
surface of tube bends of heat exchangers to indicate the refrigerant phase, as shown in Figure 2.
In the two-phase region, tube bend temperatures would be expected to be uniform for R-410A.
In the vapor-phase and liquid-phase regions, larger temperature gradients in the refrigerant flow
direction would be expected.
METHODOLOGY DEVELOPMENT
Charge Inventory Effects
Variation in Charge Location. The simulated system charge, M
simulated
, of a simple vapor
compression system is composed of seven parts, as shown in Equation 1:
M
simulated
= m
com
+ m
discharge
+ m
condenser
+ m
liquidline
+ m
distributor
+ m
evaporator
+ m
suction
(1)
However, only the condenser (m
condenser
), evaporator (m
evaporator
), liquid line (m
liquidline
), and
compressor oil (m
com
) contain significant amounts of refrigerant.
Figure 1. ACMODEL single-point tuning method.
434 HVAC&R RESEARCH
Table 2. R-410A Test Unit Information
Information Split Unit Packaged Unit
Expansion device
1. Thermal expansion valve
2. Fixed-area expansion device
Fixed-area expansion device
Compressor Reciprocating piston Scroll
Condensing coil
Single row; two paralleled circuits
combined to one subcooled circuit;
microfin tubes
Two rows; two paralleled circuits
without subcooled circuit;
microfin tubes
Evaporating coil
Three rows; five paralleled circuits;
microfin tubes
Three rows; four paralleled circuits;
microfin tubes
100% Charge 6.3 lbm 6.9 lbm
Table 3. Test Matrix for R-410A Units
Series
No.
No. of
Tests
Unit
Expansion
Device
Outdoor T
(F)
Indoor T
(F)
Indoor RH
(%)
Charge
(%)
1 9 Split TXV 95 80 <30% 60~140%
2 6 Split TXV 95 80 50% 90~140%
3 5 Split TXV 115 80 50% 70~120%
4 9 Split FEO 95 80 50% 50~110%
5 10 Packaged FEO 82 80 <30% 60~130%
6 12 Packaged FEO 82 80 51% 60~130%
7 12 Packaged FEO 95 80 51% 60~130%
8 6 Packaged FEO 115 80 <40% 70~120%
Figure 2. Wire thermocouples soldered on tube bends of the split-unit condenser.
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 435
Charge distributions respond differently to changes in overall charge for TXV and FEO sys-
tems. Figure 3 shows the effect of charge level on charge distribution for the split system using a
TXV at the operating conditions of series 1 (see Table 3). The results were obtained using
ACMODEL, with the measured condenser exit subcooling degree specified and the Baroczy
(1965) void fraction model. Figure 3 indicates that all of the added charge is stored in the con-
denser, while the refrigerant mass in each of the other parts is fairly constant. Figure 4 provides
the charge distribution as a function of charge level for the split system with an FEO and the
operating conditions of series 4 (see Table 3). For the FEO system, additional refrigerant
changes the charge in both the condenser and evaporator. The refrigerant mass in the other parts
is relatively constant when changing the charge inventory for the FEO system.
Variation in Phase Allocation. Figure 5 presents subcooling measured at successive con-
denser tube bends along the refrigerant flow path for different refrigerant charges (from 70% to
140%) with the split system employing a TXV (series 1 operating conditionssee Table 3).
Tube bend subcooling is determined as the tube bend temperature minus the saturation tempera-
Figure 3. Charge distribution for the split unit using a TXV.
Figure 4. Charge location with different charge levels for the split unit using an FEO.
436 HVAC&R RESEARCH
ture corresponding to the condenser exit pressure. Hence, a negative tube bend subcooling indi-
cates a subcooled state. The location of the point where the subcooling becomes negative with a
change in the temperature gradient can be used to estimate the liquid length in the condenser.
Similarly, the location of the point where the subcooling goes to zero with a gradient change can
be used to estimate the condenser vapor length.
As can be seen in Figure 5, larger refrigerant charges lead to longer liquid lengths. It is worth
mentioning that at the largest charge of 140%, the temperatures of the tube bends at the end of
the condenser were nearly constant. In this case, the refrigerant temperatures for the last few
tubes of the condenser were very close to the condenser inlet air temperature and there was very
little heat transfer in this section. It can also be seen from Figure 5 that at the smallest charge of
70%, there was no liquid in the condenser since there was no subcooling. The variations in
vapor lengths as a function of charge appear to be very small. As the charge increased from 70%
to 140%, the vapor length at the entrance of the condenser only changed in one or two tubes.
Since the compressor discharge temperature is very high, the heat in the vapor region dissipates
over a very short distance. Thus, the most prominent effect of adding charge into a condenser is
an increase in the liquid length and a reduction of the two-phase length, while the total length of
the liquid and two-phase can be treated as constant.
Figure 6 presents the tube bend superheat measured along the refrigerant flow path of an
evaporating circuit for the same unit and conditions employed for Figure 5. The tube bend
superheat is the tube bend temperature minus the saturation temperature corresponding to the
evaporator exit pressure. The location of the point where the superheat becomes consistently
positive with a sharp change in the temperature gradient can be used to estimate the vapor length
in the evaporator. As shown in Figure 6, the variation of charge inventory for charge levels from
100% to 140% doesnt appear to impact the phase allocation in the evaporator of the split unit
using TXV since the superheat degree is controlled. However, at a charge level of 70%, the
TXV fails to control the superheat degree. At this charge level, the TXV is wide open and oper-
ates as a fixed-area expansion device. Thus, the vapor length changes with charge.
The effect of refrigerant charge on phase distribution in the evaporator is quite different for the
split system with an FEO compared to the one with a TXV, as shown in Figure 7 (series 4 operat-
ing conditionssee Table 3). With increasing charge mass, part of the added refrigerant ends up
Figure 5. Condenser tube bend subcooling for different charge levels with the split unit
using a TXV.
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 437
in the evaporator instead of residing in the condenser. Thus, the length of the superheated vapor
region in the evaporator decreases with refrigerant charge for a system with an FEO.
Specifying Measured Subcooling Versus Actual Charge Inventory. In general, using the
known subcooling at the condenser exit as an input for performing system simulations provides
accurate performance predictions at any operating condition because it removes the necessity to
accurately estimate charge inventory. However, this is not a useful approach if the goals are to
simulate the effect of refrigerant charge on performance or to estimate the required refrigerant
inventory for a given performance.
Charge Inventory Errors
Existing simulation programs do not perform well in terms of predicting the impact of refrig-
erant charge on performance for a variety reasons that are described in this section. The goal of a
Figure 6. Evaporator tube bend superheat for various charge levels with the split unit
using a TXV.
Figure 7. Evaporator tube bend superheat degrees at various charges in the split unit
using FEO.
438 HVAC&R RESEARCH
tuning method is to adjust some parameters in order to account for the inaccuracies of the mod-
els. However, the tuning parameters and method should make sense physically. Otherwise, the
model will not work well over a large range of operating conditions. One-point charge tuning
methods do not work well at off-design charges because they only provide a constant offset and
dont account for inaccuracies that depend on the amount of refrigerant charge. A constant offset
is mainly useful to account for charge mass in the unaccounted volumes and dissolved in the
compressor lubricant. This section describes the factors that affect the accuracy of charge pre-
dictions and develops approaches for correlating refrigerant charge prediction errors for the con-
denser and evaporator to predicted condenser liquid length and evaporator vapor length.
Single-Phase Heat Transfer. The lengths of the liquid region in the condenser and vapor
region in the evaporator are very sensitive to the accuracy of the single-phase heat transfer coeffi-
cients. For example, the heat transfer in a subcooled region of a condenser could be expressed as
q
sub
= U L
liq
T
lm
. (2)
If the model has been tuned to accurately predict the refrigerant pressure and exit state, then the
predicted q
sub
and T
lm
will match the actual case and the predicted condenser liquid length will
be proportional to the actual liquid length according to Equation 3:
(3)
Void Fraction Models. There are a wide variety of void fraction models available in the liter-
ature. However, they all provide an average two-phase density
2,cal
for system charge model-
ing and, therefore, cannot be expected to provide accurate charge predictions under all
conditions. A charge tuning method should compensate for inaccuracies associated with the
void fraction model that has been chosen.
Inner Volumes. It is difficult to accurately determine all of the inner volumes where refriger-
ant can reside within a system. Errors in the liquid line and filter/drier volumes are particularly
important and can be compensated for by using a constant offset. In addition, there may be uncer-
tainties in the cross-sectional areas of tubes due to uncertainties in manufacturing processes,
internal enhancements, etc., that influence phase distributions within the heat exchangers.
Correcting for Errors in Condenser Liquid Length. The condenser generally has separate
vapor, two-phase, and liquid regions so that the calculated and actual condenser charge can be
expressed as
m
condenser,cal
=
vap
A
cal
L
vap,cal
+
2,cal
A
cal
L
2,cal
+
liq
A
cal
L
liq,cal
(4)
and m
condenser,act
=
vap
A
act
L
vap,act
+
2,act
A
act
L
2,act
+
liq
A
act
L
liq,act
, (5)
where the inside cross-sectional areas (A
cal
or A
act
), two-phase density (
2,cal
or
2,act
), and
phase lengths for vapor (L
vap,cal
or L
vap,act
), two-phase (L
2,cal
or L
2,act
), and liquid (L
liq,cal
or
L
liq,act
) sections are expected to be different for the calculated and actual case because of errors
previously discussed. However, the single-phase vapor and liquid densities (
vap
and
liq
) used
in the simulation should be very close to the actual values.
Since the length and density in the vapor phase are small in comparison to the whole con-
denser, the vapor-phase refrigerant charge can be neglected. Then, the deviation between the
actual and simulated charge in the condenser can be obtained from Equations 4 and 5 as follows:
m
cond
=
2,act
A
act
L
2,act
+
liq
A
act
L
liq,act

2,cal
A
cal
L
2,cal
+
liq
A
cal
L
liq,cal
(6)
L
liq act ,
L
liq cal ,
U
cal
U
act
---------- L
liq cal ,
b = =
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 439
Then, the total length for a combined two-phase and liquid-phase section is defined by
L
tot,act
= L
2,act
+ L
liq,act
L
tot,cal
= L
2,cal
+ L
liq,cal
,
and Equation 6 may be rewritten as
m
cond
=
2,act
A
act
(L
tot,act
L
liq,act
) +
liq
A
act
L
liq,act


2,cal
A
cal
(L
tot,cal
L
liq,cal
)
liq
A
cal
L
liq,cal
.
Substituting Equation 3 into the above relation results in
m
cond
=
2,act
A
act
(L
tot,act
L
liq,cal
b) +
liq
A
act
L
liq,cal
b

2,cal
A
cal
(L
tot,cal
L
liq,cal
)
liq
A
cal
L
liq,cal
or
m
cond
= (
2,act
A
act
L
tot,act

2,cal
A
cal
L
tot,cal
)
+ (
liq
A
act
b
2,act
A
act
b +
2,cal
A
cal

liq
A
cal
)L
liq,cal .
(7)
As previously shown, the vapor length in a condenser is fairly constant as a function of refrig-
erant charge. Therefore, the total lengths of the combined two-phase and liquid regions, L
tot,act
and L
tot,cal
, can be treated as constants under off-design charge levels. As a result, Equation 7
indicates that the deviation between actual and simulated condenser charge is composed of a
constant part and a variable part. The first term in parentheses in Equation 7 is the constant cor-
rection term that is independent of refrigerant charge and can be expressed as
m
const, cond
= (
2,act
A
act
L
tot,act

2,cal
A
cal
L
tot,cal
) = C
cond
, (8)
where C
cond
is a constant correction factor.
The second term in parentheses in Equation 7 depends on the liquid length within the con-
denser and varies with operating conditions and refrigerant charge and can be expressed as
m
var, cond
= (
liq
A
act
b
2,act
A
act
b +
2,cal
A
cal

liq
A
cal
) L
liq,cal
= k
liqL
L
liq,cal
, (9)
where k
liqL
is a constant coefficient that relates condenser charge errors to predicted liquid
length.
The overall deviation between actual and simulated condenser charge is given as
m
cond
= C
cond
+ k
liqL
L
liq,cal
, (10)
where the values of C
cond
and k
liqL
depend on the selected void fraction model, liquid-phase heat
transfer, and inside cross-sectional area. To some extent, these parameters depend on the con-
densing pressure, since condensing pressure impacts liquid and two-phase density. However,
this effect is small if the pressure is not close to the critical point and variations in C
cond
and k
liqL
can be neglected.
Measurements and simulation results for the split system with a TXV are used to validate the
applicability of Equation 10, since the variations in total charge only affect the charge within the
condenser as long as the TXV is not continuously wide open. ACMODEL simulations were run
using the measured condenser exit subcooling as an input. The model predicted the liquid length
440 HVAC&R RESEARCH
and total charge inventory M
simulated
for each measured subcooling. Deviations between the
actual and predicted charge are presented in Figure 8 as a function of the predicted liquid length
for all test series associated with the split system that used a TXV. Consistent with Equation 10,
the refrigerant inventory error is a linear function of only the predicted liquid length and is inde-
pendent of the operating conditions.
Correcting for Errors in Evaporator Vapor Length. Following a reasoning that is similar
to the one applied to the condenser, the charge inaccuracies in an evaporator model change with
the vapor length according to
m
evap
= C
evap
+ k
vapL
L
vap,cal
, (11)
where C
evap
is a constant correction factor and k
vapL
is a coefficient that relates charge errors to
the predicted evaporator vapor length. For a system with a TXV, the evaporator vapor length is
nearly constant and is independent of the amount of refrigerant charge. In this case, Equation 11
would lead to a constant correction for the evaporator refrigerant charge.
A Two-Point Charge Tuning Method
In a system incorporating a TXV system, charge prediction errors can be directly associated
with the condenser liquid length. In an FEO system, charge errors depend on both the condenser
liquid length and the evaporator vapor length. However, the liquid in the condenser is a domi-
nant part of the total charge inventory. In addition, at any operating condition an increase in the
condenser liquid length always leads to a reduction in the evaporator vapor length, such that
L
vap
= f(L
liq
). Therefore, charge errors can be correlated with condenser liquid length alone.
With these considerations in mind, a new charge tuning method is proposed for correcting
charge inaccuracies that captures the dependence of charge errors on condenser liquid length.
The method requires measurements at two operating conditions and is summarized in a
step-by-step procedure, which follows.
Step 1: Use measurements at operating condition 1 to adjust the heat exchanger heat transfer
coefficients and the expansion device mass flow rate prediction as introduced in
Figure 8. Deviations between actual and simulated charges as a function of subcooled liq-
uid length when changing charge inventory for the split unit using a TXV.
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 441
Figure 1. The tuned heat transfer and mass flow rate multipliers are used for all the
other operating conditions.
Step 2: Use the heat transfer multipliers obtained at operating condition 1 and then predict the
liquid length L
liq,ref
(defined as the reference liquid length) and system charge at operat-
ing condition 1. The deviation between the actual and the predicted charges at operating
condition 1 is treated as a constant charge correction factor, C.
Step 3: Use the heat transfer and mass flow rate multipliers obtained at operating condition 1
and run the system model at operating condition 2 using the measured condenser exit
subcooling degree as an input to determine the predicted charge and condenser liquid
length (L
liq
) at operating condition 2.
Step 4: The simulation model will predict two different charge inventories for operating condi-
tions 1 and 2. The deviation between the actual change in charge mass and the predicted
change in charge mass between operating conditions 1 and 2 is a variable charge error,
M
variable
, that is dependent on the liquid length according to
M
variable
= k
liqL
(L
liq
L
liq,ref
) .
The above equation can be used along with the known charge and the predicted charge
and liquid length to determine the coefficient k
liqL
.
Once the parameters C and k
liqL
have been determined, the error in the calculated charge
inventory at any operating condition can be estimated as
M
liqL
= C + k
liqL
(L
liq
L
liq,ref
) , (12)
where M
liqL
is associated with the variable predicted liquid length L
liq
at any operating
condition.
The estimated inventory error can be used in two different ways, depending on the goal of the
simulation. If the subcooling is specified and the goal is to estimate the required refrigerant
charge for a given operating condition, then M
liqL
can be directly added to the predicted charge
inventory obtained using Equation 1. The corrected charge is then
M
corrected,liqL
= M
simulated
+ M
liqL
. (13)
On the other hand, if the goal of the simulation is to determine the performance of the system
at a specified refrigerant charge, then the right-hand side of Equation 13 is set equal to the
known charge and the system of equations is solved iteratively to satisfy the charge inventory
requirement along with the other modeling equations.
VALIDATION OF THE TWO-POINT CHARGE TUNING METHOD
The two-point charge tuning method performs equally well for ACMODEL and the Mark VII
model. Therefore, only examples are given for each of the two models and no direct comparison
between the two model results is presented. In the following figures, dry means a condition of
indoor relative humidity below 30% where no water is condensed on the evaporator surfaces,
and wet means a condition of indoor relative humidity of 50% that leads to water condensa-
tion on the evaporator surfaces.
Application to a TXV System using ACMODEL
The two-point charge tuning method was applied to the simulation of the split system with a
TXV using ACMODEL. Figures 9 through 11 present predicted and measured subcooling at the
442 HVAC&R RESEARCH
Figure 9. Measured and predicted subcooling as a function of charge mass for the split
unit using a TXV (outdoor temperature of 95F and dry condition).
Figure 10. Measured and predicted subcooling as a function of charge mass for the split
unit using a TXV (outdoor temperature of 95F and wet condition).
Figure 11. Measured and predicted subcooling as a function of charge mass for the split
unit using a TXV (outdoor temperature of 115F and dry condition).
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 443
condenser exit as a function of the measured charge mass. Results obtained with the conven-
tional one-point charge tuning method and the two-point charge tuning method are presented in
the figures. The two points used to adjust the charge model are depicted in Figure 9 and were
taken from the test series that was conducted under dry conditions with an outdoor temperature
of 95F. Without any additional tuning, the adjusted charge model works extremely well in pre-
dicting the condenser subcooling for a wide range of charge levels and operating conditions, as
depicted in Figures 9, 10, and 11.
The improved subcooling predictions also lead to better predictions of cooling capacity and
power consumption in comparison to the ones predicted using the single-point tuning method, as
depicted in Figures 12 and 13. The maximum cooling capacity error is reduced from 4.2% to
0.9%, and the maximum compressor power error is reduced from 7.0% to 2.0% by using the
Figure 12. Cooling capacity deviations as a function of charge mass for the split unit using
a TXV (outdoor temperature of 95F and wet condition).
Figure 13. Compressor power deviations as a function of charge mass for the split unit
using a TXV (outdoor temperature of 95F and wet condition).
444 HVAC&R RESEARCH
two-point charge tuning method. The model adjusted by the new charge tuning method is much
better at capturing the effect of charge on performance and would be more useful in determining
optimal charge levels.
It is important to note that if there is no subcooling at the condenser exit, then the TXV
would usually fail to maintain the evaporator exit superheat, and it would operate like a
fixed-area orifice.
Application to an FEO System Using the Mark VII Model
The two-point charge tuning approach was applied to simulate the effects of charge inventory
on the performance of a packaged unit having an FEO using the Mark VII model. Figures 14
through 16 present subcooling comparisons for three sets of tests. The two points used for tuning
are depicted in Figure 14 at an outdoor temperature of 82F and dry indoor conditions. Without
any additional tuning, the charge model accurately predicts the subcooling for a range of charge
levels and operating conditions, as depicted in Figures 14, 15, and 16.
Figures 14 through 16 also show that the two-point charge tuning method accurately locates
the charge that corresponds to the beginning of a two-phase state upstream of the fixed-area
expansion device. The system cooling capacity is very sensitive to this condition. Figure 17
indicates that simulations obtained using the one-point tuning method lead to large cooling
capacity errors at low refrigerant charge levels where the model predicts a two-phase condition
entering the FEO. Simulations obtained using the two-point charge tuning method provide accu-
rate cooling capacity predictions at all operating conditions.
Accurate predictions of the subcooling degree leads to improvements in predictions of the
superheat degree as a function of charge level for the packaged unit having an FEO. As can be
seen in Figure 18, the predicted superheat degree after two-point charge tuning matches the
measured values over a large range of charge levels from 80% to 140%, and the model accu-
rately locates the charge that corresponds to the beginning of two-phase refrigerant entering the
compressor.
Effect of Void Faction Models on Two-Point Charging Tuning Results
Different void fraction models lead to different inaccuracies in charge modeling. Eight void
fraction models were used to predict the system charge for the split system using a TXV. The
void fraction models are Baroczy (1965), Rouhani and Axelsson (1970), Taitel and Barnea
(1990), Premoli et al. (1971), Hughmark (1962), Tandon et al. (1985), the homogeneous model,
and a flow-pattern-dependent void fraction (Shen et al. 2005). The flow-pattern-dependent void
faction model predicts the local flow pattern using the flow map of Thome et al. (1998). Then,
the Taitel and Barnea (1990) void fraction model is used for intermittent flow and the Rouhani
and Axelsson (1970) void fraction model is used for separated flow.
Figure 19 presents the errors in charge predictions obtained with different void fraction mod-
els as a function of the measured condenser exit subcooling when no tuning was applied. The
simulations were performed by specifying the subcooling using ACMODEL. The error is
defined as the measured charge minus the simulated charge obtained from Equation 1. The error
is presented as a percentage of the nominal charge. The errors vary widely depending on the
choice of void fraction model and the degree of subcooling. In general, the flow-pattern-depen-
dent void fraction model, the Taitel and Barnea (1990) model, and the Hughmark (1962) model
appear to work best for this data.
The two-point tuning method was applied separately for simulations with each of the void
fraction models, resulting in different tuning coefficients (C and k
liqL
) for each case. After tun-
ing, the charge predictions are nearly independent of the void fraction model, as shown in
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 445
Figure 14. Measured and predicted subcooling as a function of charge mass for the pack-
aged unit using an FEO (outdoor temperature of 82F and dry condition).
Figure 15. Measured and predicted subcooling as a function of charge mass for the pack-
aged unit using an FEO (outdoor temperature of 95F and wet condition).
Figure 16. Measured and predicted subcooling as a function of charge mass for the pack-
aged unit using an FEO (outdoor temperature of 115F and dry condition).
446 HVAC&R RESEARCH
Figure 17. Errors in predicting cooling capacity as a function of charge mass for the pack-
aged unit with an FEO (outdoor temperature of 95F and wet condition).
Figure 18. Measured and predicted superheat degree as a function of charge mass for the
packaged unit using an FEO (outdoor temperature of 95F and wet condition).
Figure 19. Charge errors for various void fraction models without tuning (outdoor tem-
perature of 95F and dry condition).
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 447
Figure 20. All the void fraction models give very similar charge predictions after the two-point
tuning method is applied.
CONCLUSIONS
Existing simulation models do not accurately predict the effects of refrigerant inventory on
performance. Although single-point parameter tuning improves predictions near design condi-
tions, simulations can provide poor predictions at extreme operating conditions or at low or high
refrigerant charges. A two-point tuning method was developed that leads to much better predic-
tions over a wide range of operating conditions and refrigerant charge levels. The method com-
pensates for uncertainties in inner volumes, void fraction modeling, heat transfer coefficients,
and others through two parameters that characterize a constant offset error and an error that
depends on the length of the liquid section in the condenser. The two-point charge tuning
approach was tested for multiple units using different types of expansion devices and operating
at different ambient and indoor conditions. The method worked extremely well when applied to
two different public domain system simulation models that utilize very different approaches for
modeling heat exchangers and calculating charge inventory. In addition, the accuracies of the
predictions are practically independent of the choice of void fraction model after tuning.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The study presented here has been funded through ASHRAE RP-1173. The support from
ASHRAE and the helpful comments by the PMS of ASHRAE TC 8.11, Unitary and Room Air
Conditioners and Heat Pumps, are greatly appreciated. Special thanks are due to Dr. Keith Rice
at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory for his development of the Mark VII model and his sup-
port in using the model.
NOMENCLATURE
Symbols
A = inside cross-sectional area
b = constant
C = constant
k
liqL
= constant related to liquid length
in the condenser
k
vapL
= constant related to vapor length
in the evaporator
Figure 20. Charge errors for various void fraction models after separate tuning with
two-point charge tuning method.
448 HVAC&R RESEARCH
L = length
m = charge mass in an individual
component
M
simulated
= simulated system charge
without tuning
M
corrected,liqL
= simulated system charge,
corrected by considering vari-
able charge inaccuracy depen-
dent on liquid length
M = charge deviation between the
simulated system charge and
the actual system charge
q
sub
= heat amount discharged in the
liquid region of the condenser
T
lm
= log mean temperature differ-
ence between the liquid phase
in the condenser and the
outdoor air temperature
U = average unit heat transfer
conductance of the liquid
region of the condenser
= density
Subscripts
act = actual value
cal = calculated value
com = compressor
cond = condenser
condenser = condenser
distributor = distributor
discharge = discharge line
evaporator = evaporator
liq = liquid inside the condenser
liqL = liquid length inside the
condenser
liquidline = liquid line
ref = reference value
suction = suction line
tot = total length of two-phase and
liquid phase inside the
condenser
vap = vapor refrigerant
var = variable value
2 = two-phase refrigerant
REFERENCES
ANSI/ARI. 1999. ANSI/ARI Standard 540-99, Positive Displacement Refrigerant Compressors and Com-
pressor Units. Arlington, VA: Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute.
Bankoff, S.G. 1960. A variable density single-fluid model for two-phase flow with particular reference to
steam-water flow. Trans. ASME, J. Heat Trans. 82:26572.
Baroczy, C.J. 1965. Correlation of liquid fraction in two-phase flow with application to liquid metals.
Chemical Engineering Progress Symposium Series 61(57):17991.
Hughmark, G.A. 1962. Holdup in gas-liquid flow. Chem. Eng. Progress 58:6265.
LeRoy, J.T., E.A. Groll, and J.E. Braun. 2000. Evaluating the accuracy of PUREZ in predicting unitary
equipment performance. ASHRAE Transactions 106(1):20015.
Lockhart, R.W., and R.C. Martinelli. 1949. Proposed correlation of data for isothermal two-phase,
two-component flow in pipes. Chem. Eng. Progress 45:3948.
Harms, T.M., E.A. Groll, and J.E. Braun. 2002. Charge inventory system modeling and validation for uni-
tary air conditioners. PhD thesis, Herrick Labs 2002-13, Report No. 5288-2, Purdue University, West
Lafayette, IN.
Payne, W.V., and D.L. O'Neal. 1998. Mass flow characteristics of R-407C through short-tube orifices.
ASHRAE Transactions 104(1A):197209.
Payne, W.V., and D.L. O'Neal. 1999. Multiphase flow of refrigerant 410A through short tube orifices.
ASHRAE Transactions 105(2):6674.
Payne, W.V., and D.L. O'Neal. 2004. A mass flow rate correlation for refrigerants and refrigerant mixtures
flowing through short tubes. HVAC&R Research 10(1):7387.
Premoli, A., D. Di Francesco, and A. Prina. 1971. Una correlazione adimensionale perla determinazione
della densit di miscele bifasiche. la Termotecnica 25:1726.
Rice, C.K. 1987. The effect of void fraction correlation and heat flux assumption on refrigerant charge
inventory predictions. ASHRAE Transactions 93(1):34167.
Rice, C.K. 2005. Mark VII. http://www.ornl.gov/~wlj/hpdm/MarkVII.shtml.
Rigot, G. 1973. Contenance en fluide dun vaporateur en dtente directe. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge
National Laboratory.
VOLUME 12, NUMBER 3, JULY 2006 449
Rossi, T.M. 1995. Detection, diagnosis, and evaluation of faults in vapor compression cycle equipment.
PhD thesis, Report No. 1796-3 HL 95-13, Herrick labs, Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN.
Rouhani, Z., and E. Axelsson. 1970. Calculation of void volume fraction in the subcooled and quality boil-
ing region. Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 13:38393.
Schmidt, Th.E. 1949. Heat transfer calculations for extended surfaces. Refrig. Eng. April:35157.
Smith, S.L. 1969. Void fractions in two-phase flow: A correlation based upon an equal velocity head
model. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 184:64764.
Shen, B., E.A. Groll, and J.E. Braun. 2005. Improvement and validation of unitary air condition and heat
pump simulation models for R-22 and HFC alternatives at off-design conditions. Final report of
RP-1173, American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc., Atlanta,
GA.
Steiner, D. 1993. Heat transfer to boiling satureated liquid. VDI-Wrmeatlas (VDI Heat Atlas), ch. Hbb,
VDI-Gesellschaft Verfahrenstechnik und Chemieingenieurwesen (GCV). Verein Deutscher Ingenieure,
editor; J.W. Fullarton, translator. Dsseldorf.
Taitel, Y., and D. Barnea. 1990. Two-phase slug flow. Advances in Heat Transfer 20:83132.
Tandon, T.N., H.K. Varma, and C.P. Gupta. 1985. Avoid fraction model for annular two-phase flow. Int. J.
Heat Mass Transfer 28:19198.
Thom, J.R.S. 1964. Prediction of pressure drop during forced circulation boiling of water. Int. J. Heat Mass
Transfer 7:70924.
Thome, J.R., N. Kattan, and D. Favrat. 1998. Flow boiling in horizontal tubes: Part 1Development of a
diabatic two-phase flow pattern map. Journal of Heat TransferTransactions of the ASME
120(1):14047.
Thome, J.R., W. Leszek, and T. Ursenbacher. 2005. Measurement of dynamic void fractions in stratified
types of flow. Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 29(3):38392.
Yashar, D.A., M.J. Wilson, H.R. Kopke, D.M. Graham, J.C. Chato, and T.A. Newell. 2001. An investiga-
tion of refrigerant void fraction in horizontal microfin tubes. HVAC&R Research 7(1):6782.
Zivi, S.M. 1964. Estimation of steady-state steam void-fraction by means of the principle of minimum
entropy production. J. Heat Transfer 86:24752.