Colca Valley 2

COLCA VALLEY
Ways of getting to the Colca Valley

The city of Arequipa is the starting point for the 165 km journey to the Colca Valley. The journey to the Colca
may be carried out independently, may be organized by a tourist agency or may be a combination of both.
For the tourists who wish to travel independently, the buses to Chivay and Cabanaconde, the two main
towns in the valley, set off from the bus terminal in Arequipa. There is a day bus and a night bus. The journey
lasts approximately four hours with one stop at a police control. In Chivay you can find all the services a visitor
might require, while in Cabanaconde, Yanque and Achoma, these services are limited. There are very few
tourist services in other towns or villages. There are local buses which travel between the towns and villages
in the valley, but their time schedule is irregular. It is more practical to hire a taxi for a few hours.
The travel agencies usually programme excursions which normally only include a visit to the southern area
of the valley, between Chivay and Cabanaconde. Some also offer visits to less well known sites, as long as
there is enough demand.
The third way is to combine both methods: first to take an organized tour and then stay on a few more days
in order to take your time and visit those hidden marvels which the Colca offers. This is an especially
interesting option for those who love walking as they can take time to tour all the valley.
Portrait of Arequipa
Arequipa is located in the South of Peru at the foothills of the Andes, 1,020 kilomtres from Lima. It is the
second largest city of the country and a must for any tourist plans for visiting the Colca Valley.
If you are travelling up from the coast, due to the altitude in the Colca, it is advisable to stay in Arequipa for
one or two days to get acclimatized and take advantage of the warm climate and the varied tourist attractions.
Arequipa has possibilities for tours within the city as well as to the surrounding area. Its varied culinary
delights are well known throughout the country. The "White City", as it is called due to the white volcanic rock
with which many of its buildings are built, maintains ancient architectural treasures in the way of grand houses
and impressive churches and monasteries. Historical tours include the visit to the Plaza de Armas (main
square) with its cathedral, the church of the Compaa de Jesus and the Santa Catalina Monastery. On the
outskirts the attractions include the Cayma district with a church built in 1730, and Yanahuara which also has
a church and an outlook point from where you have a magnificient view of the city and volcanoes which
surround it. As far as excursions to the surrounding area are concerned, there are possibilities for visiting the
picturesque villages, the Mejia lakes, the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve or the Colca Valley.
Arequipa can be reached by land, along the Panamericana Sur highway, by train from Puno, or by air from
various cities in Peru.
Activities and routes
As mentioned before, the journey to the Colca Valley offers a great variety of attractions in the way of
ecology, landascape and cultural and historical monuments.
It is possible to visit all of these to a lesser or greater extent, depending on the transport available and the
tourist's interests. So if you are an experienced mountain climber who wishes to try the high mountain tops of
the area it is possible to find a prepared guide at the Arequipa Mountain Guides Association, who will
accompany you to see, for example, the origin of the Amazon River. If you enjoy trekking you may go on
excursions to all corners of the valley where you will see not only amazing flora and fauna and landscape, but
also wonderful archaeological remains and towns. The local guides enrich the experience with their interesting
explanations.
We recommend that your stay in the Colca Valley should last at least three to six days. A stay this long will
enable you to have quite a full impression of the cultural and natural wealth of the region. A shorter stay will
only enable you to see a part of what the Colca offers.
The following suggested route enables you to see a bit of everything using your own or hired transport and
we have called it the "Colca Classic Route". We also suggest some partial routes in the way of very practical
excursions which you can use at your choice and depending on the type of holiday you want and the time you
have available. In a different section of this CD-ROM you will find detailed information about activities and
journeys which can be done in the Colca. These short lines are merely an introduction to this more complete
information.
Climate, clothing and other recommendations
As the Colca is a valley enclosed by the high snow-capped Andes mountains at an average altitude of 3,500
metres above sea level, its climate is typical of a high mountainous region. Temperatures rise and fall greatly
from day to night.
In the dry season (mid April to mid November) temperatures usually fall to below zero at night and reach 15
C - 20 C during the daytime. During the rainy season (end of November to end of March), changes in
temperature are less dramatic as the overcast sky impedes the penetration of the sun's rays and the heating
of the atmosphere during the day and the frost and cold at night. Temperatures vary between 5 C and 10 C.
As far as clothing is concerned, comfortable footwear for walking, preferably sports shoes or boots; warm
clothes; a sun hat and a water bottle or container, are recommended. For the rainy season, it is also best to
bring appropriate protection from the rain. For the visit to the spring baths at Chivay and Yanque you should
take swim wear and your own towel.
You must never forget to wear sun glasses and high sun factor protection cream when you visit the Colca
Valley. A good, night moisturising cream is also recommended. If you plan to walk along some of the
suggested routes you should carry your own camping gear and first aid kit. You should also have become
accustomed to high altitude conditions for a few days first so that the physical exercise is not too demanding
and your body does not suffer from lack of oxygen.
Finally, as the Colca Valley nears the Pacific Ocean it narrows and becomes a canyon. The Colca canyon
reaches a depth of approximately 3,400 metres. This view cannot be seen on any other of the usual tours. Its
access is down river and requires previous preparation as it is a difficult route. The maximum height which the
standard tours show is at the Cruz del Condor viewpoint (about a 1,200 metre fall).
ROUTES
CONVENTIONAL TOURIST OFFER
HISTORY/CULTURE/MONUMENTS/LANDSCAPE
History, archaeology, culture, landscape, nature
THE "COLCA CLASSIC" TOUR (THREE DAYS AND TWO NIGHTS)

The three days and two nights "Colca Classic" tour starts from Arequipa on the first day towards
Chivay through Yura, passing impressive volcanoes and scenery. After an initial climb we arrive at Pampa
Arrieros and then Pampa Caahuas, within the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve. This area is
ideal for short stops to watch vicuas, alpacas and other fauna and flora. After the police control at
Chasquipampa and taking a turn to the right, we can enter Sumbay and visit the cave paintings. Later we
come to a fork in the road: the right leads to Cuzco and indirectly to Chivay and the left heads straight
towards Chivay. We head briefly towards Cuzco to see the origins of the river Colca and to stop at the
cave paintings at Mollepunku. Continuing the road there is a new fork and this time we take the left turn to
enter the Colca. On route we visit Callali (church and rock formations) and Sibayo (church, handicrafts
and surroundings). The arrival at Chivay, after a five-hour journey, marks the end of the day for a better
adaptation to the altitude. The spring baths at Chivay are three kilometres from the town.
The second day can start with a visit to Chivay and the surrounding area, including the archaeological
remains of Uskallacta. After that we recommend travelling to Coporaque to admire the churches and
squares. From Coporaque, it takes an easy three hour walk to get to the village of Yanque. This walk
takes you past the archaeological remains of San Antonio, the spectacular Yurac Ccacca terraces, the
Occolle outlook point and the hanging tombs of Chininea. After lunch at Yanque, the rest of the afternoon
is taken up with visiting the beautiful church, the Choquehuanca Inca house, the Cervantes colonial bridge
and the spring baths. It is best to sleep the night at Yanque or Achoma. There are various places which
offer accommodation.
The third day starts early in order to observe the flight of the condors from the Cruz del Condor outlook
point. This place offers a good view of how the river starts to narrow (1,200 metres below) in order to
reach a maximum depth of 3,400 metres much further on. From the Cross onwards you can enjoy an
interesting journey observing the flora and fauna of the area. On the way back to Chivay you can stop at
places you did not visit on the way there. Lunch is usually eaten at Chivay before returning to Arequipa.
The last part of the journey holds a surprise: the Patapampa outlook point which is the highest viewing
point in the Colca at 4,800 metres above sea level, where you can admire the volcanic mountain range.

THE "COLCA CLASSIC" TOUR (FOUR DAYS AND THREE NIGHTS)

The four days and three nights "Colca Classic" tour starts from Arequipa on the first day towards
Chivay through Yura, passing impressive volcanoes and scenery. After an initial climb we arrive at Pampa
Arrieros and then Pampa Caahuas, within the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve. This area is
ideal for short stops to watch vicuas, alpacas and other fauna and flora. After the police control at
Chasquipampa and taking a turn to the right, we can enter Sumbay and visit the cave paintings. Later we
come to a fork in the road: the right leads to Cuzco and indirectly to Chivay and the left heads straight
towards Chivay. We head briefly towards Cuzco to see the origins of the river Colca and to stop at the
cave paintings at Mollepunku. Continuing the road there is a new fork and this time we take the left turn to
enter the Colca. On route we visit Callali (church and rock formations) and Sibayo (church, handicrafts
and surroundings). The arrival at Chivay, after a five-hour journey, marks the end of the day for a better
adaptation to the altitude. The spring baths at Chivay are three kilometres from the town.
The second day can start with a visit to Chivay and the surrounding area, including the archaeological
remains of Uskallacta. After that we recommend travelling to Coporaque to admire the churches and
squares. From Coporaque, it takes an easy three-hour walk to get to the village of Yanque. This walk
takes you past the archaeological remains of San Antonio, the spectacular Yurac Ccacca terraces, the
Occolle outlook point and the hanging tombs of Chininea. After lunch at Yanque, the rest of the afternoon
is taken up with visiting the beautiful church, the Choquehuanca Inca house, the Cervantes colonial bridge
and the spring baths. It is best to sleep the night at Yanque or Achoma. There are various places which
offer accommodation.
The morning of the third day includes a visit to Lari with its spectacular church and also a two-hour
walk to the village of Madrigal, passing by lakes Haachigua and Lekempa. Madrigal is a good place to
have lunch. After a short visit to the church, we set off for Ichupampa where you can admire surprising
colonial doorways. From there you take the road to Cabanaconde where you sleep the night. During this
journey tourists usually stop at the various viewpoints and at a place where cheese is made.
The fourth day starts early in order to observe the flight of the condors from the Cruz del Condor
outlook point. This place offers a good view of how the river starts to narrow (1,200 metres below) in order
to reach a maximum depth of 3,400 metres much further on. From the Cross onwards you can enjoy an
interesting journey observing the flora and fauna of the area. On the way back to Chivay you can stop at
places you did not visit on the way there. Lunch is usually eaten at Chivay before returning to Arequipa.
The last part of the journey holds a surprise: the Patapampa outlook point which is the highest viewing
point in the Colca at 4,800 metres above sea level, where you can admire the volcanic mountain range.
HISTORY/CULTURE/MONUMENTS/ LANDSCAPE
OPTIONS FOR THE "COLCA CLASSIC" ROUTE
Landscape, nature, physical-recreational.

THE COLCA GEYSER: Instead of returning to Arequipa on the last day of the "Colca Classic" tour,
you may sleep the night at Chivay, Yanque or Achoma. The next day we set off for Cabanaconde and turn
off a little after the village of Pinchollo, towards the Hatun Infiernillo geyser along a road only for four
wheel drive vehicles. The walk from where you leave the car to the geyser takes around 30 minutes. This
activity lasts two hours in total and it is not very strenuous. The route is not steep until the last two
hundred metres. The difficulty lies in the altitude of the road (4,500 metres above sea level). This whole
activity lasts two hours. Effort level: Easy
CABANACONDE AND NATURE: Instead of returning to Arequipa on the last day of the "Colca
Classic" tour, we sleep in Cabanaconde and set off the next day on a three days and two nights tour
which takes us to San Juan de Chuccho, Tapay, Corihua and Malata, based at Sangalle, a unique
ecosystem in the valley and the canyon, forming an oasis of riverside vegetation in a warm, subtropical
climate with abundant vegetation, fruit trees and a beautiful landscape. This route begins at Cabanaconde
(at 3,250 metres above sea level) and descends to 2,200 metres above sea level in the oasis. This
impressive difference of 1000 metres takes us through the heart of the Colca and its variety of ecological
levels, microclimates and natural diversity. Effort level: Moderate-Demanding
THE COLCA OASIS: Instead of returning to Arequipa on the last day of the "Colca Classic" tour, we
sleep at Cabanaconde and set out the next day for Sangalle, the Colca oasis. This option is different from
the previous tour in that we head straight for our destination and we aim to enjoy a pleasant climate, fruit
and a few days rest and relaxation surrounded by nature with a unique view of the Colca canyon. The tour
lasts two days and one night camping at the oasis which provides a camping area, toilets and a swimming
pool. Effort level: Moderate-Demanding
THE COLCA WATERFALLS: Instead of returning to Arequipa on the last day of the "Colca Classic"
tour, we sleep at Cabanaconde and set off the following day on a three day and two night tour to the most
spectacular waterfall in the Colca, Huaruro. The route leads through the oasis, the village of Paclla, until it
reaches the waterfall. During the walk you can see a great variety of ecological levels, landscape, climates
and the walk varies in difficulty (from very easy to moderate and strenuous). Without a doubt, this is one of
the most complete walks in the Colca. It is a strenuous and demanding tour. Effort level: Demanding.
"NATURAL COLCA" ROUTE (THREE DAYS AND TWO NIGHTS)

Nature, ecology, physical-recreational, rural
The "Natural Colca" starts from Arequipa on the first day towards Chivay through Yura, passing
impressive volcanoes and scenery. After an initial climb we arrive at Pampa Arrieros and then
Pampa Caahuas, within the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve. This area is ideal for
short stops which enable us to observe the ecosystem of the arid, high plateau with vicuas, alpacas
and other fauna and flora. After the police control at Chasquipampa and taking a turn to the right, we
can enter Sumbay and visit the cave paintings. Later we come to a fork in the road: the right leads to
Cuzco and indirectly to Chivay and the left heads straight towards Chivay. We head briefly towards
Cuzco to see the origins of the river Colca and to stop at the cave paintings at Mollepunku.
Continuing the road there is a new fork and this time we take the left turn to enter the Colca. On
route we visit Callali (rock formations) and Sibayo. The arrival at Chivay, after a five-hour journey,
marks the end of the day for a better adaptation to the altitude. The spring baths at Chivay are three
kilometres from the town.
The second day starts early in order to observe the flight of the condors from the Cruz del
Condor outlook point. This place offers a good view of how the river starts to narrow (1,200 metres
below) in order to reach a maximum depth of 3,400 metres much further on. From the Cross
onwards you can enjoy an interesting journey observing the flora and fauna of the area. On the way
back to Chivay we stop and explain the landscape and the ecosystems at Tapay, Antahuilque,
Choquetico and Achumani. Then we visit the centre at the Achoma hotel and have lunch. In the
afternoon, we walk to the river bed to see the Colca river ecosystem. It is best to sleep at Yanque or
Achoma. There are several places which offer accommodation.
On the third day we set off for Cabanaconde and turn off a little after the village of Pinchollo,
towards the Hatun Infiernillo geyser along a road only for four wheel drive vehicles. The walk from
where you leave the car to the geyser takes around 30 minutes. After this tour, we return to Chivay
to visit the village of Maca and the geological fault which runs through it and to visit a place where
cheese and dairy products are made. We have lunch at Chivay and then return to Arequipa. The last
part of the journey holds a surprise: the Patapampa outlook point which is the highest viewing point
in the Colca at 4,800 metres above sea level, where you can admire the volcanic mountain range.
Optional: At the end of the second day, instead of staying the night at Acho, or Yanque, you can
spend the night at Cabanaconde and take any of the optional tours as options for the "Colca Classic"
Route.
"THE OTHER COLCA" (THREE DAYS AND TWO NIGHTS)

Historical, archaeological, religious, cultural, landscape.
"The other Colca" Tour starts from Arequipa on the first day towards Chivay through Yura,
passing impressive volcanoes and scenery. After an initial climb we arrive at Pampa Arrieros and
then Pampa Caahuas, within the Salinas and Aguada Blanca Nature Reserve. This area is ideal for
short stops to watch vicuas, alpacas and other fauna and flora. After the police control at
Chasquipampa and taking a turn to the right, we can enter Sumbay and visit the cave paintings.
Later we come to a fork in the road: the right leads to Cuzco and indirectly to Chivay and the left
heads straight towards Chivay. We head briefly towards Cuzco to see the origins of the river Colca
and to stop at the cave paintings at Mollepunku. Continuing the road there is a new fork and this time
we take the left turn to enter the Colca. On route we visit Callali (church and rock formations) and
Sibayo (church, handicrafts and surroundings). The arrival at Chivay, after a five hour journey, marks
the end of the day for a better adaptation to the altitude. The spring baths at Chivay are three
kilometres from the town.
The second day can start with a visit to Chivay and the surrounding area, including the
archaeological remains of Uskallacta. After that we recommend travelling to Coporaque to admire
the churches and squares. From Coporaque, it takes an easy three hour walk to get to the village of
Yanque. This walk takes you past the archaeological remains of San Antonio, the spectacular Yurac
Ccacca terraces, the Occolle outlook point and the hanging tombs of Chininea. After lunch at
Yanque, the rest of the afternoon is taken up with visiting the beautiful church, the Choquehuanca
Inca house, the Cervantes colonial bridge and the spring baths. It is best to sleep the night at
Yanque or Achoma. There are various places which offer accommodation.
The third day includes a visit to Lari with its spectacular church and also a two hour walk to the
village of Madrigal, passing by lakes Haachigua and Lekempa. Madrigal is a good place to have
lunch. After a short visit to the church, we set off for Ichupampa where you can admire surprising
colonial doorways. From there you take the road back to Chivay before returning to Arequipa. The
last part of the journey holds a surprise: the Patapampa outlook point which is the highest viewing
point in the Colca at 4,800 metres above sea level, where you can admire the volcanic mountain
range.
SUBJETS
THE BATTLES OF CHAYLLAYCHO: THE STRUGGLE FOR THE IRRIGATION OF COLCA
VALLEY
ABSTRACT
The battles that have occurred between two villages of the Colca Valley, Yanque and Coporaque,
for the control of water sources, reflect the importance of irrigation in this semiarid environment
typical of the western Andean escarpment. They also reflect the problems caused by the division of
population and catchment basins into two or more administrative units as of the colonial period.
This paper traces the history of population and territorial fragmentation as they transpire from
colonial and republican documents pertaining to the Province of Collaguas, now called Caylloma.
The author argues that in the prehispanic and early colonial period, native authorities controlled
population and irrigation sources over extensive territories; and that colonial institutions such as
villages, and republican administrative units such as distritos and indigenous or peasant
comunidades (a legal construct associating groups of peasants) tend to create opposition and
conflict over territorial boundaries and access to irrigation water.
ANDEAN IMIGRANT IN THE DESSERT: THE MAJES IRRIGATION PROJECT
INTRODUCTION
The Majes Irrigation Project in the department of Arequipa, Peru had approximately 12,000
hectares and 25,000 inhabitants in 1996. By definition all inhabitants of Majes are migrants, as the
location is a desert where there has only been water since 1982. The Pampa de Majes is an irrigated
area, run by the Majes, Arequipa, Irrigation Project. The Pampa de Majes population is basically
divided into tenant farmers and employee labourers, temporary workers like craftsmen, merchants
and employees of state institutions as well as national and international development project
workers.
Most of the farmers and their labourers are from the Andean region and have previous experience
in animal and crop farming. The Majes project was originally designed to be a social project but in
actual fact it has promoted milk production for dairy factories and other agricultural related industries.
The Majes project has been called a complete development project and its objective was to satisfy
the demands of the Arequipa region for more cultivable land. The Project would use the water from
the Colca river and the Apurimac river to irrigate 57,000 hectares in the Majes and Siguas areas on
the coast; 3,000 hectares in the highlands between Cabanaconde and Huambo and supply two
hydroelectric plants. According to Jacob Maos, the Project was accepted because irrigated
agriculture is and will be one of the main social and economic resources in Peru. The coast is so arid
that it requires a great deal of irrigation. It depends almost entirely on water which flows from the
Andes mountain ranges to the Pacific Ocean.
The government at the time presented the Majes project as an example of social justice for the
less favoured farming class.
Infrastructure
The Majes project infrastructure began in 1971. The work for the transfer of water from the Colca
river to the Siguas river and then to the Pampa de Majes was started by an international consortium
by the name of MACON. The company began to build a reservoir for the water of the Colca river, in
Condoroma. It would store water during the rainy season (December to March) to be used during the
dry season (April - November). In 1992, the infrastructure for the transfer of the Colca river water
through the Condoroma reservoir to the Pampa de Majes was complete. There were economic
factors however, which did not enable the project to work as planned and some of the water was
being used for other irrigation areas.
The geographical, topographical and ecological environment
The Pampa de Majes is slightly uneven and is sufficient to allow normal drainage. The land is
desert and there is not much erosion except in places where rivers like the Siguas and Vitor are
located and deep U valleys have been formed. During the winter there are thick mists. The
temperature reaches 28 degrees centigrade and the minimum temperature is 11 degrees centigrade.
At present the irrigated area is humid due to the evaporation of the watering by sprinklers, which
creates a type of greenhouse effect. As there is a tendency to over irrigate, water forms pools in the
lower parts of the plots of land and mosquitoes proliferate. Approximately 90 percent of Majes grows
alfalfa for dairy production.
MIGRANTS IN THE MAJES IRRIGATION PROJECT
The water from the Colca river arrived at the Pampa de Majes for the first time in 1982. Many
people, mainly from the provinces of Arequipa, Caylloma and the Siguas valley, applied for land. The
Colca valley inhabitants had been promised that they would be given priority if their lands had been
affected by the Majes channel infrastructure, however inhabitants from other areas were also given
priority, as were some inhabitants who did not meet the economic and social requirements but who
were from more socially privileged groups.
The Information Bulletin explained that the land was desert and that there was no vegetation or
organic material. It was sandy and stoney. The farmers would have to withdraw the stones with great
effort. Then they would have to level the surface, a new activity, which would require machinery to
facilitate drainage. The Agricultural Bank would provide loans for the acquisition of machinery for
irrigation and levelling. The farmer would have to have his own sprinkling system. There were some
water supply points for human consumption. In many cases, however, the farmers did not actually go
to live in the area but rather paid others to take charge.
Tenant farmers, low paid labourers and employees
The migration to the Majes project was greater than expected but not all of those who lived there
were the farmers. Some of the inhabitants were low-paid labourers and others were not the original
beneficiaries. In the case of the labourers, there is a constant turnover. It is hard to tell what their
gain is as they live in very poor dwellings and receive very little for their work.
Many of the migrants are originally from the highlands but have already had experience of living on
the coast.Therefore they are indirect migrants. However, they do have difficulties as far as the
irrigation is concerned as they are not used to the type of irrigation required. The irrigation by gravity
which they are accustomed to is forbidden in the Majes and it is only carried out illegally.
In the highlands the farmers have the right to farm but they do not possess the land as it belongs to
the community. However, the Majes project offers the right to buy the plot and have the title deeds.
Economic, technological and social problems
The bank loans and technological training offered became more difficult to come by. The farmers
were advised to live in small towns with basic municipal, school and religious services , but the towns
were mainly occupied by employees of the different commercial, banking, religious and educational
institutions and by temporary workers, merchants and craftsmen. The farmers and labourers or those
in charge of the land live mainly on their land.
Irrigation system on the Pampa de Majes
The Majes Project uses three irrigation systems which are: irrigation using sprinklers which is
mainly for the alfalfa; drip irrigation using special filters for fruit orchards and grapevines and
irrigation by gravity which requires ditches on a slope, which is officially forbidden but is used due to
lack of equipment. In general those farmers with experience were accustomed to the latter type or
flood control irrigation and therefore tend to water excessively when using sprinklers.
Conclusion
The Majes project is one of the development projects which attracts people from the highlands to
the coast, directly or indirectly. The population however, in Majes fluctuates and changes constantly.
The original intention of favouring the poor peasants and farmers with 5.5 hectare plots of land is not
materializing. The social and economic environment in Majes reflects Peruvian society, divided into
classes and in which the land is owned by few. The evaluation carried out before the project began
and a lack of understanding of the national reality, did not foresee obstacles which cropped up during
the development of the project (such as the amount of farming land to be destroyed in the Colca; the
demands of the farmers in the Siguas valley; the fact that the majority of the farmers would not
actually reside on the Pampa and would leave their land to others to look after and the fact that the
land where alfalfa was sown became grazing land for animals which provided milk for the dairy
companies). However, The Majes Project did provide paid employment and training for a
considerable sector of the Colca population for a decade and it enabled a number of Andean
peasant farmers to receive land.
GEOLOGICAL ASPECT OF THE COLCA VALLEY
The Colca Valley is located in a geologically rich and active area. It is located in the south of
Peru, in and between the Andes mountains, and it belongs to the South American tectonic plate.
This continental plate lies under the Nazca oceanic plate. The friction between both at a depth of
over 100 kilometres causes the magma to rise to the lithosphere through large geological crevices,
thus forming volcanoes.
So, the Colca area is predominantly made up of volcanic rocks, with the presence of some
sedimentary rock. This type of rock can be seen to the northwest of Maca.
The most recent sign of vulcanism, is made up of the highest mountains in the valley: the Hualca
Hualca, Ampato and Sabancayo volcanoes.
The Colca valley is noticeable for the diversity of materials which cover it: the alluvial terraces
made up of conglomerates, gravel and mud slime. The second structure is made up of alluvial
cones. These materials have descended from the high parts due to water erosion and probably
glacial activity.
Maca, Lari and Madrigal stand out for the presence of great masses of rock. These frequently
slide, greatly affecting agriculture. The landslides are produced by the clayey lithology of some of the
sediments, the abundance of water and the fracture of the land and even by active geological faults.
The volcanoes
Two of the at least four active volcanoes in the south of Peru, are to be found in the Colca valley
or in the tourist areas linked to the Colca. These are the Sabancaya and Misti volcanoes. Along with
the Ubinas and Huaynaputina volcanoes, they both belong to the central Andean volcanic region.
The snowcapped mountain, Sabancaya, by the Colca valley, is the highest of the active Peruvian
volcanoes. It is located near to the ancient Hualca Hualca volcano and the most recent one, Ampato.

The Sabancaya has been permanently active sine 1987. Its activity alternates between periods
of relative calm and periods of increase in intensity. At present, the columns of ash from the
Sabancaya rise from one to four kilometres into the air for ten minutes at a time, at irregular intervals.
The ash is carried by the wind for several kilometres.
The volcano started its reactivation in 1990 when the columns frequently reached over five
kilometres into the sky and were seemingly full of volcanic particles. At that time llama and alpaca
pasture in the area was stopped due to the ash.
At present, it is impossible to foresee the future evolution of the Sabancaya. Historical narratives
tell of similar activity during the XVIII century. And the volcano's name in Quechua means "he who
spits", suggesting that this type of eruption did occur during the pre-Columbian era. Only a greater
eruption could affect the Colca valley inhabitants, at 20 kilometres from the volcano.
How to visit Sabancaya
The best place to see the Sabancaya eruptions is the Pampa de Sallalli. You can reach there
using a four wheel drive vehicle, along a dirt road which heads directly off the Arequipa-Chivay road,
at Solarpampa. The journey lasts four or five hours from Arequipa, and approximately two hours from
Chivay. The climb up to the crater is long and a guide is recommended. You must sleep the night at
the mountain pass between Sabancaya and Ampato.
Misti
The Misti volcano is the most well known of the Peruvian volcanoes, not only for its symmetrical
beauty but also, and most of all, for its proximity to Arequipa.
Its activity has been known of for at least 35,000 years, when the most ancient eruption occurred.
During this long period of time, up until the present, several dozen significant eruptions have
occurred. The latest eruption took place 2000 years ago. This eruption started with the emission of
volcanic material which fell on Arequipa. It is probable that over the last 2000 years, several minor
eruptions have taken place.
If a significant eruption of Misti did occur, Arequipa would be in a critical position. An eruption
with an unfavourable wind, could cover the city in ash and pumice stone causing severe damage. It
is possible that serious avalanches could occur. For example, the city is partly built on the remaining
sediment of the collapse of the Pichu Pichu volcano. An avalanche of this nature would completely
destroy the city of Arequipa in a few minutes.
How to visit Misti
The climb up Misti usually takes two days there and back. There is no technical difficulty in
climbing it, but it is essential to be physically fit. A mountain guide is advisable. You can descend into
the exterior crater, but it is dangerous to venture into the small central crater.
Ashlar stone
The beauty of Arequipa lies partly in the white ashlar stone used for building all of the colonial
buildings in the centre. In the Colca Valley, the Lari church has also been built completely out of this
stone.
Ashlar is a volcanic rock which comes from a particularly violent eruption which took place over
two million years ago. It is the product of monstrous streams of fire and lava which submerged the
whole Arequipa basin. At the time of its emplacement and due to the high temperature, it solidified
and formed the compact consistency which enables it to be used as construction material. If an
eruption similar to that of the ashlar ever occurred again, the city of Arequipa and the neighbouring
plains would disappear without a trace.
Seismic aspects of the Colca
The south of Peru is well known for its strong seismic features. The seismic activity in the Colca
valley is significant. In July 1991 an earthquake of 5.2 degrees occurred and completely destroyed
Maca and its church.
The geyser and the hot springs
The Colca valley has several hot mineral springs, probably associated with the vulcanism. Their
origin is in the rain water which filters in the subsoil and is heated in the depths due to its proximity to
a magmatic chamber. Thus the water is lighter than the surrounding cold water and it rises to the
surface. If there are cracks in the earth, they favour a rapid rise to the surface, the water does not
lose its heat. In some cases the magma transfers a certain quantity of carbonic gas to the water,
changing it into high quality mineral water.
To the south of Pinchollo, in the Colca river canyon, there is a constant jet of water vapour. There
are also hot spring baths at Chivay and Ichupampa.
Mineral resources in the Colca Valley: mines
The Colca valley has two mines. The Maca and the Madrigal mines.
The Maca mine contains diatomite. This contains the same typology as carbon, petroleum and
natural gas. The mine is located in the Jatun Chicta region.
The Madrigal mine contains metalic minerals. Up until a few years ago, copper, zinc, lead and
silver were mined here. Due to economic measures, their mining ceased to be profitable and at
present the mine is abandoned. The mine also contains quartz, calcite, galena, sphalerite,
chalcopyrite and pyrite.
THE CANYON: A DEEP AN ANCIENT GORGE
High up, in the desolate places of Imata, near the Jayuchaca lagoon, the many Colca tributaries
spread out over an Andean arch of over sixty kilometres. They run down the hills and, like the
Chilamayo river, the headwaters of the Colca, they join the new river bed. It is here that the river
begins its wilful journey which ends in the Pacific Ocean under the name of the Camana river.
The torrent runs through parts of the canyon which only the midday sun touches and on its
journey it lays bare the geological formations which have gathered since ancient times.
HISTORY OF THE CANYON
Seventy million years ago, during the Senonic period, the first Peruvian Andean upheaval, the
Peruvian Uplift, ocurred. This wide-ranging orogenic movement of mountain building was followed by
abundant volcanic outlets which spread all along the meridional mountain range, forming a strong
platform. Much later, towards the end of the Tertiary period, the great volcanoes which stretch from
the 150 parallel latitude to Tierra del Fuego, began to rise. Simultaneously, igneous (crystalline)
rocks appeared which, after extensive erosive processes caused by differences in temperature,
became exposed to the outside world. Thus, the Huaraz, Volcabamba and Urubamba mountain
ranges had been formed.
During the Oligocene period, thirty five million years ago, the Continental Mountain Range
emerged with heights of up to a thousand or two thousand metres, causing new foldings of the
sedimentary strata. Much later, towards the end of the Tertiary period, during the Miocene and the
Pliocene periods, new eruptions occurred causing a great accumulation of volcanic layers.
Tangential thrusts, particularly in the Pliocene period, produced the Quichano folding and lifted
the range up to the altitude which it has today. During this period and the Pleistocene period,
volcanic activity begins again and forms, among other outstanding mountains in the south of the
country, the Coropuna and the Ampato.
The eroding effect of the water which descends from the glaciers and from the different
glaciations which occurred in the heights of the range millions of years ago, has laid bare the
enormous upheavals in the geological formation. The fluvial lake terraces located above the present
river bed on which the terraces are, are a clear indication of the above.
That is, the break in the base level due to sudden (in geological time, naturally) and sharp
upheaval of the Andes, caused the narrowness of the river and molded the terraces which stretch all
along both sides of the valley. The deep vertical cut in the crust, the canyon, is, then, a
geomorphological occurrence, a product of erosion.
The Colca river bed is at 1,300 metres altitude, and the average height of the volcanic peaks is of
over six thousand metres. There is then, a real difference of about five thousand metres: the Colca
Canyon is, without a doubt, one of the deepest in the world.
RIVER EROSION
Like the other rivers located in the north and south, the Colca's winding route cuts through three
well defined geomorphological layers: the western slopes of the Andes mountain range, scattered
with formidable volcanoes; the arid plains of the constantly wind-blown deserts; and the low ridges of
the coastal range, a projection of the Paracas peninsula.
The Colca river descends from 4,500 metres to sea level. The violent erosive activity which it
leaves on its way is the result of the accentuated unevenness in the land on most of its
approximately 450 kilometre journey.
From its origins on the high plateau right to its mouth, under the names of Majes and Camana
successively, rocky strata can be seen along its banks. The most ancient rest at the bottom and the
most recent at the top at ground level; except where the Tectonic compression, the crushing of the
crust structure, has caused such an upheaval that it has inverted the sequence. But this does not
occur in the Colca region.
In the stratigraphic sequence that the Majes river reveals, however, some strata have been
deposited or the million year erosion factor has purged them. In the area which corresponds to the
Paleozoic Period, the Cambrian, Silurian, Carboniferous and Permian periods are missing; and in the
area that corresponds to the Mesozoic Period, the Triassic period is missing. However, all the
Cenozoic periods are registered, from the Eocene to the Pliocene periods; and the Neozoic Period is
also present.
This cut in the coastal mountain range which the Majes river pierces, is also a deep 40 km
canyon (all the rivers which descend from the Andes to the Pacific Ocean and towards the Amazon
Basin have the characteristics of the Canyon). Rocks from the basal complex of the Coast, from the
pre-Cambrian period, can be seen there; examples of the primitive crystalline base of the crust. Thin,
calcareous and sandy strata cover the outcrop; and on it lies a unique surface of Tertiary period
erosion with the sediments of the Camana formation. Along both banks, subvertical strata can be
seen covered by Tertiary period deposits.
Up river, in the high plateau area, the volcanic layers cover all the underlying formations,
particularly basalt and andesite. The aborigenes used these blocks which had fallen from the heights
for the impressive petroglyphs at Toro Muerto.
On the rough escarpments of the Colca canyon, sandstone, slate, quartzites and oil shale can be
seen, formed in the Jurassic Period. And it is all covered by volcanic layers which end in the
Coropuna and the Ampato. The stratigraphic sequence which appears in the former is very vast: it
repeats the succession studied in the area surrounding Arequipa and on the basis of which all the
outcrops in the south of the country have been determined. The above sequence includes nearly all
of the Jurassic Period (Yura formation) and the Cretaceous Period (Aucurquina limestone).
Evidence of how the Orogenic impulses carried ancient sedimentary formations to great heights,
can also be found between the Colca and Callalli. There, at 4,600 metres above sea level, the
quartzites can be seen in the Yura formations and the Aucurquina limestone from the Jurassic and
Creatceous Periods. Such is the intimate and exciting panorama which the endless erosion of the
Colca river is determined to show us.
THE HISTORICAL PROCES
. THE FIRST GUANACO HUNTING AND GATHERING INHABITANTS
In the Colca Valley, in 10,000 BC, geographical conditions were more or less the same as they are
today. During this period, which is also called "pre-ceramic", groups of hunters and gatherers were
settling in the highlands and on the coast. Seed, fruit and bird egg gathering was selective. The
same happened with guanaco and bird hunting. This method of avoiding the collapse of different
species encouraged early settling in the Andes. Although the inhabitants did not know ceramics, they
made arrow heads from stone. The Sumbay cave painting are a good example of life as it was then.
This cave was inhabited between 5,800 BC and 3,000 AD. On the walls, the hunters had painted
animals such as camelidae, pumas, foxes and other extinct animals running away. One ancient
group of arrow heads were made of black volcanic rock. Another later group made arrow heads of
obsidian. There are also disc shaped knives, scrapers and burins for sewing.
2. AGRICULTURE AND LIVESTOCK
A similar revolution to the Neolithic one in Europe, began in the Andes as from 3,000 BC. In the
Colca valley where the climate is arid, irrigation agriculture became the main factor of the society's
transformation. The place where this change is clearly noted is the Mollepunco cave. This cave
shows camelidae and the domestication of these animals over many years. Later, sculptured
pictures in the cave show camelidaes with ropes around their necks as well as corrals. Studies have
shown that the llama was the result of the domestication of the guanaco and the alpaca was the
result of the domestication of the vicua.
3. ARCHAEOLOGICAL SITES
Sumbay
Mollepunco
Pumunuta
Yanque Viejo
Uyo Uyo
Uska Llacta
Inca Houses
Yanque
Lari
Cabanaconde
USKA LLACTA
This is a prehispanic village with a cemetery and a colonial mill. It shows different eras including
the Inca and colonial ones. The most important sector shows rectangular dwellings made of stone.
They have a very narrow central door. Nearly all had two floors.
There is evidence of the fires that were caused by the Spanish captain, Lope de Suazo, who
burned these buildings in about 1570 to force the Collagua indians to move to the Spanish Chivay.
The indians farmed the terraces. There are stone tombs and a colonial mill. There is evidence of
Inca and Chucuito ceramics as well as earlier examples. This site has a magnificent view of the
valley as well as the opportunity to observe the colourful costumes of the inhabitants. In fact, it is an
impressive experience to watch the ancient customs during the harvest or when seed is being sown
in Uska Llacta. Despite all of these attributes, Uska Llacta is not well known to tourists and is not well
advertised.
ACHACHUA
This is a walled, prehispanic village with public areas and cemeteries. It is strategically located by
the canyon at 1,200 m above the river, offering magestic views. Condors can also be seen. The
majority of the dwellings are still buried. This is the best place to explain the urban process in the
valley and its links with the Ayacucho capital , Wari, during the era. It was very defensive and
controlled agricultural production which at present is corn.
This site is not visited often by tourists, nor is it well advertised.
INCA HOUSE IN CABANACONDE
These houses were occupied by the Incas in Cabanconde for administration purposes. The houses
are rectangular with one door facing East. They are built in Cuzco style. Previously the village was
occupied by the Cabana ethnic group. The town is at present inhabited and although the buldings
are known and admired, they are not well cared for or visited much by tourists.
INCA HOUSE IN YANQUE
These are houses from the time of the Inca occupation of Yanque for the Cuzco administration of
this area of the valley. The Spaniards also arrived there. They are two storey, rectangular houses
with one door. The architecture is in Cuzco style and ceramic was also found there. The site was
previously inhabited by the Collagua ethnic group.
UYO UYO or YANQUE VIEJO (Ichupampa)
This is a prehispanic village. There are terraces and channels surrounding it. The rectangular
dwellings are made from stone and have one central door. Nearly all of them have two floors. The
village is divided into two sectors by a channel. This place shows clearly the organization of a rural
Inca village.
This village had a local population of farming Collagua Yanque inhabitants. The Spaniards found
the Collagua indians living in this village and they forced them to move to the present town of
Yanque. There is a myth about this event.
The place has a spectacular view of the terraces and landscape. The colourful costumes of the
local farmers are attractive. Despite its easy access from the road and from Ichupampa this site is
not visited regularly by tourists. It is not well advertised either.
SAN ANTONIO - CHURA (Coporaque)
This is a prehispanic village with cemeteries and terraces as well as abandoned wells and
channels. It lies at the foot of the Pumachiri hill. There are various sectors which correspond to
different eras. The dwellings are rectangular and made of stone with one tall, narrow door. Nearly all
of these houses had two floors. These houses were also burned by Captain Lope de Suazo as he
forced the Collagua indians to move to Coporaque. There is a rectangular chapel which stands on
the top of the San Antonio hill. It is a solitary, rectangular structure.
Despite its spectacular landscape and its archaeological significance, the site is not visited
regularly by tourists and information about it is not readily available.
CHININEA (Yanque)
These are tombs built into the side of the canyon, known also as hanging tombs. They are
individual and group tombs built in stone and mud in caves dug into the wall of the canyon, following
ancient traditions. They have small doors. The tombs were looted by the Spaniards. They can only
be reached using ropes.
They are directly related to the San Antonio - Chijra complex inhabited by Collagua indians.
Despite its archaeological importance and magnificent view, the site is not regularly visited by
tourists. It is easily accessible by means of a 20 minute walk to visit Coporaque, San Antonio,
Chininia and Yanque. More information should be made available.
AGRICULTURE IN THE COLCA VALLEY
The first types of agriculture in the area were irrigated by flooding and later systems of irrigation
extended to the highlands. There is no record of when agriculture began in the Colca valley however,
research shows that the first fields were on the high slopes of the valley near the glacial water
sources.

These are typical characteristics of the Colca valley. It is difficult to determine the age of the
terraces as research shows the existence of different periods of farming and occupation. Terraces
(Andenes) are generally modified and so soil is mixed and provides confusing results for analysis.
Terraces and their functions
1. The terrace provides soil on non farmable land or retains soil which can be eroded.
2. Erosion control.
3. Microclimate control: the terraces can create favourable microclimates for crops, protecting them
against freezing temperatures, wind and sun.
4. Humidity control: the terraces retain humidity and enable irrigation to be uniform.
Types of agriculture
Land is classified by its access to irrigation sources. Some fields which have access to water are
not being farmed. Some fields which are irrigated have terraces and others do not. These latter fields
are slightly sloping. Some terraces are not called this by the inhabitants if they are on topographically
named plains. Farmers maintain that sloping fields can be irrigated if the water is carefully managed.
Vegetable Gardens
These gardens are irrigated by means of a system of channels which flow through the streets.
Gardens usually produce vegetables such as lettuce, carrots, onion and garlic. Some families grow
flowers or eucalyptus trees.
Irrigation
The inhabitants have a saying which says that to irrigate is to teach the water. They must force the
water to flow in the appropriate directions and at the right speed. The inhabitants are concerned
about saving water. They tend to value land according to its access to water sources.
Irrigation in the valley has three purposes:
1. To bring forward the growth period for the crops to September, before the rains start;
2. To enable crops to ripen before the cold sets in April and May.
3. To rescue crops if the rains do not come after sowing.
The Majes Project developed during the eighties consisted of the use of the Colca and Siguas
rivers to facilitate irrigation for 12,000 hectares of the coast on the Pampa de Majes. This modern
system has also regulated and improved the water sources for the left hand side of the Colca valley.
The right hand side uses the Colca river and its streams.
Terrace Rehabilitation
The terraces in the Colca valley have slowly been deteriorating and there are fewer and fewer
areas for farming. Therefore, annual improvement and rehabilitation are necessary. The process is
as follows: the deteriorated terraces are selected; work teams are organized and then cleaning,
digging and repairs are carried out.
Farming
The Colca has very limited mechanized farming due to the following facts:
Uneven topography
Low profitability
Lack of means of communication and transport between the production and commercialization points
Yield limited due to climate
Agricultural machinery is needed less as there is sufficient manual labour
Little diffusion of information about improved technology
Traditional farming tools used
The Chakitaqlla is a foot plough
The spade
The threshing stick
Plough pulled by oxen
Division of the Colca land
At present there is a significant extension of more than 3000 hectares of abandoned terraces. A
great investment is needed to repair them. Although the increase in population has not been great,
there has been an increase in small farms.
Seeds
32 varieties of corn seed, 12 of broad beans and up to 54 varieties of quinua seeds have been
recorded.
Farming system in the Colca Valley
1. Monoculture
This consists of farming one crop such as
Corn in fertile areas not affected by cold and with good water retention
Barley in areas exposed to cold
Broad beans in flat areas not affected by cold
Alfalfa in flat areas and terraces with good water retention.
2. Mixed Farming
This system particularly applies to sectors with some climatic, water or fertility limitations.
Corn / Borad beans on terraces with lack of water
Corn / Peas on terraces not affected by cold and with good water retention
Broad beans / Quinua in flat areas and terraces which have low fertility and are exposed to cold
Corn / Potato in cold areas with abundant water and high fertility
Broad beans / Potato in cold, fertile areas with abundant water areas
Corn /Quinua /broad beans in terraces with little water and soil fertility problems.
3. Crop rotation
Crop rotation is based on programming different crops which diversifies the crop production and
improves weed control, improving too the farmers economic possibilities for commerce. The
advantages are as follows:
Pest control
Rational soil exploitation
The need for large quantities of supplies is reduced
Weed control
Two or more harvests a year.
4. Ploughing
The advantages of this are:
Weeds rot
The earth softens, breathes and rests
Worms are eliminated
The soil absorbs the sun's rays
The soil is looser
Pests and plagues are avoided
Fruit growing
The main fruit production is apples, pears, peaches, quinces, figs, pacaes, lucumas, custard
apples, guavas, citrus fruit and avocado pears. The fruit production is low and the orchards are old
and not maintained adequately.
Main Crops
POTATO (Solanum tuberosum)
According to records potatoes have been identified as having existed for 9000 years on the
Andean coast. The Spaniards discovered the potato on arrival in Peru and by 1573 it was being used
in Seville, Spain. Soon the plant was taken illegally into France and most European countries. There
are over 3000 varieties.
CORN (Zea mays)
Some consider corn to be originally Mexican. It was found in Cuba by Columbus' men and it was
soon taken to Spain and by 1525 had spread over all the peninsula. By the XVIII century it was
accepted as food for human consumption. There are approximately 10 local varieties in the Colca.
QUINUA
Quinua was the basic staple diet of the prehispanic peoples. According to research it originates in
Lake Titicaca. It is not easy to cultivate it out of the Andes as it depends on a great deal of sun.
Other crops in the Colca
Caihua (grain)
Kiwicha (grain)
Trawl (Grain)
Olluco (tuber)
Oca (tuber)
Au, Isau (tuber)
Achira - Maca (tuber)
Arracacha (tuber)
Yacon (tuber)
The Colca agriculture and its place in the regional and national economy. The local
market depends on supply and demand and manual labour is also offered.
This latter involves a temporary migration. Participation in the financial market is limited as this is
restricted by credits from financial entities.
1. Farmers who are integrated into the market. They keep part of their produce for their own
consumption and the rest is commericalized.
2. Farmers with little participation in the market. This category includes farmers who give priority to
subsistence farming and reciprocity.
3. Farmers with two types of different produce. These are the fruit farmers who produce fruit for their
own consumption and for exchange and cochineal for the local market.
Often other activities or the offer of their own manual labour must be carried out for subsistence. All
members of the family participate in the production and economy of the home.
Role of the women in the Colca farming
The women participate actively in farming such as preparing the land, selecting the seed and
sowing, fertilizing the soil and weeding.
The men drive the plough, level the ground, control pests and irrigate.
All the family participates in the harvest. The women also run the home and are responsible for the
domestic activities, the garden, the children, etc.
ANDEAN RESTORING IN THE CALLUMAYO: LARI MICRO BASIN
PRESENTATION
According to the inventory carried out by the National Office for Natural Resources in 1988, the
Colca Valley holds a total of 10,220 hectares of terraces. Some of these are abandoned and
deteriorated, others are partly maintained and 4,760 hectares are in good use. The conservation and
maintenance of these terraces are important for the area. Without terraces this land could not be
farmed. The inhabitants who should carry out this maintenance and these repairs, require training in
the techniques for repairing and maintaining this important productive resource which is also a great
tourist attraction.

I. TERRACES AND THEIR IMPORTANCE
The terraces or "pata patas" are man made modifications on the slopes of hills which form steps or
horizontal platforms sustained by carefully built stone walls in order to keep the earth firm and so be
able to cultivate crops in adverse topographical and climatic conditions.
IMPORTANCE OF THE TERRACES
The following are the many advantages of the terraces:
1. They keep the earth firm on the sloping hills avoiding the erosion of farming land by water.
2. They take greater advantage of the irrigation and rain water.
3. They make the most of fertilizers and maintain their natural fertility better.
4. The terraces facilitate farming on slopes for the inhabitants, making it easier for ploughing and
other activities.
5. They create an appropriate climate for crops, reducing the effect of frost due to the fact that they
maintain the heat of the sun during the day.
6. The wind on terraces does not cool or dry the soil as much and so reduces the effect of the cold
winds.
7. The terraces as a whole generate a diversity of microclimates which enable the inhabitants to
cultivate a variety of crops.
II. PARTS OF A TERRACE AND HOW IT WORKS
The terraces are not simple structures but rather a complex system.
1. WALL OR "ANCHACA"
The wall of the terrace is a retaining wall made of stones of different sizes placed precisely one on
top of the other.
This provides stability. The wall follows the curve of the contour and slopes slightly inwards.
The height of the wall depends on the width of the terrace and the slope. To fill in the terrace, small
stones are used behind the wall to give it greater stability and drainage.
2. TERRACE
This is the platform where the crops grow. Some of these are based on the side of the hill itself and
others are more man made. The man made terraces use stone for drainage, then sand and clayey
soil as well as fertile earth.
3. IRRIGATION DITCHES
These structures are used for watering the terraces. The terraces use four types of irrigation
ditches for different functions.
Ditches at the head of the terrace or "Orccoyas" control and take the water to each terrace. They are
made of stone and earth.
Sloping ditches flow down the centre of the group of terraces and are made of stone. They have
channels which branch off to each terrace.
Falls or "Pakchas" and "K'alchas" transfer the water from a higher terrace to another interior one.
When the water fall is steep, it is called a "Pakcha" and when the fall is subdued by a channel, it is
called a "K'alcha".
Drains or "Wikchuras" are ditches which are at the end of a group of terraces to evacuate the water
to a main ditch.
4. PATHS OR ACCESS
These structures enable the farmers to reach the terraces with ease:
"Zarupas", "Charq'eas" or "patiqllos" are steps made of stone set in the wall.
"Pucaras" is a stairway which sticks out and is parallel to the wall. It is made of stone which has been
carefully tied to the wall and the terrace.
"Hatun Pukaras" is a side stairway which joins several terraces at one side and it lies parallel to the
irrigation ditches.
III. REPAIRING OF THE DETERIORATED WALLS
When a wall falls, it must be rebuilt immediately.

IV. CONSTRUCTION OF NEW TERRACES
1. EVALUATION OF THE TYPE OF SOIL
It is important to design the type of terrace which is to be built according to the depth of the soil, the
slope and the shape and size of the land.
2. CALCULATION OF THE SIZE AND DESIGN OF THE TERRACES
According to the depth of the soil and the slope, the calculations can be made for the height of the
wall and the width of the terrace.
3. PROCEDURE FOR BUILDING
Mark the lines according to the contour line of the hill.
Smooth the curves so that the terraces do not have sharp bends.
Dig the foundation at a reasonable depth.
Start building the foundation with stone.
Continue the wall using stone.
As the wall is built, the filling should be added and compressed.
4. OPERATION FOR FILLING THE TERRACE
The terrace is a flat platform. It is advisable to work in small spaces or stretches of land at a time.
5. BUILDING OF THE SECOND TERRACE.
The same method is used for the next terrace except that this time the building starts at the
opposite end.
6. BUILDING OF COMPLEMENTARY STRUCTURES
During the building process, the stairs and irrigation ditches will also be built.
7. FINISHING AND CHECKING THE TERRACE
An edge is built along the wall to avoid water escaping during irrigation and the terrace is levelled
off to give a flat terrace. The A-Frame can be used to measure and check the level.
TERRACES MUST BE BUILT FROM ABOVE, MOVING DOWN. NEVER BUILD USING DRY
EARTH.
V. TERRACE MAINTENANCE
1. Irrigation must be controlled
2. Vegetation must be constantly cleared from the walls.
3. The walls must be checked regularly.
4. The pathways must be repaired.
5. Ploughing must not be done parallel to the wall.
6. The yoke must be used carefully.
7. Use natural compost to improve the quality of the soil.
8. Avoid loose animal grazing.
9. Never plant trees near the edge of the terrace.
THE A-FRAME
This is a simple instrument used for contour lines. It is made of 3 thin poles, some string and a
stone. The poles are tied in the shape of an "A" and the string with the stone on the end is hung from
the top.

MANTEINENCE AND OPERATION OF IRRIGATION INFRAESTRUCTURE
INTRODUCTION
The Colca Valley agriculture is peculiar for its low irrigation technique. Among the main
problems of this area are the handling of water and the irrigation system deterioration
due to lack of maintenance.
On the last few years, private and government institutions have done works of irrigation
systems at a high cost; if maintenance work is not periodically done on these systems
they will not last as long as they are expected to do.
The rustic (stone, earth and others) and permanent (concrete) irrigation system
maintenance must be programmed as an extra activity of the farm work (canal, floodgate
and sand-clearer cleaning); This way the construction life-span is secured and greater
availability of water, which is scarce here, is also guaranteed. This work is also intended
for those farmers who use the irrigation system facilities and water administrators as well
as for the authorities that are directly involved in the control and supply of water. The
irrigation system maintenance works are directed to the Comisiones de Regantes
(Irrigators Commissions) but the people who actually use each canal are the ones who
will be interested in securing the proper use of water on their farms.
DESCO - Centre for the Research and Promotion of Development
APACOLCA - Association of Farmers in the Colca Vallet
Project: Seed Production and Resource Management in Ichupampa
Colca Valley Rural Programme
Team Work Lower Area
DESCO Garcilazo de la Vega 210, Chivay, caylloma, Arequipa Domingo Gamio 112,
Umacollo, Arequipa.

PARTS OF THE IRRIGATION SYSTEM
1. OUTLET
This is the hydraulic structure which collects the water and takes it to the channel.
1.1 PARTS
Wall - for channeling the water
Barrier - to divert the water
Entrance for the water to enter the channel
Well for sand and stone removal
Scouring sluice for removal of material accumulated in the well
Overflow channel
Flood gate to regulate the water flow.
1.2 MAINTENANCE
Stones deteriorate the infrastructure and therefore it requires repair using cement,
stones or other materials.
The main problem with the floodgates is corrosion.
2. MAIN CHANNELS
These are the most important in the irrigation system.
2.1 WHY DO THEY DETERIORATE?
The reasons for deterioration are as follows: Heavy rain, animals, lack of flow control,
plants.
2.2 MAINTENANCE
Channels must be cleaned at least twice a year by the community.
a. Slightly sloping earth channels.
When these are cleaned, digging must not be too deep. The interior sloping walls must
be cleaned inwards. When a channel has been affected by landslides or too much
filtration, compressing can be carried out to repair, using the following:
Clay
Stones
Soil compacting
To compress adequately:
Measure the original channel (width of base and height of walls, as well as slope.)
Excavate to form a new channel.
Excavate for the walls.
Add the clay to the ditches and compress it in 10 cm layers.
Check the quality of the compression, using a pick.
Add rocks to slopes and floor to avoid erosion.

b. Concrete channels
The main problem with the concrete channels is fissures and cracks. In order to
maintain these, they must be repaired with cement and sand. Trees must be planted to
control landslides. Infiltration ditches can control the run-off.
3. THE RESERVOIR
The water that enters the reservoir drags the earth that accumulates causing a
diminished capacity for storing water; obstruction and corrosion of earth walls.
MAINTENANCE
Withdraw the earth deposits in the desilter and the reservoir. If the walls are made of
earth, always maintain the slope and use rocks. Grease and paint the valve of the flood
gate. Repair the fissures and cracks in the walls. Protect the walls and surroundings of the
reservoir with trees and bushes.
4. OTHERS
4.1 FLOW MEASURE
It is of great importance to regulate the quantity of water that the crops and land
require. In order to measure accurately, the channels must be cleaned frequently.
4.2 LATERAL CHANNELS
These are located in the high parts of each irrigation sector all along the main channel.
The flood gate must always be made of wood or metal.
4.3 AQUEDUCT
Used for crossing a road or stream.
4.4 CHUTE
These are used for water from streams in the rainy season to flow over the channel
without damaging it.
4.5 DRAINS
These must be built in places where channels cross roads. They must be maintained to
avoid blockages.
4.6 FALLS
These are located in places where the land is very uneven. The water must fall vertically
into a well. This avoids erosion.
4.7 RAPIDS
These are structures which enable the water to pass over very uneven and steep land. A
well for calming the water torrent is necessary. It must be kept clean.
4.8 WATERFALL STEPS
These are used for taking the water over very steep and uneven ground.
4.9 IRRIGATION CONTROL STRUCTURES
These are lateral turnouts which divert the water to a natural stream for maintenance
purposes.
4.10 WATERING PLACE
These must be located in places where animals pass. Frequent maintenance is
necessary.
ARQUITECTURE AND URBANISIM IN THE COLCA VALLEY
INTRODUCTION
This article is a description of architectural and urban development in the Colca Valley. It also
introduces the reader to an understanding of the architecture and urban development in the valley as
an answer to the social, cultural, historical and physical factors of Collagua life.

ARCHITECTURE
Evolution of urban and architectural structures throughout history
Pre-hispanic period
The villages were spread along the Colca valley forming "Ayllus", divided into two parts: Hanan
Saya and Hurin Saya.
The dwellings were organically organised around a central space. Religious symbols were
represented by elements of nature (hills, snow capped mountains). The Incas imposed a political
organization represented by the "curaca" (chief) in each Ayllu.
Colonial period
The indian population was forced to live in new urban groups in order to collect taxes and have
manual labour easily accessible.
The streets were formed by blocks, around a central square, with a church and the town council.
A new type of rectangular dwelling was imposed, with the door facing onto the street. The villages
were still divided into two areas, socially and by location. The "Curacas" no longer had supreme
authority but shared it with the new mayors.
Republican period
The Independence did not constitute a social revolution. Colonial architecture did not change.
However, a new concept of dwelling arose. The house looked inwards onto an interior patio.
The new State political system named the Colca villages as districts.
The 60's, 70's and 80' of the XX century
The Agricultural Reform brought about a substantial change in the ownership of the land in Peru.
Many large estate owners disappeared and made way for small farmers.
Many new buildings appeared such as schools, markets and medical centres. New materials such
as cement, corrugated iron and iron were used.
Commerce and consumption of consumer goods increased due to the arrival of the MACON
Irrigation Project and shops began to appear. Shops were an integral part of a house.
The villages are still organised into groups according to location. This facilitates community
participation for public works.
The present type of building
The buildings today are all organised around an interior patio. However, some houses are used for
shops, others include animals pens. Houses can also be of different shapes.
The dwellings - spatial distribution
Some areas are covered, such as the kitchen, the entrance, the bedroom, store room. Others are
open, such as the patio, pens and gardens. Some houses are very simple with the basic patio,
kitchen, one all-purpose room and the animal yard. Others have more rooms.
The kitchen is used only for the purpose of cooking. It is small, dark and for the family.
The owner participates actively in building the house, choosing the materials and design and in
giving the house a name and status. Religious elements are always present in the house (candles,
niches, etc.). The family, neighbours and some builders all help to build the house.
Social and Cultural Aspects
The dwellings are divided into common and more open areas where celebrations and get-
togethers can take place, and more intimate areas which are only for the family members, such as
the kitchen, bedroom and store room.
Once the roof is finished, there is a ritual celebration which involves giving the house a name and
spirit.
Social and community gatherings take place in the patio, the streets and the square. The calendar
of these celebrations is based on the agricultural calendar.
Bull fighting is also a popular community celebration. If there is no bull-ring, it is carried out on any
convenient open space.
Within community life there are three important moments when people get together: when the roof
of a house is finished, a marriage and a funeral.
Building Materials
Traditional materials
Earth - The sand and clay proportions in the soil are ideal for building. The earth is also thermal. It
is used in the foundation and as bricks.
Adobe - This is a brick made of mud mixed with straw and ichu. It is thermal and mainly used for
walls. To make adobes the mud is prepared first with the appropriate addition of straw. Then it is
placed into moulds and dried in the sun.
Stone - This is used for various different parts of the house. It is easily acquired in the rivers or
nearby and transported by truck or donkey and cart.
Wood - This is mainly used for roofs or doors and windows.
Straw - This is a material which has been used for hundred of years. It is mainly used for thatched
roofs and also to mix for adobes. The most common are straw made from ichu and also straw made
from barley. Straw does need appropriate maintenance.
Industrial materials
The most common industrial and non- traditional material is corrugated iron. It is being used more
and more to replace straw for roofs. Acoustically and thermally speaking, it is not appropriate.
RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE
Colca Churches
Churches were built in the Colca in order to present a symbol of Christianity within the indian
villages. The Collaguas built and decorated these large, impressive churches and were well known
for their artistic abilities.
Most of the Colca churches are surrounded by vestibules or esplanades. Luis Enrique Tord states
that most of the churches were built between the last third of the XVII century and the beginning of
the XIX century.
Nearly all the churches are in the shape of a Latin cross, have a large nave, access to the tower
from inside and chapels. Nearly all the churches have two square bell towers. They also have open
chapels which were for celebrating mass with the indians in the open air.
IMMACULATE CONCEPTION CHURCH IN YANQUE
Construction
The old church was built by the Franciscans towards the end of the XVI century, but fell down in
1690. Indians, in groups, organised by the Spaniards, worked on the building with the traditional
rituals and celebrations. Unfortunately the church went on fire in 1802 and many valuable objects
were destroyed. What was left was used, along with donations and community efforts, to repair the
church. Several different types of craftsmen worked on the church, such as painters, sculptors,
carpenters, brick-makers and tile-makers as well as stone masons and builders.
Church
This church has a typical architecture of the time with a long main nave, the shape of a cross and
two towers. The two extraordinary facades of this church are beautifully decorated with relief. There
is a deteriorated image of the Virgin Mary. The decoration includes flowers, fruit and leaves. Saints
are also depicted there along with the figure of a Bishop on horse back with a sceptre in his hand. He
was Bishop Antonio de Leon (1700 and 1702).
This facade is unique in the region but has similar characteristics to some in Cajamarca, Central
America and Mexico.
The facade facing the square is different and shares Renaissance and Baroque designs, which is
difficult to explain. There are monograms of Christ and Mary as well as the Franciscan arms. Other
decorative elements include lions, eagles, dragons and vegetables.
Cobbled stones
The entrance has coloured cobbled stone, which presents various decorative designs. The outlines
are mainly in brown and white. The following designs can be seen: a rhombus, two circles and the
sun with eleven rays including two eyes, nose and lips. There are other circles and a half moon on a
rectangle.
THE PURISIMA CONCEPCION CHURCH IN LARI
Building
This is one of the most spectacular churches in the Colca Valley and the only one which completed
the full design of the Latin cross and a dome.
The church was built during the second half of the XVIII century by the Priest Juan Bautista Ramos
who started it in 1758. The church was 83 metres long and 11 metres wide. The dome was made by
the Priest Luis Lazo de la Vega. Despite the grandeur of this church, the village had less than 1000
inhabitants. The Priests and Church would donate large sums of money for these constructions and
the inhabitants would provide the manual labour. Repairs were made later to the church in the XIX
century, due to an earthquake, a fire and also faults in construction. Certain parts of the church were
built in strict imitation of the large churches in Arequipa. Later a cemetery was also built.
The church
It is a strong, powerful church, but the towers seem somehow out of place with the main body of
the grand church. This type of construction may have been carried out due to the fear of
earthquakes.
It is built in the shape of the Latin cross with a main nave and a dome. There are two bell towers,
topped by small pinnacles. There are many similarities between this church and churches in
Arequipa, such as the San Francisco church. Decorations on the facade include white, green and
red images on a yellow background. The main altar has impressive carved stone and the pulpit and
easel paintings include indian images.
The church is separated from the square by a double entrance area, divided by stone pathways.
These serve as separations between the profane universe (the village and the square) and the
sacred universe (the church).
The impressive Lari church once again indicates the historical distinction of Lari as being high-
ranking within the Collagua culture.
INTRODUCTION
This article describes the architecture in the Colca valley and in particular in the Province of
Caylloma.
This is an agricultural region which is well known for its spectacular terraces, its Barroque churches
and tourist attractions. The Colonial aspects of its villages and architecture, are obvious.
Yanque was the capital of the Collaguas province; Lari was equally important for the Colonial
authorities and Coporaque was the first village to be evangelized by the Franciscans. These three
villages were typical of indian villages converted to christianity and re-organized by the Spaniards.
The article is divided into two parts. The first part analyses the use of space in the village and the
second part focuses on architectural details.
1. TERRITORIAL PLACEMENT AND SPATIAL FORMATION
1.1 Location characteristics
Yanque, Lari and Coporaque are located within the agricultural sector of the Colca valley between
3,200 metres above sea level and 3,800 metres above sea level. Yanque and Lari are built on similar
flat ground whereas Coporaque is built on a slope with water running through the middle which
breaks the tradition of the typical square village.
Yanque occupies a central place which facilitated political and administrative control. Its
agricultural land is on both sides of the river. Lari and Coporaque have their fields surrounding them.
Most of the inhabitants of these villages are farmers and their lives are linked to the land and not to
urban living.
1.2 Physical and spatial organization
1.2.1 Yanque
Yanque is a very regular village, in the shape of a grid. This was a characteristic of the indian
villages established by the Spaniards. There is a square in the middle. There are two main roads
which cross at the square, one runs from East to West (Camino Real) and the other from North to
South (Avenida Fray Martin de Porres). The cemetery is in the South. The village ends abruptly on
the east where the fields start. This was another Spanish characteristic. Whereas in the North, the
village ends far less precisely with a mix of rural and urban characteristics.The village is divided into
blocks.
1.2.2 Lari
Lari is divided into two different areas: the "new town" which is compact and square, to the North of
the church; and the "old town", to the South, which has semi-regular rectangular and trapezoidal
blocks. There are buildings which are seemingly pre-Colonial such as one called the "Chief's house".
The church is the largest in the valley and the land surrounding it is vast. The limits of the village
are difficult to define as the houses have been abandoned and are in ruins.
1.2.3 Coporaque
Coporaque has a semi-regular shape with square, rectangular and trapezoidal blocks. The
Chillintira river runs through the middle of the village from North to South. This does not however
deform the grid shape of the village around the square and church.
The blocks around the edges of the village are mainly uninhabited.
1.3 Public space and architectural expression
The architectural structures show a desire to structure a new society on the basis of European
models. The symbolic value of the church was obvious as it was placed in the centre of the village
and was large and of different colours to the other dwellings. The portico or area in front of the
church symbolized the transition between the sacred and the profane.
The square was fundamental and used for traditional feasts, dances and processions. It was also
used for markets or transport.
1.4 Churches and convents
The churches in the Colca have been studied for their religious architecture. They are generally in
the shape of a Latin cross with one main, high nave. They usually have two square towers with bells.
They are built out of ashlar which is white, but black stone was also used in the case of Lari and
Coporaque. The Coporaque church, which apparently dates back to the XVI or XVII century, has had
its old straw roof replaced by metal roof. Later churches, such as Lari and Yanque, have the typical
domed roofs of stone and brick. The old convent in Yanque is still in use and is in good condition. It
is South of the church. Some fruit trees are grown in the patio and there is a well there.
1.5 The squares
1.5.1 Yanque
The main square in Yanque occupies four blocks of land. It is rectangular with the church in the
South and other buildings to the North. In the 1930's eucalyptus trees were sown there from East to
West. Later other modifications have been made which are alien to the local reality. These variations
have neither added to the square's beauty nor to its usefulness as an open space for public
gatherings.
1.5.2 Lari
The main square in Lari occupies nine blocks of the "new town" and has a trapezoidal shape. The
church, municipal stadium and other buildings are to the North, and other houses and shops
surround the rest of the square. Some buildings and modifications have been built which inhibit the
use of the square and affect the dominance of the church over the square.
1.5.3 Coporaque
Coporaque main square occupies around 10,000 m2 and is trapezoidal. The church is at the top of
24 steps. The bull ring is also in the main square area. Fortunately the archways of stone and tiles,
which provide access to the square, are still standing.
1.6 The Streets
The streets are approximately 4.80 to 6.80 metres wide. The use of cobbled stone to pave roads
and/or pavements , has died out. Ditches with water for washing, animals and gardens, run along the
middle or sides of the streets, some still in their stone channels.
1.7 Cemeteries
The cemeteries in the Colca valley are usually surrounded by a wall, with a doorway and a chapel.
In the three villages we have studied, the cemetery is separated by about 200m to 250m from the
inhabited area.
The Yanque and Lari cemeteries are surrounded by mud brick walls the tomb stones face the
entrance. Some cemeteries have tables and places where inhabitants drink after the funeral.
1.8 The bridges
The Yanque bridge, known as the Puente Cervantes, is a stone structure in the shape of a
triumphal arch built at the end of the Colonial period. The bridle paths leading to it mean that cars
cannot cross it but it is well used by inhabitants.
1.9 Bull ring
Bull fights are traditional in the Andean villages and are carried out on religious and village feast
days. Yanque celebrates these on the 1st of May (Virgen de Chapi), 13th June (San Antonio) and
16th July (Virgen del Carmen). The bull ring is circular and surrounded by a mud brick wall. The
Coporaque bull ring is very large compared to the Yanque one.
1.10 Public pools
Several public pools are used by inhabitants for washing and swimming. There are some built in
Yanque. Coporaque has some spring baths which are used as public swimming baths.
1.11 Stadiums
The stadiums are built using standard football field dimensions and a free space for the public.
1.12 Public services infrastructure
The inhabitants of rural villages see their basic needs as different to those of the people
accustomed to the services offered by urban areas. The water used for domestic purposes comes
from the thaw. Most houses have a tap and sink in an outside patio this water must be boiled for
drinking. There are no drainage systems. The inhabitants use the fields or animals pens for their
needs.
Inhabitants get most of their food from their own crops. Meat is obtained through exchange with
shepherds.
Many of the villages have a diesel operated generator for supplying electricity to the main streets
and square.
Nearly all the rubbish is organic so it is rapidly devoured by pigs. Other rubbish is burned. There is
a medical centre in each village but inhabitants often use medicinal herbs as these centres often lack
supplies. There is also usually a Primary school but there is a lack of text books. There is a
secondary school in Chivay and an agricultural institute in Yanque. There is a daily bus and there are
occasional trucks and cars which are also used for public transport.
2. DOMESTIC ARCHITECTURE IN THE COLCA VALLEY
2.1 Housing
Architecture depends on the conditions of the environment and the requirements of the village.
Ancient buildings and new ones form a strange mix in these villages.
The whole family and neighbours and friends participate in the building process. All the stages of
the process are accompanied by rituals and celebrations which end in a large party for everyone.
In the Colca, the dwellings represent an extension of the farmer's activities which take up most of
his day. Therefore all the houses have areas for livestock and crops (vegetable gardens).
The size and number of rooms depend on the owner's economic situation and how many people
live there.
The space distribution within the house is based on traditional Andean architecture. There is
flexibility in the use of the rooms and they are built around a patio. The shape also depends on the
winds and practicality.
The general trend is to have a large room which is used for several purposes (livi ng room, dining
room, bedroom and sometimes store room). Only members of the family or close friends or
neighbours are allowed in here. Many of these rooms have a type of porch which looks onto the
patio and it gives shade and protection. The kitchen tends to be small and dark. It is not necessarily
a closed room. Firewood is often used for cooking.
There is a store room with containers for grain and other products. It is usually large. The patio is
used as the entrance and for receiving visitors. It is also used for celebrations and get-togethers.
Chickens and rabbits and occasionally other small domestic animals are kept here.
If the living room is too small, a bedroom is built but it is usually used too for storing domestic
utensils and others. If a young couple gets married and comes to live with the family, a new kitchen
is also usually built.
Any buildings with two floors are relatively recent and have been built due to lack of space. If there
is a shop within the house, it is often the women of the family who attend the shop. Any workshops
usually function within the house and do not have direct access to the exterior. There are also
special rooms built in the houses of families which prepare "chicha" ( a fermented corn drink) for
storing the fermenting chicha.
The vegetable gardens produce basic crops and others such as flowers.
2.2 A Traditional Dwelling
There are some traditional elements which most houses have, such as:
1. "Patilla" - a stone or mud brick seat in the rooms or the patio.
2. Niches - for candles, lamps, religious images.
3. Altar - usually in the living room used for sacred images or ritual objects.
4. Water tap - located in the patio. The stone sink has been replaced by a cement sink in some places.
5. "Taquiraa" - a concave receptacle carved into stone for animals to drink from.
6. "Pilana" - this is similar to the Taquiraa and used for grinding grain.
7. Bonfire hearth - in an open area. It is a hole in the ground with stones around it.
8. Oven - this is only present in some homes where bread is made to sell. It is usually made out of
mud.
9. Chicken coops and rabbit cages - these are made of wood and metal mesh.
2.3 Basic functioning
There are two types of entrance to the dwellings:
1. Direct entrance through the patio.
2. Entrance through an intermediate space or passage (usually roofed).
There is no direct access between rooms; the access is through the patio. In Lari, the kitchens tend
to be close to the living room and bedrooms to provide heat.
2.4 Size of the rooms
The largest rooms are usually between 9 and 13 metres long and 4.50 to 5.50 metres wide. The
intermediate ones are around 6 to 9 metres long and are usually bedrooms or store rooms.
The smallest rooms are generally the kitchens. The average length is 4.50 metres and the average
width, 2.50 metres.
2.5 Technical building aspects
2.5.1 Traditional materials
The Colca valley maintains its traditional building system based on the use of stone, mud, wood
and straw. "Pirka" is a common material for walls. It is made from stone mixed with mud. Round
cobblestones are commonly used for patios and pavements and floors seem to have been made out
of flat earth. n"Adobe" or mud bricks seem to date from the Viceroyalty period. This brick is not as
resistant as stone but helps maintain comfortable temperatures.
Eucalyptus wood is used to replace the ancient species which were used previously, such as the
queua and the quishar which are practically extinct. Straw is used on roofs to keep out rain and
maintain temperatures. The roof is made of barley and wheat straw and ichu. The former two are
used due to the lack of availability of ichu from the high mountains.
2.5.2 Non-traditional materials
Corrugated iron is now used a great deal, as it is cheap and easy to install. Bricks and iron are
used in modern, public buildings. Some people have used metal tubes sold at cheap prices by the
Majes Project, for making doors.
2.6 Thermal insulation: heat gain and loss
The climate is well known for its radical changes in temperature during the day and night and
therefore materials which help to maintain a comfortable temperature, are needed.
Adobe and pirka bricks are ideal materials. Straw is also an excellent material for the roofs.
Corrugated iron, however, does not maintain a comfortable temperature.
Windows and doors are also built small so as not to let in too much cold or heat.
2.7 Ventilation and illumination
There is not much ventilation in most cases. Windows are small and look out onto the patio. Some
have been covered. Glass windows only exist in modern buildings. The older buildings have wooden
windows which are usually shut.
The rooms are very dark.
2.8 Acoustic isolation
The noise in these areas does not come from traffic but rather from the wind, rain and thunder,
especially the latter two. Straw roofs help reduce sound.
2.9 Building process
The characteristics of a particular dwelling are not based on written plans but rather on the
requirements of the owner and experience of the builders. Spades and picks are used to dig ditches
and stone and mud foundations are placed in them. On occasions, depending on the soil, the mud
must be mixed with straw in varying quantities. The adobes are made with wood moulds and are left
to dry in the sun.
Adobe walls use eucalyptus or stone for the lintels. The walls are sometimes covered with mud
afterwards.
Stone wall building is relatively slow as the mortar has to dry. Some walls have stones and mud
bricks.
Eucalyptus is now used for roof structures even though it is inferior to the ancient queua and
quishar wood. It needs treatment against woodworm. The logs used to be tied together with llama or
sheep leather, but now nails and wire are used.
2.10 Roofs
2.10.1 Straw roofs
This is the traditional material used for roofs in the Colca valley. Mud tiles have not really become
popular. The best time of the year to thatch or re-thatch is the dry season, between April and
November.
1. The material used for tying the straw is made out of the "chillihua" plant which is cut, dried and then
wet and made into ropes. The straw is tied while the rope is still wet. When dry, it is tough and
resistant.
2. Straw is laid on the roof structure and tied.
3. A second layer of straw is added. The straw may be barley or wheat straw.
4. A layer of "chilca" plant is added which has thin branches which help to fix the ichu. The branches
must be green so that when they dry they are tight. Some "chac'mare" branches are also used.
5. Ichu is added finally. The more ichu is added, the more waterproof the roof is.
The average thickness of a roof is 25 cm but one it has been re-thatched several times it can be up
to 40 cm thick.
2.10.2 Metal roofs
Corrugated iron roofs are economic and simple to install. Gutters are usually put in too. The sheets
of metal are nailed on and stones are placed on top.
3. CONCLUSION
The article has presented the historical, social and technological aspects of the architecture in
Yanque, Lari and Coporaque which are three of the 16 indian villages formed by the Spaniards in the
1570's. They retain a great many of the original architectural characteristics. Hector Llosa, the
researcher, considers that the traditional architecture meets the basic needs of the inhabitants within
their environment. The modern additions are economically acceptable but are imported from urban
areas which do not share the same needs or environment. However these changes do show the
flexibility of the Andean inhabitants in accepting new elements and ideas.
FOLKLORE FROM THE COLCA VALLEY
INTRODUCTION
The dictionary defines folklore as the body of traditions, stories, legends and customs of a country.
Customs include food and drink, dances, rituals and beliefs of a human group.
I DANCES
1. LOCAL DANCES
The Qamili
This is a fertility dance which is danced during the sowing season on the farm land of the patron
saints, mainly Saint Isidro. The qamili is best danced in Chivay, Coporaque and Cabanaconde.
On the set day, the steward of the farm goes to the plot of land with the dancers, musicians and
people accompanying him. A hole is made in the ground, ceremonial objects are placed inside and it
is covered with stones. The dance has its origin in ancient Inca myths.
The group of dancers of 6 to 12 couples arrives, one of which represents the main characters (San
Isidro Labrador and the Pachamama - mother earth)., The dancers sow the seed as they dance. The
rhythm of the dance requires great skill and physical stamina.
Sara Tarpuy
The dance, like that of the qamili, refers to farming, this time to the harvest. It is very typical of
Madrigal. The costumes are marvellous. The dancers dance to qamili, wititi and sometimes hauyno
music, which is very popular.
2. PAGAN-CHRISTIAN DANCES
The Turku Tusuy dance from Chivay and the Inti Killa from Tuti.
The Turku Tusuy is a catholic ritual dance which represents the triumph of catholicism over the
Callagua people. It is based on a catholic procession and pays homage to the Nuestra Seora de la
Asunta of Chivay as the Patron saint. The dance represents a series of characters of Spanish and
Inca origins. Variations of the dance are: Inti Killa of Sibayo and the Tuti which are also an
affirmation of christianity in the area.
The music is simple and adopts a war like rhythm and later a ceremonial and slow melody. During
the procession the dancers dance together and periodically pay reverence to the Virgin, finally
entering the church for the blessing from the priest. Then the dancers take off their costumes and
dance in the streets to a band.
The Turku Tusuy is an affirmation of the christian faith represented by Christ's mother. The victory
on the cross is related to the Spanish victory over the arabs and so the conquered peoples accept
the new religious symbols. However, acceptance is not total as the Inca carried a corn plant instead
of a sceptre which represents some type of resistance. The leaves of the corn are withered as a sign
of mockery.
Los Negritos from Chivay
The presence of negroes in the area was frequent as they came from the coast as workers in the
mines. They became sweet sellers in the processions and became integrated into the communities.
At the Seora de la Asunta de Chivay patron saint procession, groups of two to four dancers are
employed and paid. Their attitude is not that of negro slaves but that of free negroes. There are other
areas in Peru where similar dances occur but there is more lavish detail.
3. CELEBRATION DANCES
These dances are carried out during the rainy summer in the farming villages in Collaguas in the
Colca valley, from Tuti to Taya. Wifala means "dance banner" and this is the name of the dance.
Wit'iti is the name given to the dance from the Quechua verb "witiy" which means "make love". This
is then a love dance with certain erotic elements.
The dance is part of the celebrations in honour of the patron saint. At the time of the procession,
lavish clothing and quilts are placed before the altar. The wifala is danced in pairs, generally couples
in love. The music is not sung but has accompanying words.
The dance represents a clear view of past legends. The Coporaque village did not give itself up
easily to the Inca troups; there was resistance, led by Princess Mamallachi, who in a legend takes
the name of Waysha (flirt). Finally she is overcome and is a victim of lust.
The wit'iti is based on history but is also about the union between a man and a woman and has
strong erotic and religious elements. This dance can only be found in the Colca valley.
The Wayllacha
This is a round dance where people hold hands in a circle. A social feast generally begins and
ends with this. The melody used is the huayno played with wind and string instruments. There is no
special costume used. It has been put into practice since before the Spaniards arrived.
Phujllay bulls
The Spanish Conquest brought bull fights. However, they are different in the Colca valley. The
bulls do not die and the fighters are not trained. The animal is respected and almost venerated.
The greeting to the bull
The night before there are ritual offerings to the Pachamama, with music and gatherings of people.
There is a procession to the bull ring to greet the bull and after food and drink, there is a celebration
at the bull fighter's home.
The Main Bull Fight
The fight begins at one or two in the afternoon. The custom is that the first animals let loose are the
weaker ones.
The Kacharpari
After food and the fight, the band plays and everyone dances in the ring. The following year's bull
fighter in charge is elected. The animals are thanked and are led to a place for rest and food.
The Chujchu of Cabanaconde
This is a dance which represents the journeys carried out by the Cabanaconde inhabitants towards
the coastal valleys taking fruit and where they would get malaria. During the dance they give fruit,
olives and chillis. The music is played with wind and string instruments.
The Qhasqa of Taya and Lluta
This is an agricultural celebration in order to clean the irrigation channels. After offerings have
been made, the cleaning begins. The feast is made to receive those who have been brave enough to
travel far to clean the top parts near the snow and Ampato to ensure that water is provided. There is
abundant food, drink and music.
The Majeo or Countryman
This is a dance for men only remembering those who travelled far to carry coastal products such
as pisco, figs and others from the coast to the highlands. They also carried the message of freedom
and independence at the time of the independence war against the Spaniards. The music is played
with string instruments.
II PAGAN-CHRISTIAN TRADITIONS
The Steward
The steward was always in charge of the festivities of the religious processions in the villages of
the Colca. He would employ the services of those required. In fact in some places the patron saint
has land which the steward can farm while he is a steward.
The Altars
There are people devoted to the patron saint and in charge of setting up the altars in the streets
which the image of the saint will pass by.
"Previstas"
These women are in charge of flower arranging for the saint's image. They are usually young
single women who help the current Steward.
III OTHER FOLKLORE
The Warmichacuy
This is when the hand of a girl is asked for in marriage. The young woman's hand is asked for in a
meeting between the parents of the couple. It is almost always carried out at night. This is carried out
when the couple, after sexual encounters, has decided to live together. They usually begin to live at
the woman's house and must have one or two children. If the man lives up to the woman's family's
expectations, the couple move to live at the man's home. After living in both homes and after having
been accepted by both families marriage is considered.
Carnivals
These are celebrations brought from Spain. It is a time to visit the family. It is a celebration of
youth, happiness and love. There are street processions with white flags as symbols of peace and
songs paying homage to the home, animals and the mother earth.
The Fiestas de la Cruz
During the month of May there are celebrations in honour of the Sacred Cross, the symbol of
Christianity. It is also a symbol of the good husband. On the 3rd of May women pay homage to their
husbands, asking the Cross to grant her a good husband.
The Puuchiy
The puuchiy (to put to sleep) is a unique ceremony which is traditional and significant in married
life. It is carried out by the godparents of the new couple. The godparents lead the couple separately
to the previously prepared nuptial bed and give advice to each on marriage.
Other godchildren pretend to be jealous and put up a fight.
IV FOOD AND DRINK
Each village in the valley has different typical food and drink.
FOOD
In the Colca valley a typical type of food is roast beef, mutton, alpaca and llama meat and pork.
"Chupe" is a special type of thick soup.
Guinea pig is cooked in many different ways in different villages.
Custard type desserts are also typical using corn starch.
There is also chicken stew.
DRINKS
Tafia or an alcoholic drink made with sugar cane is prepared in many different ways in the different
villages.

V FUNERAL CEREMONIES
As soon as someone dies the body is placed in another room for the wake. A special game of a
type of dice is played. Later food and drink are served after having buried the body.
Many believe in ghosts and that the coffin leaves the church
and travels around.
VI TRADITIONAL MEDICINE
Good health in this region often depends on the resources of traditional medicine and rituals. Many
men and women know how to diagnose frequent illnesses and how to treat them using herbs,
including the frequent use of coca leaves. Witch doctors are also consulted.
VII WORLD VIEW AND ANIMISM
The inhabitants of the Collagua region observe in detail the cosmos, he geography and the
environment of the region. Everything that is alive has a soul. The Andean world is a live world;
everything is alive, not only humans and animals.
The complex and detailed relationships between the groups of inhabitants and families show a
different world full of rituals and offerings to the Pachamama. Although these rituals vary, they are all
based on offerings of alpaca or llama fat, coca leaves and corn, Different colours in the offerings
mean different aspects such as friendship or strength. The offerings are very complex.
The Wilaja or Wilacha
This is the supreme offering to the Pachamama with the blood of a live animal, usually a llama or
alpaca. Again, the offering is detailed and specific in the rituals and objects used.
Irrigation ditches
Digging or cleaning irrigation ditches is a community affair organized by a mayor. There is a
detailed order for this and everyone must participate. There are music and ceremonies organized.
Rutuchi
This is a custom which celebrates the child's first hair cut. There are godparents and gifts.
VIII CRAFTS
The crafts have changed over the years. Some typical crafts are disappearing, such as weaving as
most clothes are bought ready made. Many women now embroider. Hats have also changed their
styles with the arrival of new fashions. The hat embroidery is very original.
IX QUECHUA
The Inca language is spoken by over four million people: two million in Peru. It is an agglutinative
and very flexible language. There are no root syllables as such.
Oral Literature and Collagua stories
There is a strong oral literature in the Colca valley which is expressed through stories, legends,
myths and rituals. This literature is based on the Pachamama, the hills, lakes and rivers. Humans
change into animals and animals change into humans, usually for love. They are also linked to the
sun, the stars and other natural elements.
MAYTA CAPAC MYTHS IN THE COLCA VALLEY FROM VILLAGE TO VILLAGE THE INCA
ASKED THE INDIANS

For a significant part of the illiterate population, in the Colca for example, which had inherited a
culture which did not use writing, an oral, changing, and at times divergent tradition, is the way in
which world view is expressed. It is the appropriate expression of their community conscience.
In Chivay, the Inca called to the Indians from the other side of the river. "What do you want over
there on the other side of the river?" he asked. The Indians answered, "We want plenty of food". The
Inca answered, "Let there be plenty of barley and plenty of quinua." And to this day there is plenty of
barley and plenty of quinua.
In Yanque, the Inca asked the Indians, "What do you need?" Amazed, the Indians answered
arrogantly, "Nothing!" They spoke that way because they had all the food they needed. There was a
great deal of water from the springs and the mountains. When the Inca saw their attitude, he was
angry and said, "You lazy people! You don't need anything, ....you asked for it!" The Inca dried up
the springs and that is why to this day the people of Yanque steal the water from Chivay. The water
comes to Yanque from the Huaranccate, a hill which belongs to Chivay. The people of Yanque went
to war waving their slings for the water. Some died and they won the war against the people of
Chivay. That is why they take their water.
When the Inca arrived at Maca, he asked the Indians the same question, "What do you need?".
They answered quickly, "We need water." That is why he left them water in their hill. And that is why
water still flows from inside the hill towards the river and there is enough for all.

Later the Inca asked the people of Pinchollo, "What do you need?" Just as the Indians were about
to answer, the Inca farted and that is why there is so much wind to this day in Pinchollo. The Indians
were so frightened that they said nothing.
When the Inca arrived at Cabanaconde, they treated him well. There the Indians said, "We want to
be good people and we want good food." The Inca took out his sack of well picked corn and gave it
to the Indian Chief saying," The Indians of the village will eat this." That is why to this day, soft,
delicious corn grows there and that is why the inhabitants have lovely faces and speak sweetly.
The Inca did not manage to get to Tapay and the Indians there had not gathered together either. If
the Inca had spoken to them, the fruit that grows there would be even more tasty than it is. When the
Inca went to Tisco, he said, "What do you want?" They say that the Indians answered, "We want to
dress well." That is why the Inca left the gold and silver mines ajar so that they could later be
discovered; that is why they say that there could be gold and silver in those places..
Then the Inca descended to the village of Sibayo. There he asked the Indians and they said, "We
want to eat bushes which live in the water." So the Inca said, " Every year you must harvest
seaweed, cracked objects, broken pots and so many things that can be found in the sea." They say
that to this day in Sibayo all types of stories are told about ancient peoples.
In Callalli, the Inca asked the Indians the same question, "What do you want?" There the Indians
answered, "We want large houses." That is why the Inca built great palaces. They say that these
palaces have become the rocks that you can now see. Even to this day people ask why they say that
the tola bushes could have been people's food. When the Inca got to Caylloma, he spoke to the
Indians who lived there. Then they replied, "Whatever you want." That is why the Inca did not leave
bushes, or anything to sow. To this day the people of Caylloma live off excrement. They gather the
llama excrement in barrows to cook because there are no plants.
They say that the Inca also went to Tuti. They say there were still Indians or inhabitants from the
days of the gentiles; and it is there that the Indians had great faith in the Inca. The Inca even stayed
and lived there for a long time and was happy to give them all types of plants which could be seen
from the Pumunuta hill. They say that to this day there is a cave on Pumunuta and deep inside there
is a hanging corn cob which is the size of a tall man. Some say that farming in Tuti only started when
the Inca arrived.
ART IN THE COLCA VALLEY
For a long time the Colca valley has had an enormous wealth of cultural heritage, a product of the
creativity of the inhabitants of the region in different periods. The expressions of this creativity are
ideological as well as material, for example: oral tradition, customs, dances, rituals, works of art,
architecture, etc.
The works of art in the churches have been affected by the passing of time and the alterations
made by man. Any restoration work carried out is done by trained young people from the area who
can continue this work in the future.
ART AND EVANGELISM IN THE COLCA
The language and pre-hispanic religious beliefs in the valley were barriers that hindered the
interests of the Crown. Artistic expression was an effective instrument for overcoming the Andean
rituals and for imposing new religious concepts based on Catholicism. The Franciscans were the first
to evangelize the Colca area and a church was built in Coporaque. Idols were changed for crosses
and altars. Schools were also formed for the children. Many artists, part of the religious group,
arrived from Europe. They were added to the competition of how many natives could be added to the
religion. Lope de Suazo was in charge of forming villages of indians in appropriate places far from
their old haunts where they might be drawn back to old religious practices. The indians did not
accept with ease and had to be forced. During the XVI century the art is in a purely European style. It
is only towards the end of the XVII century and especially in the XVIII century that the style becomes
a mixed "mestizo" style.
ARTISTIC DEVELOPMENT IN THE COLCA
Initially works of art were brought from Europe and the first artists followed these styles. After some
years, due to the need to find materials to teach indians about religion, schools were formed in
Cuzco, Huamanga, La Paz and Quito. The artists would send their work or go and live temporarily in
the villages where new styles began to appear. The experience which the artists gained was
transferred to their children. This was a prehispanic custom. Family associations were formed.
SCULPTURE
Prehispanic
Much has been said about the influence of the prehispanic, well developed, techniques (such as
the use of maguey) on the colonial sculpture, but it is difficult to prove this. The prehispanic "dolls"
made of wood and cloth were very well developed and used for religious purposes. The Incas,
however, forbade these dolls. So the gap between the pre-Inca dolls and the colonial sculptures
spreads over about 1000 years.
Spanish sculpture
The Spaniards always preferred wood carvings and polychrome. They brought these techniques to
Latin America. During the XVI and XVII centuries a great many sculptures were imported from
Europe. The indians soon added their own details using their own experience of making idols and
using their own techniques.
Renaissance and Manneristic art
It was around 1570, towards the end of the Conquest when the Viceroyalty was established, that
wood carving in maguey and also the use of cloth, began. Maguey was soft, light and easy to work
with. The techniques for using these materials developed as the years went by.
The last third of the XVI century and the first third of the XVII century
The Spanish sculptors had to work rapidly during this period to decorate the churches. They were
masters in polychrome and carving. They began also to use cedar wood and built retables, altars,
pulpits and others.
Sculpture during the Baroque period (1640-1700)
Only some variations occurred during this period. Cotton began to be used in some areas.
However, techniques were improved. Towards the end of the period images were made in order to
be dressed and taken in religious processions.
The "mestizo" Baroque and Realism (XVIII century)
Art in Europe declined towards the end of the XVIII century, after the classical style period.
Sculpture evolved towards realism. Crystal eyes and dresses, wigs, beards and eyelashes began to
be added to sculptures. Nails made out of horn, began to be added to the statues and they were
dressed using fine traditional costumes made with typical dyes of the time. Plaster faces were also
made and details, such as eyes, teeth, tongues, tears and so on, were added. The face was always
polychromic. Wigs were sometimes made out of real women's hair for special statues. By the end of
the period there were great workshops and demands were made from abroad. Works were exported
and this brought an increase in production, which in turn caused poor quality.
Sculpture during the XIX century
Sculpture continued to follow Colonial moulds, even after the Republic began. However, later the
cloth began to take on a more industrial form and crowns turned to diadems. The colours were
colder in Neoclassical style. The republics began to depend on England and France. Sculptures
were imported from Italy, France and England, made of bronze and marble for the homes of the high
officials. Paper also began to be used.
Tools
Sculptors used tools used by carpenters but during the XVIII century, use of tools and care of the
maguey decreased.
Techniques and materials
There were many different types of materials such as wood, plaster, glue, maguey and cloth. Relief
techniques were used for decoration and on hard materials. Some sculptors used assembly
techniques using iron pins. Sculptors made images, statues and retables, and used polychrome.
Towards the end of the XVI century, sculptures began to be made with less sculpture on the body as
the image was to be dressed. This would probably save time and materials. They were cheaper too.
The iconography which was most popular in the Colca at the time was that of the crucifixion. Other
themes were Jesus carrying the cross, the Virgin Mary carrying the Baby Jesus, the Immaculate
Conception and various saints.
MURAL PAINTING
These paintings were made on stone, mud brick, bricks, etc. The first type of mural was the cave
paintings. This type of art continued throughout history and during the Colonial period was mainly
used for decorating churches.
Techniques
Not much is known about how the mural paintings were made in the Colca. However, the most
common technique was that of applying Contay (white earth) with cactus juice and then on the dry
white surface, local earth colourings were added after having been mixed with glue and egg beaten
with water. The mural painting was carried out by a group of people led by the master who painted
the most complicated and detailed parts.
Cave paintings
Prehistoric and other paintings were painted directly onto the wall. Sumbay: There are some
impressive cave paintings there which date back many thousands of years. They used white, cream,
yellow and red to represent the fauna of the time. Scenes from daily life were also painted there.
Colonial mural painting
The building of the first churches goes hand in hand with the beginning of mural painting in the
Colca. It is complementary to architecture and must form part of it. During earthquakes, some
churches were ruined or destroyed along with their murals. All mural painting in the Colca is applied
on dry backgrounds after having sketched the outlines in carbon. This type of painting was not so
much religious as decorative. Some of the motifs are vegetables, such as corn, and also flowers.
But there are also religious themes, for example in Chivay, where Jesus' baptism is painted. A
great many of the mural paintings from the XVI, XVII and XVIII centuries have been lost and
covered.
EASLE PAINTING
Cuzco was the main centre for painting during the Viceroyalty. It was the centre for cultural, social,
ecclesiastical and political activities in the South. It is known as the Cuzco School of Art. At the time
of the Conquest, Cuzco already had a deep artistic tradition which came from pre-Inca and Inca
times. During the XVI century, Cuzco art was influenced by European work. Later, Viceroy Francisco
de Toledo visited and ordered paintings depicting the Incas and scenes from Cuzco, painted by
indians. Up until the XVII century, techniques were affected by a Manneristic influence along with the
start of mural painting in churches in the countryside. In 1583 a Jesuit by the name of Bernardo Bitti
arrived. He imposed the taste for the Roman Mannerism. Thus, many Europeans influenced the
artistic styles of the Peruvian artists and in particular the Cuzco school. One of the techniques
applied there was that of adding a dark grey brown with ashes, to the paintings.
It is difficult to say when oil painting began. It was probably used since the beginning of the XVII
century. First carbon sketches were made on a pink and sienna background and then the other
details were added. In the XVIII intense colours were used, especially red. As rapid techniques were
used, the Cuzco paintings have not lasted well.
THE VALLEY CHURCHES
The Chivay church: This church has been modified and was rebuilt in the XVIII century. The
retable was made of stucco and there is one which is made in a clear Baroque and Cuzco style. The
mural paintings date back to the XVII and XVIII centuries and can still be seen. It is another of the
churches which was whitewashed, covering many of the mural paintings. "Immaculate Conception"
Yanque church: This was built by the Collaguas and originally dates back to the XVI century. But
was probably rebuilt since then. Its facade is ornamented with vegetables. Maca church: This church
is deteriorated due to an earthquake in 1991. It has an interior mural painting and gilded retable.
"San Pedro de Alcantara" Cabanaconde church: This is a late church built after the 1784 earthquake
with a Neoclassical facade. Inside there are Cuzco paintings. "Santiago Apostol" Coporaque church:
This is the oldest church in the valley. It has steps leading up to it. There has been obvious
deterioration over the centuries. The work inside shows art from different periods. "San Sebastian"
Coporaque church: This was built around 1565 when the Franciscans were living there. There are
mural paintings with the Sun and Moon. "San Juan Bautista" Ichupampa church: The church was
built in the XVII century. Later on the church was affected by an earthquake in 1784. It was rebuilt in
the XVIII century and was added to a great many times. "Purisima Concepcion" Lari church: This
was built in 1785 or 1768. It has extraordinary dimensions in relation to other buildings in the village.
It has a huge dome. There are two important paintings inside - The Lord of the Earthquakes and the
Ascension of the Virgin Mary. The two paintings are linked.
"Santiago" Madrigal church: This is one of the oldest churches in the valley. It is built in
Renaissance style. Saint James fighting against the Moors is the main figure in the relief work at the
entrance. There is a silver processional cross among other works of art. "Santa Cruz" Tuti church: it
has only one bell tower and is one of the smallest in the valley. It has an impressive pulpit in
Renaissance style. "San Antonio de Padua" Callalli church: Its main facade is similar to that of
Ichupampa. The painted retable is no longer Colonial style but was painted near the Independence.
"San Juan Bautista" Sibayo church: This was built in 1692, it has easle paintings probably painted
by artists from the region.
ICONOGRAPHY
Saint Ambrosio: One of the four fathers of the church. 7th of December. His icons are: book, whip,
church and bee hive. Saint Ana: Mother of the Virgin Mary and Saint Joaquin's wife. Her name
means grace. Her icons are an open book, red tunic and green shawl. She was the weavers and
millers patron saint. 26th July. Saint Andrew: One of the twelve disciples. He was a fisherman and
Saint Peter's brother. 30th November. Guardian Angel: Represented as a young man who points to
the sky with his right hand. 2nd of October. Balthazar: One of the three Kings. A young , dark man
wearing a turban or crown, riding on a camel, offering gold to the baby Jesus. Symbolizes the African
continent. Saint Buenaventura: Born in 1221. Victim of an incurable disease but healed by Saint
Francis of Assisi. Became a Cardenal. Holds an open book, a quill and a small church. 14th July.
Good Shepherd: The image of a young Jesus carrying a sheep on his shoulders. Saint Catalina:
Patron saint of Italy and protector of the Pope. Born in Italy in 1347. Saint Cecilia: Martyr saint who it
is said invented the organ. 22nd November. Patron saint of musicians. Saint Clara of Assisi: Born in
Italy in 1194. She formed a convent of nuns. She was the patron saint of washerwomen. 12th of
August. Christ: Most of them depict a crucified Christ. Peruvian artists who painted him were asked
to be left alone and their food was left at the door. Crucified Christ: This was painted with different
numbers of nails in his hands and feet. Christ of Huanca: This is a stone sculpture of Christ being
beaten. It is half way between the San Salvador district and the old Yanantin mines. There are two
versions of its origin. One is that the image appeared to an indian who was running away from the
mines and told the indian to return. Another version was the healing of a man in Potosi and Christ
told him to visit him in Huanca. Christ of the Holy Sepulchre: He is part of the Good Friday
processions.
Christ of the Sugar Cane: He is known for the crown on his head and a cane sceptre in his hand.
Christ of the Column: This depicted Christ, half-naked, bleeding with rope around his neck and tied
to a column. Christ of the Earthquakes: Worshipped initially in the Triumph chapel and at present in
the Cuzco cathedral. This is a statue of crucified Christ made of maguey and carved wood. The
cross is made of wood and decorated with silver and gild. The first legend says it was given by an
emperor. The second legend says that it was originally the Lord of the Good Death and then
changed its name after the 1650 earthquake. Crosses: The cross worship can be celebrated on the
3rd of May linked to the harvest. The cross is carried through the streets. Diego de Alcala: This was
a Franciscan saint born in Andalucia. He carried a great cross on one of his shoulders and a basket
of bread in one hand. He is the patron saint of the sick. 11th of November.
Franciscan order: This was founded in 1208 by Saint Francis of Asissi. There are variations of the
Franciscan symbol. One of these is the crossed arms of Christ and Saint Francis on a cross. As from
the XVIII the habit was light blue whereas before that the colour was not defined. Finally brown was
adopted and the habits were made from sheep wool.
Saint Isidro Labrador: This saint looked after sheep and was a farmer. He was a very religious
man. He is the patron saint of many farmers. 15th May. Saint Joaquin: Saint Ana's wife and father of
the Virgin Mary. He is an old, bearded man. He was patron saint of the weavers. 16th August.
Saint Joseph: The virgin Mary's husband. He was a modest carpenter. Pope Pious IX declared him
patron of the Universal Church. Saint Teresa was devoted to him. This devotion reached America in
the middle of the XVII century. Saint John the Baptist: A Hebrew prophet. He announced Jesus
ministry and was decapitated. He is dressed in poor pilgrim clothes. He is the patron saint of sheep
and is celebrated on the 25th of June.
Jesus as a Child: Christ was often depicted as a child. He was adorned with the images of the
Incas but in 1675 the Bishop of Mollinedo ordered these to be taken away and he was only allowed
to have the rays of the sun behind his head. 25th December and 6th January.
Saint Paul: He was born in one of the intellectual centres of the Roman Empire. During his youth
he persecuted the christians. One day Christ appeared to him and he was temporarily blinded. 25th
January. Saint Peter: Part of the twelve apostles and saint Andrew's brother. Jesus commended the
church to him. Wise Men: Their story is in the Gospel of Matthew. The tradition is that there were
three kings but this is not proven. Their visit to the Baby is known as the Adoration of the Wise Men
and is celebrated on the 6th January. Santiago el Mayor: He is part of the twelve apostles. He was
John the Evangelist's brother. He is also known as James. He is patron saint of Spain in the wars
against the Moors and therefore also protected the Spaniards against the indians. He is dressed as a
knight on a white horse.
Celebrated in Coporaque, Huanca and Madrigal on the 25th of July. Santiago el Menor: He is part
of the twelve apostles. He was the youngest of the two Santiagos. He was the first Bishop of
Jerusalem. Saint Sebastian: He was a Roman and was a martyr in 288 AD. During the Colonial
period he was the patron saint of the indigenous aristocracy and was prayed to when there were
epidemics and plagues. Holy Trinity: In Peruvian Colonial art this is depicted as three equal men with
crowns, on thrones or standing. The Holy Spirit is on the left, God the Father in the middle and God
the Son on the right. Virgin Mary: She is represented as a model of femenine purity. She is a typical
case of syncretism as she represents the Roman goddess Venus but when she arrives in Peru, she
represents the Pachamama and the Apu. Most of the worship of Mary comes from Spain. Usually
she is depicted as a beautiful white woman. Virgin of the Ascension: This comes from the apocryphal
gospel of Saint Peter who narrates Mary's ascension into heaven. 15th August. Virgin of the
Conception: Symbolizes the moment when the Virgin Mary receives the Child. Immaculate
Conception: In 1263, the Franciscans took this image as their patron saint. She is usually depicted
as being surrounded by angels with the dove of the Holy Spirit above her head.
FLORA AND FAUNA IN THE COLCA VALLEY
BIODIVERSITY IN THE RNSAB
THE FLORA OF THE COLCA VALLEY, THE SALINAS AND AGUADA BLANCA NATIONAL
NATURE RESERVE AND THE JOURNEY FROM AREQUIPA (2,300 metres above sea level to
5,000 metres above sea level)
When we travel from Arequipa to the Colca Valley we will climb from 2,300 metres above sea level
(desert) to 4,800 metres above sea level (high plateau) and then descend to the Colca river at 3,000
metres above sea level. (inter Andean valley). There are a great many changes in the vegetation as
you go along. There is also a variety in the flora (around 300 species), some used as medicines,
others as dyes and so on. In the valley, there are the remnants of what were the queoa forests.
There are two marked seasons, the rainy and the dry seasons.
DESCRIPTION OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES OF VEGETATION
Desert type scrub with cacti
This area has plants which only grow during the rainy season. Other bushes which remain dry
occasionally come green when there is humidity.
Scrubland
The grass ("ichu") which grows here is typical and gives a yellowish hue to the ground. There is
also a greyish pulse called iru-icchu among others.
Pasture
This area is yellowish in the dry season and green in the rainy season with a short grass called
"crespillo" (Calamagrostis breviaristata) , along with the ichu and iru-icchu.
"Tola" (Parastrephia lepidphylla, Baccharis buxifolia, among others) bushes
This area was full of these types of bushes but due to the indiscriminate extraction of the "tola"
bushes, there is another plant, the "canlle" (Tetraglochin Strictum) which grows on the now bare
ground.
Humid pasture
There is a great deal of water in this area. There are springs and a permanent supply of water all
year round. The vegetation here is not large in size but very nutritious for the South American
camelidae.
Yareta (Azorella compacta and Azorella yarita). This is a resinous plant which grows in high
altitudes and forms small compact groups like cushions. It was used for fuel and for medicinal
purposes.
Riverside vegetation
The vegetation in this area can be very different and varied. There are bushes such as the
"Cantuta" (Cantua candelilla and Cantua buxifolia) known as the Inca Flower, dedicated to the sun
and used in religious rites. It is used for dyeing yellow.
Queoas
This is a wood of queoa plants. There are also other bushes and herbs. The queoa trees have
been felled indiscriminately by man for building, tools and carbon. This tree can be found in Chivay,
Yanque, Cabanaconde and Huambo.
Snowline
There is apparently little vegetation in this area due to the altitude. The ground is greyish and there
are rocks. However, yellow, orange and green lichen can be seen on these rocks.
Scrub with thorny bushes
This area is dominated by the "chiri-chiri" bush (Grindelia bergi), along with many other types of
bush.
Steppe with bushes and herbs
There is a great variety of woody bushes as well as other thorny bushes. There is vegetation which
only grows during the rainy season and also small cacti. Near to Tapay there are fruit trees.
Steppe with Column Cacti
Enormous column cacti up to 6 metres tall grow in this area. Their fruit is also used for medicine
and some birds eat them too.
The Raymondi "Puya"
There are only about 150 of this plant. It has been affected by man's intervention. There are other
bushes and vegetation around them.
Terraces
The crops grown on these are typical to the area: potato, corn, broad beans, quinua. They are also
used to cultivate imported crops such as wheat and barley and oats and alfalfa.
THE FAUNA IN THE COLCA VALLEY AND THE SALINAS AND AGUADA BLANCA NATIONAL
NATURE RESERVE
MAMMALS
Despite their rugged countryside, The Andes have fauna which have adapted to these conditions.
In the case of the Colca valley, it is not only rugged but also arid. 32 of the 68 species of mammal in
the Colca live in the Salinas and Aguadas Blancas Nature Reserve.
The White Tailed Deer and "Tarukas"
The Taruka lives high up in the Andes and differs from the White-tailed deer in that it is stronger
and the antlers only have two parts. This species is in great danger from hunters. The white tailed
deer lives in the lower parts of the Colca valley (Cabanaconde and Huambo). They are also hunted.
CARNIVORES
There are five species of carnivore in these areas.
The Puma
This is the largest carnivore and is a solitary animal except when it is being raised by the mother. It
adapts easily but needs a great deal of food and that is why its territories are wide. The fact that it is
not very common in the Colca is due to the lack of food it can get there. It is also hunted and
attacked by man to protect the flocks. It does not attack man however.
Osjollo or wildcat
This animal is larger than the domestic cat. It feeds off small birds and rodents.
Andean fox
This is the most common carnivore in the Andes. It is the size of a dog and even attacks domestic
livestock, but prefers sick or vulnerable animals. It adapts easily and also eats all types of vegetables
and fruit and even leaves. It can help to eliminate rodents and insects. Despite the fact that man
attacks it, the fox reproduces quickly and has a great capacity for survival.
Skunk
This feeds off insects, larva, snails and worms but can also eat rodents, frogs and others. It is a
calm and quiet animal.
Achocalla (type of weasel)
Its name in Quechua means that it is brown on top and white underneath. It is fierce and agile. It
eats constantly and can eat a great many rodents. It likes to drink blood and eat brains.
Vizcacha and other rodents
The vizcacha lives in the rocky areas in the high Andes, all over Peru. It is similar to a rabbit or a
squirrel.Its meat is tasty and is occasionally eaten by the inhabitants.
It is exclusively herbivore.
The other rodents are like mice or rats, of different colours and sizes. The smallest ones mainly eat
insects and the larger ones are herbivores. They are small but reproduce fast and control the growth
of the vegetation, spreading of seeds and abundance of insects. On the other hand, they do not help
the farmers as they invade and consume crops and stored food. Marmots also exist in abundance in
the highlands. They eat insects, eggs and fruit and are fierce. There are also bats which have
adapted to the high Andes.
BIRDS
Peru and Colombia have the greatest variety of birds in the world. The Salinas and Aguada Blanca
Reserve has 136 registered species.
Condors
Despite having been worshipped by ancient cultures and being present on four South American
coats of arms, little is known about its habits and customs. The condor's habitat is inaccessible. It
has been considered to be a sacred bird, a symbol of strength and power and the sun's messenger.
It feeds off dead animals. It is almost extinct in other countries but is present in Peru, Bolivia, Chile
and Argentina. However, it has many factors against it such as the lack of wild fauna to feed off, the
use of pesticides, hunting and others.It is a very heavy bird with a huge wingspan. The condors are
well known for being black and white with a white collar. They have bare heads. Their nests are
inaccessible and made of a few branches. The condor can live for up to 50 years.
Aquatic birds
These birds can swim and dive. Their feet and beaks are different. These are found in the lakes
and rivers. Amongst these are the ducks, flamingos, sea gulls and Andean geese. There are three
registered species of flamingo on Lake Salinas. There are thousands of these birds. There are seven
different species of duck.
Small birds
The birds find shelter from the wind by the rivers and streams and in the bushes. There they find
more vegetation and humidity. There are swallows, hummingbirds and others. They feed off fruit,
flowers and insects.
Giant Hummingbird
The hummingbirds have long beaks and tongues and insert these into flowers. They assist
pollination. The Giant Hummingbird is the largest in the world (23 cms long). It is aggressive and
territorial and chases other hummingbirds.
Birds of Prey
Eagles
Hawks
Falcons
Owls
Nightjar
The queoa forests are the home of many birds, some typical only of this area. There may be up to
45 species in a small area of the forest. Some of them have adapted specifically to this area.
AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES
Reptiles and amphibians are scarce in this region. There are three amphibian species and five
reptiles. The desert and the high altitudes are a hindrance for these types of animals. Frogs and
toads stay close to the water and do not freeze at night due to a special substance in their blood.
They are occasionally eaten by the inhabitants. There are also snakes and lizards.
By PRODENA
After many attempts, the Salinas and Aguada Blanca National Nature Reserve was declared a
reserve in May 1977 and a National Reserve in August 1979. The declaration is based on the
following:
Seriously altered natural resources, such as the 10,000 hectares of queoa forests and other
species which according to ONER studies existed on the slopes of Misti, Chachani and Pichu-Pichu;
the desert encroachment due to the indiscriminate felling of tola and yareta and the near
extermination of vicuas and guanacos. The historical value of the evidence found of man's
evolution from hunting to domesticating alpacas and llamas and finally to putting them to sustainable
use. The need to protect and suitably manage the water basin of the Arequipa valley and irrigation
such as that of La Joya, San Isidro and San Camilo. The potential of repopulation, conservation and
use of the vicua. The critical situation and poverty of the alpaca and llama breeding.
The existing tourist potential, especially as this area is located on the route to the Colca,
Puno and Cuzco. The creation of this reserve and particularly the Special Project for Rational Use of
the Vicua, was greatly opposed by this sector.
OBJECTIVE
The conservation of the biological diversity of the high Andean species and the promotion of
sustainable use of the natural resources available.
FAUNA
Among the protected species are the vicua (vicugna vicugna), the guanaco (Lama guanicoe) and
the taruca (Hippocamelus antisensis). Among the carnivores are the Andean cat or osjollo
(Pseudalopex culpaeus), the skunk (Connepatus rex) and the puma (Puma concolor). Other
important species are the vizcacha (Lagidium peruanum) and 10 more rodents.
There are around 121 bird species, amongst which are the condor (Vultur gryphus), three species
of flamingoes (Phoenicoparrus andinus, Phoenicopterus chilensis, Phoenicoparrus jamesi), the ajoya
(Fulica gigantea), the huallata (Chloephaga melanoptera) and three partridges. There are also eight
species of amphibians and reptiles.
VEGETATION
There are around 180 species; some are particularly important, such as the q'eoa (Polylepsis
besseri) as it is in danger of extinction and is the dominant species in the ecosystem with the
greatest biodiversity in the Andes. Other species are significant due to their use, such as the tola
(Parastrephya lepidophylla) and the yareta (Azorella compacta) which are used for fuel. There are
also a great many species of gramineae which are fed on by the domestic and wild herbivores. The
marsh vegetation is also particularly interesting.
SOUTH AMERICAN DOMESTIC CAMELID
ORIGIN AND IMPORTANCE OF DOMESTIC CAMELIDAE
The Camelidae originated and developed in the North-Western region of North America
approximately 16 million years ago. Different groups emigrated to different parts of the world,
including one group to South America where it became four species: llama, alpaca, guanaco and
vicua.
Taxonomy
Despite the fact that the term "auquenido" is often used to refer to the family of animals, it is not the
correct term. These animals are camelidae.
Their taxonomy is as follows:
Kingdom: : Animal
Subkingdom: : Metazoan
Phylum: : Chordate
Subphylum: : Vertebrate
Class: : Mammal
Order: : Artiodactyl
Suborder: : Tylopod
Family: : Camelidae
World and National Distribution
During the period of the Conquest, native livestock was replaced by foreign livestock. The number
of llamas, alpacas and vicuas dropped during the Colonial period. During the Republican period,
the depredation of camelidae was encouraged as a presumed tribute to the church.
At present the breeding of camelidae by the inhabitants of the high Andes in our country is their
main economic activity. Camelidae are a source of wealth which must be preserved and increased.
Llama
During the prehispanic period, the llama was the most important camelidae socially and
economically. After the arrival of the Spaniards, the llamas were pushed to the high plains where the
foreign animals have never been able to adapt. The llama eats dry, hard grass and is a strong and
resistant animal. There are different types of llama:
The Llama Ch'aku (woolly) which has two layers of different types of wool. The fibre is used for
making ropes, sacks and blankets for the inhabitants' own use.
The Llama Q'ara (short hair) has very short hair and in some parts has only very short smooth
hairs. It is used for carrying loads.
Both types of llama are of a variety of colours.
Alpaca
The alpaca is smaller than the llama and moves in smaller groups, overseen by shepherds. The
alpaca eats the dry, coarse grass of the high plateaux. Its wool is well known all over the world.
Alpaca Suri. This is a slim, angular animal. The wool is shiny and straight and does not absorb
dyes easily.
Alpaca Huacaya. This is taller than the Suri and has coarse, curly hair.
The Huarizo or Misti
This animal has characteristics which are intermediate between the llama and the alpaca. It is
larger than the alpaca but its wool is thicker.
PROBLEMS OF BREEDING CAMELIDAE IN THE COLCA VALLEY
Over the last two decades the political and economic systems applied have not always been
appropriate for the alpaca production. Also, due to social violence, the alpaca production was literally
abandoned in many cases during the eighties. Towards the end of the decade there was another
failed attempt to promote wool trade. During the nineties. Free trade was enforced and this meant
the involvement of private enterprises in the trade. The soil and grass are progressively deteriorating.
Industry began to demand white wool by weight and this also affected the trade. At present there is
a programme for taking into account quality and classification. Due to this there is a move towards
genetic improvement and programmes implemented by private and state institutions.
CAMELIDAE HABITAT
The camelidae tend to live in the south area of the Andean highlands between 3,800 and 4,800
metres above sea level. They thrive on slopes spread with short, coarse grass and gramineae. The
temperatures are low, between 15 and 20 centigrade.
Food (grass and water)
There are two very important nutritional periods: 7-8 months old and the last trimester of
pregnancy. These both coincide with the dry season where there is less availability of grass. This
results in smaller and weaker animals. The alpacas are very dependent on water and therefore the
shepherds must be careful to lead them to abundant water. Llamas are much more resistant to lack
of water. For the farmer, the soil, water, grass and animal availability is very important. The farmers
work together, sharing pasture land which results in animals passing on diseases easily. Land is
divided into sections according to the seasons and availability of water and grass. In the rainy
season, the farmer does not gather the animals together so that they do not pass on diseases to
each other; they wander free at nights.
Andean camelidae adapt marvellously to the altitude due to their ability to bear cold. The females
give birth to their young during the rainy season when they have more chances of survival and this
characteristic is genetic. Their lungs are formed in such a way that they are able to extract the
maximum amount of oxygen possible.
The following are general characteristics:
Long hair
Harelip
Three compartments in the stomach
Water compartment
They do not uproot grass, enabling it to re-grow.
Their hooves are made in such a way that they do not harm the soil
They do not lick their young when they are born
They can be inter-bred
Polygamous
They spit as a defence
They walk great distances
Age determination
Their age is determined by their teeth, which are only found on the bottom jaw as the top one has
no teeth. The animals are born with milk teeth and their teeth change as they grow older. Age can
thus be determined by observing how many teeth have changed.
Reproduction
Camelidae are constantly on heat. Ovulation is induced by copulation and occurs 26 hours after
this. Female camelidae reach sexual maturity at the age of two years or when they reach 33 Kgs in
weight. Male sexual maturity is usually reached when they are three years old. Llamas and alpacas
reproduce all year. However, females and males are constantly together which results in male
inhibition and so young are usually born between December and March. Gestation lasts 342-358
days and young are born between 5 and 9 am to provide further chances of survival. Suckling does
not affect ovulation. Farmers have a calendar of activities to manage the livestock, including parasite
control, shearing and pasture rotation.
Shearing
Tinkachi or T'inka: This is a ritual and offering to nature, animal reproduction, the springs and
streams and in request for protection. The offering is made in February and August. The offering is a
llama, the blood of which is drunk by the family. Finally the animal is boiled and served to all
attending. The bones are burned.
PRODUCTION, TRANSFORMATION AND COMMERCIALIZATION
Llamas are used mainly for meat and for carrying loads. Its wool is mainly used for the inhabitants'
own consumption or for ropes and sacks but not for commerce. The alpaca wool used to be very
popular but prices have dropped and lately alpaca meat has also been commercialized. The first to
export alpaca wool were the British from Arequipa. Peruvian alpaca wool reached 80% of the world
production during the eighties. It was used for jumpers, blankets and other articles. The fact that the
industry demanded quantities of wool without taking into account quality control, has meant that
quality has dropped. Designers are taking less interest in the product. However, articles of clothing
are made with the wool, in the area, for the inhabitants' use as well as the tourist trade.
Meat
For many farmers, alpaca breeding has meant their only source of income as the high altitudes do
not permit crop growing. Alpaca meat, wool and skins constitute a source of income for the farmer.
Llamas tend to be used more for their meat. Alpaca meat has a higher protein percentage and less
fat than the llama meat, although the percentages in both vary with age. Llama and alpaca meat
consumption is often rejected as the meat is considered to be only for indians to eat or it can be
confused with vicua meat which is an animal in danger of extinction. However, alpaca meat is
healthier than other meats as well as having a pleasant flavour. It contains more protein and less fat
and contains magnesium, sodium and potassium. It is low in cholesterol. The smell of the meat when
it is cooked is strong.
Hides
It is not yet very commercial but after being treated can be used for clothing and other articles,
especially the hide of the young. The alpaca hide is often wasted when the animal is killed.
COCHINEAL AND AYRAMPO
These are two natural colouring dyes which have been used since pre-Columbian times by natives
for dyeing weaving. They also possess some medicinal properties. Cochineal is a parasitic insect
which lives on a cactus, or prickly pear plant and contains a colouring substance, maroon red carmic
acid. The Spanish conquerors found it in Mexico where the colouring was used by the Aztecs.
Hernan Cortes took the prickly pear plant to Spain and it grew particularly in the Canary Islands. At
that time only small cottony stains were observed on the prickly pear leaves and the dye was
extracted. It was not until 1703 with the invention of the microscope that the Cochineal parasite was
discovered. The dye is collected from the leaves of the prickly pear by scraping them so that the
insects fall and then by drying them. The female insect is the one which possesses the dye and it
contains the greatest concentration of it when it is in the process of egg laying.
At present, this dye is in great demand for making cosmetics, drinks and food which require
colourings, as it is not carcinogenic. Despite the fact that it exists in a great many locations, Peru is
the country with the greatest production and the Colca is one of the most important regions where it
can be found. The prickly pear is a nutritious and well liked fruit. It is gathered from the natural places
where it grows, particularly by the streams in the canyon. The ayrampo, which is still is not used
industrially, is also a dye from the fruit of a small cactus of the same family as the prickly pear, used
for textiles and food. It is also used a great deal for its medicinal properties.

Colca Valley 2

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COLCA VALLEY

Ways of getting to the Colca Valley

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