Solidification Processes - Casting

Figure 01: Classification of solidification processes

1.0 Introduction
Solidification processes are manufacturing processes which create a part by solidification of the
material in a liquid or highly plastic stage. oulding and casting are the main types of solidification
processes. !he solidification processes can be categorised by the materials that are processed "
metals# ceramics $especially glasses. %ther ceramics are rarely made using these processes&# and
polymers and polymer matri' composites $PCs&.
Casting is a process where molten metal flows by gra(ity or some other force into a mould where it
solidifies in the shape of the mould ca(ity. !he term casting is also applied to parts made by this
process. )t is one of the oldest shaping processes a(ailable $dating bac* +000 years&. !he principle of
casting is simple " melt the metal# pour it into the mould# and allow it to cool and solidify.
,e(ertheless# there are many other factors to be considered during the casting process.
Casting includes both the casting of ingots and the casting of shapes. Shape casting in(ol(es the
production of comple' geometries close to the required final geometry of the part.
- (ariety of shape casting methods are a(ailable# ma*ing it one of the most (ersatile of all
manufacturing processes. )ts ad(antages include:
)t can be used to create comple' part geometries# including both e'ternal and internal shapes.
Some casting processes can produce parts to net shape. ,o further manufacturing operations
are required to achie(e the required geometry and the dimensions of the parts. %ther casting
processes produce near net shape# where some additional processing $usually machining& is
required to achie(e dimensions and details.
1
Casting can be used to produce (ery large parts. Castings weighing more than 100 tons ha(e
been made.
!hey can be performed on any metal that can be heated to liquid state.
Some casting methods can be used for mass production.
!here are disad(antages associated with casting# which are different for different casting methods.
!hese disad(antages include limitations on mechanical properties# porosity# poor dimensional
accuracy and surface finish# safety ha.ards to humans when processing hot molten metals and
en(ironmental problems.
Parts made by casting may (ary from small components weighing only a few ounces to huge parts
weighing tons. !he list of parts that are cast includes dental crowns# /ewellery# statues# wood burning
sto(es# engine bloc*s and heads# machine frames# railway wheels# frying pans# pipes# and pump
housings. - wide (ariety of metals# ferrous and nonferrous# can be cast.
Plastics and ceramics can also be cast# but the methods and details of the processes differ.
2.0 Overview of casting technology
Casting is usually carried out in the foundry. !he foundry is a factory equipped for ma*ing moulds#
melting and handling metal in molten form# performing the casting process# and cleaning the finished
casting. !he wor*ers who perform casting are called foundrymen.
2.1 Casting process
!he mould $used for casting& contains a ca(ity whose geometry determines the shape of the cast part.
!he actual si.e and shape of the ca(ity must be slightly o(ersi.ed to allow for shrin*age that occurs
on the metal during solidification and cooling. 0ifferent metals undergo different amounts of
shrin*age. !herefore# if dimensional accuracy is required# the mould must be made for the particular
metal used. moulds may be made of a (ariety of materials " sane# plaster# ceramic# and metal. Casting
processes are often classified according to the type of mould.
For casting# the metal is first heated to a temperature high enough to completely transform the metal
to liquid state. )t is then poured or otherwise directed into the ca(ity of the mould. )n an open mould#
the liquid metal is simply poured till it fills the ca(ity. )n a closed mould# a passageway# called the
gating system# is pro(ided t permit the molten metal to flow from the outside the metal into the ca(ity.
!he closed is by far an important category in casting operations.
-s the metal is poured into the mould# it begins to cool. 1hen the temperature drops sufficiently# $to
the free.ing point of the pure metal&# solidification begins. Solidification is a change of phase# and
time is required to complete it. 0uring this process# the metal assumes the shape of the mould ca(ity
and many of the properties and characteristics of casting are established.
%nce the casting has cooled sufficiently# it is remo(ed from the mould. 0epending on the casting
method used# further processing many be required. !hese processing may include trimming metal
from the cast part# cleaning the surface# inspecting the product# and heat treatment to enhance
properties. )n addition# machining may be required to achie(e close tolerances on certain part features
and to remo(e the cast surface.
Casting processes are di(ided into two main categories depending on the type of mould used "
e'pendable mould casting and permanent mould casting. -n e'pendable mould in which the metal
2
solidifies should be destroyed to remo(e the casting. !hese moulds are made of sane# plaster# or
similar materials# whose form is maintained by binders of (arious *inds. Sand casting is the most
prominent e'ample of e'pendable mould processes. )n sand casting# liquid metal is poured into a
mould made of sand. -fter the metal hardens# the mould must be sacrificed to reco(er the casting.

- permanent mould can be used repeatedly to produce many castings. )t is usually made of metal
though ceramic is sometimes used $which can withstand the high temperatures of casting. )n
permanent mould casting# the mould consists of two or more sections that can be opened to permit the
remo(al of the casting. 0ie casting the most commonly used of this group.
ore intricate shapes are usually possible with e'pendable moulds. Part shapes in permanent mould
process are limited by the need to open the mould. 2owe(er# permanent mould operations ha(e
economic ad(antages o(er high production operations.
2.2 Sand casting moulds
!his is usually the most important casting process. any of the features of a sand casting mould are
common to other mould types. !he mould consists of two hal(es " the cop and the drag. !he cope is
the upper half and the drag is the lower half. !he two parts are contained in a bo'# called a flas*#
which is also di(ided into two hal(es# one each for the cope and the drag. !he two hal(es of the
mould separate at the parting line.
)n sand casting the mould ca(ity is formed by the means of a pattern# which is made of wood# metal#
plastic# or other materials and has the shape of the part to be cast. !he ca(ity is formed by pac*ing
sand around the pattern# about half of each in the cope and drag# so that when the pattern is remo(ed#
the remaining (oid is the desired shape of the cast part. !he pattern is usually o(ersi.ed to allow for
shrin*age. !he sand used is usually moist and contains a binder to help it maintain its shape.
!he ca(ity in the mould pro(ides the e'ternal surface f the cast part. Casting may also ha(e internal
surfaces. !hese are determined by the means of a core# a form places inside the mould ca(ity to define
the interior geometry of the part. )n sand casting# although other materials can be used# though other
materials# such as metals# plastics and ceramics.
!he gating system is the channel or the networ* of channels by which molten metal flows into the
ca(ity from inside the mould. !he gating system typically consists of a downsprue $sometimes called
sprue& through which the metal enters a runner that leads into the main ca(ity. -t the top of the
downsprue# the pouring cup is often used to minimise splash and turbulence as the metal flows into
the downsprue. !he pouring cup may be a simple cone shaped funnel# but some are designed in the
shape of a bowl which has an open channel leading to the downsprue.
3
Figure 03: !wo forms the moulds: $a& %pen moulds# simply a container in the shape of the desired
part# and $b& closed mould# in which mould geometry is more comple' and required a gating system
$passway leading into the ca(ity.
)n addition to this# any casting with significant shrin*age required a riser connected to the main ca(ity.
!he riser is a reser(oir in the mould that ser(es as a source of liquid metal for casting to compensate
for shrin*age during solidification. !he riser must be designed to free.e after the main casting in order
to satisfy its function.
-s the metal flows into the mould# the air that pre(iously occupied the ca(ity as well as hot gases
formed by reactions of the molten metal must be e(acuated so that the metal can fill the ca(ity )n sand
casting# the natural porosity of the sand mould permits the air and gases to escape through the walls of
the ca(ity. )n permanent metal moulds# small (ent holes are drilled into mould or machined into the
parting line to permit the remo(al of air gases.
3.0 Heating and pouring
!o perform casting# the metal must be heated to a temperature somewhat abo(e its melting
temperature and then poured into the mould ca(ity to solidify.
3.1 Heating
4arious furnaces may be used to heat the metal to a molten temperature sufficient for casting. !he
heat energy required is the sum of the heat required to
5aise the temperature of the meta to melting point
2eat of fusion to con(ert it from solid to liquid
2eat to raise the molten metal to the desired temperature for pouring.
!his can be e'pressed as:
2 6 748C
s
$!
m
" !
o
& 9 2
f
9 C
l
$!
p
" !
m
&:
1here 2 is the total energy required to heat the metal to casting temperature $;&# 7 is the density
$g<cm
=
&# C
s
is the the weight specific heat for the solid metal $;<$g>&&# !
m
is the melting point $>&# !
o

starting temperature $usually ambient& $>&# 2
f
the heat of fusion $;<g&# C
l
the weight specific heat
capacity of the metal $;<$g>&&# !
p
the pouring temperature $>&# and 4 the (olume of the metal being
heated.
4
!he computational (alue of the abo(e equation is limited. !he use of the equation is complicated due
to the following factors:
Specific heat and thermal properties of a solid material may (ary with the temperature#
especially if it undergoes a change of phase during heating.
- metal?s specific heat may be different in the solid and liquid states.
ost casting metals are alloys# and alloys melt o(er a range of temperatures between the
solidus and the liquidus rather than at a single point. !herefore# the heat of fusion cannot be
applied so simply.
!he property (alues required in the equation for a particular alloy may not be a(ailable in
most cases.
!here are significant heat losses to the en(ironment during heating.
3.2 ouring of the metal
-fter heating# the metal can be poured. )ntroduction of the molten metal into mould# including its flow
through the gating system and into the ca(ity is a critical step in the casting process. For this to be
successful# the metal must flow into all regions of the mould before solidifying. Factors that affect this
operation include pouring temperature# pouring rate# and turbulence.
!he pouring temperature in the temperature of the molten metal as it is introduced into the mould. !he
difference between the pouring temperature and the melting temperature of the metal is important
$liquidus for an alloy&. !his temperature difference is sometimes referred to as superheat. !his also
refers to the amount of heat that must be remo(ed between pouring and when solidification
commences.
!he pouring rate refers to the (olumetric rate at which the molten metal is poured into the mould. )f
the rate is too slow# the metal will chill and free.e before filling the ca(ity. )f the pouring ate is
e'cessi(e# turbulence can be a serious problem. !urbulence is characterised by erratic (ariations in the
magnitude and direction of the (elocity through the fluid. !he flow is agitated and irregular rather
than smooth and streamlined# as in laminar flow. !he turbulent flow should be a(oided for se(eral
reasons. )t tends to accelerate the forming of metal o'ides that can be entrapped during solidification#
degrading the quality of the casting. !his also aggra(ates mould erosion# the gradual wearing away of
the mould surfaces due to the flowing of the molten metal. !he densities of most molten metals are
much higher that water. Consequently wear caused by the flow of this metal in the mould is
significant# especially under turbulent conditions. @rosion is especially serious when it occurs in the
main ca(ity because the geometry of the cast part is affected.
3.3 !ngineering analysis of pouring
!here are se(eral relationships that go(ern the flow of liquid metal through the gating system into the
mould. -n important relationship is the Aernoulli?s theorem# which states that the sum of energies
$head# pressure# *inetic and friction& at any two points in a flowing liquid are equal. !his can be
written as:
h
1
9 $p
1
<7
1
& 9 (
1
3
<$3g& 9 F
1
6 h
3
9 $p
3
<7
3
& 9 (
3
3
<$3g& 9 F
3
where h 6 head $cm&# p 6 pressure on the liquid $,<cm
3
&# 7 6 density $g<cm
=
&# (6flow (elocity$cm<s&#
gra(itational acceleration constant $cm<g
3
&# F 6 2ead loss due to friction $cm&. Subscripts indicate
$two& locations in the liquid flow.
5
!he equation can be simplified in se(eral ways. )f friction losses are ignored $though it will ob(iously
affect the flow in a sand mould& and assume that the system remains at atmospheric pressure
throughout# the equation can be reduced to:
h
1
9 (
1
3
<$3g& 6 h
3
9 (
3
3
<$3g&
!his can be used to determine the (elocity of the molten metal at the base of the sprue. )f point 1 is at
the top of the sprue and point 3 at the base# )f point 3 is used as reference# head at that point 6 0# and
h
1
us the height of the sprue. 1hen metal is poured into the pouring cup and o(erflows down the
sprue# the initial (elocity at the top of the sprue is .ero $(
1
6 0&. 2ence the equation further simplifies
to
h
1
6 (
3
3
<3g
which gi(es
( 6 B$3gh&
where ( is the (elocity of the metal at the base of the sprue and h is the height of the sprue.
-nother important relation in pouring is the continuity law# which states that the (olume of flow
remains constant throughout the liquid. !he (olume flow rate is equal to the (elocity multipled by the
cross-sectional area of the flowing liquid. !his can be e'pressed as
C 6 (
1
-
1
6 (
3
-
3
1here C 6 (olumetric flow rate $cm
=
<s&# - 6 cross sectional area of liquid $cm
3
&!herefore# an increase
in area results in a decrease in (elocity and (ice (ersa.
!he sprue could be tapered. -s the metal accelerates during its descent into the sprue opening# the
cross sectional area of the channel must be reduced. %therwise# as the (elocity of the flowing metal
increases towards the base of the sprue# air can be aspirated into the liquid and conducted into the
mould ca(ity. !o pre(ent this# the sprue is designed with a taper# so that the (olume flow rate (- is the
same at the top and bottom of the sprue.
-ssuming the runner from the sprue base to the mould ca(ity is hori.ontal $ and therefore head h is
the same as the sprue base&# then the (olume rate of flow through he gate and into the mould ca(ity
remains to (- at the base. -ccordingly# the time required to fill a mould ca(ity of (olume 4 can be
estimated as
!
F
6 4<C
1here !
F
6 the mould filling time $s&# 4 6 (olume of the mould ca(ity $cm
=
&# C 6 is the (olume flow
rate. !he mould filling time is computed by the abo(e equation is the minimum. !his is because
frictional losses and possible constriction of the flow in the gating system.
3." #luidity
!he molten metal flow characteristics are described by the term fluidity# which is a measure of the
capability of a metal to flow into and fill the mould before free.ing. Fluidity is the in(erse of
(iscosity. Standard testing methods are a(ailable to asses fluidity. %ne is the spiral mould test shown
6
below. !he fluidity is indicated by the length of the solidified metal in the spiral. !he longer cast
spiral means greater fluidity of the molten metal.
Figure 0=: Spiral mould test for fluidity# where fluidity is measured as the length of the spiral channel
that is filled by the molten metal prior to solidification.
Factors affecting fluidity include pouring temperature relati(e to melting point# metal composition#
(iscosity of the liquid metal# and heat transfer to surrounding. - higher pouring temperature relati(e
to the free.ing point of the metal increases the time it remains in liquid state# allowing it to flow
further before free.ing. !his tends to aggra(ate certain casting problems such as o'ide formation#
porosity# and penetration of liquid metal into interstitial spaces between the grains of sand forming the
mould. !he last problem causes the surface of the casting to contain embedded sand particles# ma*ing
it rougher and abrasi(e than normal.
Composition also affects fluidity# particularly with respect to the metal?s solidification mechanism.
!he best fluidity is obtained by metals that free.e at a constant temperature $pure metals and eutectic
alloys&. 1hen solidification occurs o(er a temperature range $most alloys&# the partially solidified
portion interferes with the flow of the liquid portion# reducing fluidity. )n addition to the free.ing
mechanism# this also determines the heat of fusion " the amount of heat required to solidify the metal
on the liquid state. - higher heat of fusion tends to increase the measured fluidity in casting.
".0 Solidification and cooling
-fter pouring into the mould# the molten metal cools and solidifies. )ssues associated with
solidification include the time for the metal to free.e# shrin*age# directional solidification# and riser
design.
".1 Solidification of metals
!he solidification process depends on whether the metal is a pure element or an alloy.
".1.1 ure metals
- pure metal solidifies at a constant temperature equal to its free.ing point# which is the same as its
melting point. !he melting point of pure metals are well *nown an documented. !he process occurs
o(er time as shown in the cooling cur(e below. !he actual free.ing ta*es time# *nown as local
solidification time in casting# during which the metal?s latent heat of fusion is released into the
surrounding mould. !he total solidification time is the time ta*en between pouring and complete
solidification. -fter casting has completely solidified# cooling continues at a rate indicated by the
downward slope of the cooling cur(e.
7
Aecause of the chilling action of the mould wall# a thin s*in of solid metal is initially formed at the
interface immediately after pouring. !he thic*ness of the s*in increases to form a shell around the
molten metal as solidification progresses inwards towards the centre of the ca(ity. !he rate at which
free.ing proceeds depends on the thermal properties of the metal.
!he metal that forms the initial s*in is cooled rapidly by the e'traction of heat through the mould
wall. !his cooling action causes the grains of the s*in to be fine# equia'ed# and randomly oriented. -s
cooling continues# further grain formation and growth occur in the direction away from heat transfer.
Since heat transfer Since the heat transfer is through the s*in and the wall# grains grow inwards as
needles or spines of solid metal. -s these spines enlarge# lateral branches form at right angles to the
first branches. !his type of grain growth is referred to as dendritic growth# and it occurs not only in
the free.ing of pure meals but alloys as well. !hese treeli*e structures are gradually filled in during
free.ing as additional metal is continually deposited on the dendrites until complete solidification has
occurred. !he grains resulting form dendritic growth ta*e on a preferred orientation# tending to be
coarse# columnar grains aligned towards the centre of the casting.
Figure 0D:
Cooling cur(e for a pure metal during casting
Figure 0E:
Characteristic grain structure in a casting of a pure metal# showing randomly oriented grains of small
si.e near the mould wall# and large columnar grains oriented toward the centre of the casting.
".1.2 $ost alloys
ost alloys free.e o(er a temperature range rather than at a single temperature. !he e'act range
depends on the alloy system and the particular composition. Solidification of an alloy can be
e'plained with reference to figure 0+ which shows the phase diagram for an alloy system and the
cooling cur(e for a gi(en composition. -s the temperature drops# free.ing begins at the liquidus
8
temperature and completes when the solidus temperature is reached. !he start of free.ing is similar to
a pure metal. - thin s*in is formed on the surface due to the large temperature gradient of the surface.
!he free.ing the continues as before by the growth of dendrites from the walls. 2owe(er# owing to the
temperature spread between the liquidus and solidus# the nature of dendritic growth is such that an
ad(ancing .one is formed where both liquid and solid states coe'ist. !he solid portions are dendrite
structures that ha(e formed sufficiently to trap liquid metal in the matri'. !his region has a soft
consistency that has moti(ated its name as the mushy .one. 0epending on the conditions of free.ing#
the mushy .one can be relati(ely narrow# r it can e'ist throughout most of the casting. !he latter
condition is promoted by factors such as slow heat transfer out of the metal and a wide difference
between liquidus and solidus temperatures. Fradually# the liquid islands in the dendrite matri' solidify
as the temperature of the casting drops to the solidus for gi(en alloy compositions.
-nother factor that complicates solidification is the composition at which the dendrites start to form
fa(ours the metal with the higher melting point. -s free.ing continues and dendrites grow# there
de(elops an imbalance in composition between the metal that has solidified and the remaining molten
metal. !his composition imbalance is finally manifested in the completed casting in the form of
segregation of elements. Segregation can be microscopic and macroscopic. -t microscopic le(el# the
chemical composition (aries throughout each indi(idual grain. !his is due to the fact that the
beginning spine of each dendrite has a higher proportion of one element in the alloy. -s the dendrite
grown in its local (icinity# it must e'pand using the remaining liquid metal that has been partially
depleted of the first component. Finally# the last metal to free.e in each grain is which has been
trapped by the branches of the dendrites# and its composition is e(en further out of balance. !herefore#
there are (ariations of composition within a single grain of casting.

Figure 0+: $a& Phase diagram for copper-nic*el alloy system# $b& associated cooling cur(e for a E0G
,i-E0GCu composition during casting.
!he composition also (aries at macroscopic le(el throughout the entire casting. !he regions of the
casting that free.e first are richer in one component than the other# the remaining molten metal is
depri(ed of one component when free.ing occurs in the interior. !herefore# there is a general
segregation throughout the cross-section of the casting# sometime called ingot segregation.
9

Figure 0H: Characteristic grain structure in an alloy casting# showing segregation of alloying
components in the centre of the casting.
".1.3 !utectic alloys
!hese constitute an e'ception to the general process by which alloys solidify. @utectic alloys ha(e the
same liquidus and solidus temperatures# therefore solidification occurs at a constant temperature. !he
effect can be seen in the lead tin phase diagram below. !he composition of +1.IG tin and =J.1G lead
has a melting point of 1J=
o
C $which is lower than the melting point of both pure metals. !his is
*nown as the eutectic composition of the system and the melting point the eutectic temperature. Kead
tin alloys are not commonly used in casting# but lead tin combinations near eutectic are used for
soldering# where low melting point is an ad(antage. @utectic alloys used in casting include aluminium
silicon - I11.+G Si and cast iron $D.=GC&.
".2 Solidification time
5egardless of whether a casting is a pure metal or alloy# solidification ta*es time. !he total
solidification time is the time required for the casting to solidify after pouring. !he time is dependent
on the si.e and shape of the casting by an empirical relationship *nown as Ch(orino(?s rule# which
states
!
!S
6 C
m
$4<-&
n
1here !
!S
is the total solidification time $min&# 4 6 (olume of casting $cm
3
&# n is usually ta*e to ha(e
the (alue n# C
m
is the mould constant. 1hen n 6 3# units of C are min<cm
3
and its (alue depends on
the particular conditions of the casting operation# including mould material $specific heat# specific
conducti(ity&# thermal properties of the cast metal $ heat of fusion# specific heat# thermal
conducti(ity&# and pouring temperature relati(e to the melting point of the metal. !he (alue of C
m
for
a particular casting can be based on e'perimental data from pre(ious operations carried out using the
same mould material# metal# and pouring temperature# e(en though the shape of the part may be
different.
!his equation predicts that a casting with a higher (olume to surface ratio will cool and solidify more
slowly than one with a lower ratio. !his is put to good use when designing the riser in the mould. !o
feed molten metal into the casting# the riser must remain liquid longer than the rest of the casting $!
!S

for the casting for the riser must be larger for the riser&. -s the mould conditions are similar for both#
C
m
will be same. Ay designing the riser to ha(e a larger (olume to area ratio# the main casting can be
designed to solidify first and the effect of shrin*age are minimised.
".3 Shrin%age
10
Shrin*age occurs during cooling an free.ing. )t occurs in three steps " liquid contraction during
cooling $before solidification&# Contraction during phase change $solidification shrin*age# and thermal
contraction of solid cast.
!hese can be e'plained with reference to a cylindrical casting in an open mould. !he cooling of the
liquid causes the height of liquid in the mould to decrease. !he amount of liquid contraction is about
0.EG.Solidification shrin*age has two effects. )t censuses a further reduction of the height of the
casting# and the amount of liquid metal a(ailable to feed the top centre portion on the casting becomes
restricted. !his is usually the last region to free.e# and the absence of metal creates a (oid in the
casting in this location. !his is called a pipe by foundrymen. %nce solidified# the casting e'periences
further contraction in height and diameter while cooling. !his is determined by the metal?s coefficient
of thermal e'pansion# which is applied to re(erse the determine contraction.
!he table below gi(es the (olumetric contraction for casting metals due to solidification shrin*age
and solid contraction. Solidification contraction occurs in nearly all metals as the solid phase has a
higher density than the liquid phase. !he phase transformation that accompanies solidification causes
a reduction in the (olume per unit weight of metal. !he e'ception is cast iron containing a high carbon
content# whose solidification is complicated by a period of graphiti.ation during the final stages of
free.ing# which tends to counteract the (olumetric decrease associated with solidification.

Figure 0J: Shrin*age of a cylindrical casting during solidification and cooling: $0& Starting le(el of
molten metal immediately after pouring# $1& 5eduction in le(el caused by liquid contraction during
cooling# $3& reduction in le(el caused by liquid contraction during cooling# $=& further reduction in
height and diameter due to thermal contraction during cooling of the solid metal. For clarity#
dimensional reductions are e'aggerated.
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!able 01: 4olumetric contraction of different casting metals due to solidification shrin*age and solid
contraction
etal 4olumetric contraction due to# G
Solidification shrin*age Solid thermal conduction
-luminium H.0 E.+
-l alloy $typical& H.0 E.0
Fray cast iron 1.J =.0
Fray cast iron# high C 0 =.0
Kow C cast steel =.0 H.3
Copper D.E H.E
Aron.e $Cu-Sn& E.E +.0
Pattern ma*ers account for shrin*age by ma*ing o(ersi.ed mould ca(ities. !he amount the mould
should be made larger relati(e to the final casting is called pattern shrin*age allowance. -lthough
shrin*age is (olumetric# the dimensions of the casting are almost always e'pressed linearly# so the
allowances must be applied accordingly. Special shrin* rules with slightly elongated scales are used to
ma*e moulds larger than the desired casting by the appropriate amount. 0epending on the metal to be
cast# the shrin* rules are between 1G and EG longer.
"." &irectional solidification
!o minimise the effects of shrin*age# it is desirable for the regions of the casting most distant from the
liquid metal supply to free.e first and for solidification to progress from these remote regions to the
risers# to ensure that liquid metal are a(ailable from the risers to pre(ent shrin*age (oids during
free.ing. !he term directional solidification is used to describe this aspect of casting and the method
by which it is controlled. !he desired directional solidification is achie(ed by obser(ing Ch(orino(?s
rule in designing the casting# its orientation and the riser system that feeds it. For e'ample# areas with
low 4<- can be located away from the riser# so that these regions free.e first and the supply of liquid
metal for the rest of the casting will remain open until the bul*ier sections solidify.
-nother possible method is the usage of chills " internal or e'ternal heat sin*s that cause rapid
free.ing in certain regions of the casting. )nternal chills are small metal parts placed inside ca(ity
before pouring so that molten metal will solidify first around these parts. !he internal chill should
ha(e a chemical composition similar to the metal being poured# most readily achie(ed by ma*ing the
chills out of the same material as the casting.
@'ternal chills are metal inserts in the walls of the mould ca(ity that can remo(e heat from the molten
metal more rapidly than the surrounding sand in order to promote solidification. !hey are often used
effecti(ely in sections of the casting difficult to feed with liquid metal# thus encouraging rapid
free.ing in this sections while connection to the liquid metal is still open.
12

Figure 0I: $a& e'ternal chill to encourage rapid free.ing of the molten metal in a thin section of the
casting# $b& li*ely result if the e'ternal chill were not used.
)t is also important to a(oid premature solidification in regions near the riser. %f particular concern is
the passway between the riser and the main ca(ity. !his connection is designed in such a way that it
does not free.e before casting# which does not isolate the casting from the molten metal in the riser.
!hough it is generally desirable minimise the (olume in connection $to reduce waste&# the cross-
sectional area must be sufficient to delay the onset of free.ing. !his is usually aided by ma*ing the
passway short in length# so that it absorbs heat from the molten metal in the riser and the casting.
".' (iser design
5isers can also be designed in se(eral forms. - side riser is attached to the side of the casting by the
means of a small channel. - top riser is connected to the top surface of the casting. 5isers can be open
or blind. -n open riser is e'posed to the outside at the top surface of the cope. !his has the
disad(antage of allowing more heat to escape# promoting faster solidification. - blind riser is entirely
enclosed in the mould.
'.0 Sand casting
etal casting processes can be di(ided into two categories " e'pendable mould and permanent mould.
)n e'pendable mould casting# the mould must be sacrificed to remo(e the cast part. -s a new mould
each required for each casting# production rates depend on the time required to ma*e the mould rather
than time required for the casting itself. 2owe(er# for some parts# moulds can be produced and casting
made at a rate of D00 parts per hour or higher.
Sand casting is an e'pendable mould casting process. )t is also the most widely used casting process#
accounting for a significant ma/ority of all parts cast. ,early all alloys can be sand cast# and is one of
the few processes that can be used for metals with high melting temperatures such as steel# nic*el and
titanium. )ts (ersatility permits casting of parts ranging in si.e from small to large in production
quantities from one to millions.
Sand casting consists of pouring the molten metal into a sad mould# allowing the metal to solidify# and
then brea*ing the mould to remo(e the casting. !he casting must then be cleaned and inspected# and
heat treatment is required to impro(e metallurgical properties. !he ca(ity in sand casting is produced
by pac*ing sand around a pattern $an appro'imate duplicate of the part to be cast& and remo(ing the
pattern by separating the mould to two hal(es. !he mould also contains a gating and riser system. )n
addition# if the casting has internal surfaces $hollow parts or parts with holes# a core must be included
in the loud. -s the mould is sacrificed to remo(e the casting new mould must be made for each part
13
!herefore# sand casting seems to include not only the casting operation# but also the fabrication of
patter and ma*ing the mould.
'.1 atterns and cores
Sand casting requires a pattern# which is a full side model of the part# enlarged to account for
shrin*age and machining allowances in the final casting. aterials used to ma*e patterns include
wood# plastics and metals. 1ood is a common pattern material because it is easily wor*ed into shape.
)ts disad(antages are the tendency to warp# and it is abraded by the sand being compacted about it#
which limits the number of times it can be reused. etal patterns are more e'pensi(e# but they last
longer. Plastics are a compromise between wood and metal. Selection of the appropriate material
mostly depends on the total quality of the castings to be made.
!he simplest patterns are made of one piece# called a solid pattern. -lthough it is the easiest pattern to
fabricate# it is not the easiest to use in ma*ing the sand mould. 0etermining the location of the parting
line between the two hal(es can be a problem# and incorporating a gating system and sprue into the
mould is left to the /udgement and s*ill of the foundry wor*er.
Split patterns usually consist of two pieces# di(iding the part along a plane coinciding with the parting
line of the mould. Split patterns are appropriate for comple' part geometries and moderate production
quantities. !he parting line of the mould is predetermined by the two pattern hal(es# rather than by
operator /udgement.
For higher production rates# match plate or cope and drag patterns are employed. )n match plate
patterns# the two pieces are attached to the opposite sides of a wood or metal plate. 2oles in the plate
allow the cope and drag $top and bottom sections of the mould& to be aligned accurately. Cope and
drag patterns are similar e'pect that the split hal(es are attached to separate patterns# so that the cope
and drag can be fabricated independently# instead of using the same tooling for both.

Figure 10: !ypes of pattern used in sand casting $a& solid pattern# $b& split pattern# $c& match-plate
pattern# $d& cope and drag pattern
)f the casting is to ha(e internal surfaces# a core is required. - core is a full-scale model of the interior
surfaces of the part. )t is inserted into the mould ca(ity prior to pouring so that the molten metal will
flow and solidify between the moulding ca(ity prior to pouring# so that the molten metal will flow and
solidify between the mould ca(ity and the core to form the casting?s e'ternal and internal surfaces.
!he core is usually made of sand and compacted to the desired shape. -s with the pattern# the actual
si.e of the core must allow for shrin*age and machining. 0epending on the geometry of the part the
core may or may not require supports to hold it in position in the mould ca(ity during pouring. !hese
supports# called chaplets# are made of a metal with a higher melting temperature than the casting
metal. %n pouring and solidification# the chaplets are bonded into the casting. !he portion of chaplet
protruding from the casting is subsequently cut off.
14

Figure 11: $a& Core held in place in the mould ca(ity by chaplets# $b& possible chaplet design# $c&
casting with internal ca(ity.
'.2 $oulds and mould ma%ing
Foundry sands are silica $Si
3
%& or silica mi'ed with other minerals.. !he sand should posses good
refractory properties " capacity to stand up under high temperatures without melting or otherwise
degrading# )mportant features of sand include grain si.e# distribution of grain si.e in the mi'ture the
shape of indi(idual grains. Small grains pro(ide a better surface finish on the cast part# but large grain
si.es are more permeable to allow the escape of gases during pouring. ost moulds made from grains
of irregular shape tend to be stronger that moulds of round grains due to interloc*ing but it tends to
restrict permeability.
1hen ma*ing the mould# the grains of sand are held together by a mi'ture of water and bonding clay.
- typical mi'ture by (olume is I0G sand# =G water# and HG clay. %ther binding agents $other than
clay# such as organic resins $phenolic resins& and inorganic binders $e.g.# sodium silicate and
phosphate& may be used. )n addition to the sand and the binder# additi(es are sometimes added to
enhance properties such as strength and<or permeability of the mould.
!o form the mould ca(ity# the traditional method is to compact the moulding sand around the pattern
for both cope and drag in a container called flas*. !he pac*ing process is performed by (arious
methods. !he simplest is hand ramming# accomplished manually by a foundry wor*er. )n addition#
(arious machines ha(e been de(eloped to mechanise the pac*ing procedure. !hese machines operate
by se(eral mechanisms# including squee.ing sand around the pattern by pneumatic pressure# a /olting
action in which sand which is contained in a flas* with the patter is dropped repeatedly in order to
pac* it into place# or a slinging action where the sand grains are impacted against the pattern at high
speed.
-n alternati(e to traditional flas*s for each sand mould is flas*less moulding# which refers to the use
of one master flas* in a mechanised system of mould production. @ach sand mould is produced using
the main master flas*. ould production rates up to +00 per hour are claimed for this automated
method.
Se(eral indicators are used to determine the quality of the sand mould:
Strength: the mould?s ability to maintain its shape and resist erosion caused by the flow of
molten metal. )t depends on grain shape# adhesi(e qualities of the binder# and other factors
Permeability: Capacity of the mould to allow hot air and gases from the casting operation to
pass through the (oids in the sand.
15
!hermal stability: ability of the sand at the surface of the mould ca(ity to resist crac*ing and
buc*ling upon contact with molten metal
Collapsibility: -bility of the mould to gi(e away and allow the casting to shrin* without
crac*ing the casting. )t also refers to the ability to remo(e sand from the casting during
cleaning
5eusability: whether the sand from the bro*en casting be reused for other moulds.
!hese parameters may be incompatible " for e'ample# a strong mould may be less collapsible.
Sand moulds can be classified as green-sand# dry-sand# or s*in-dried moulds. Freen sand moulds are
made of a mi'ture of sand# clay and water# and the word green refers to the fact that the mould
contains moisture at the time of pouring. Freen sand moulds generally ha(e sufficient strength for
most applications# good collapsibility# good permeability# good reusability# and are the least e'pensi(e
of all moulds. !hey are the most widely used mould type# but then ha(e their problems. !he moisture
in the mould may cause defects in some castings# depending on the metal and the geometry of the
part. - dry sand mould is made using organic binders rather than clay# and the mould is ba*ed in a
large o(en at temperatures ranging from 300 to =30
o
C. %(en ba*ing strengthens the mould and
hardens the ca(ity surface. - dry-sand mould pro(ides better dimensional control in the product
compared to green moulding. 2owe(er# dry sand is more e'pensi(e and the production rate is reduces
because of the drying time. -pplications are generally limited to medium and large casting in low to
medium production rates. )n a s*in dried mould# the ad(antaged of a dry sand mould partially
achie(ed by drying the surface of a green sand mould to a depth of 10 to 3E mm at the mould ca(ity
surface# using torches# heating lamps# or other means. Special bonding materials must be added to the
sand mi'ture to strengthen the ca(ity surface.
!he preceding mould classifications refer to the use of con(entional binders consisting of either clay-
and-water or those that require heating to cure. )n addition to these# chemically bonded moulds ha(e
been de(eloped that are not based on either of these traditional binding ingredients. Some of the
binders used in these no ba*e systems include furan resins $consisting of furfural alcohol# urea# and
formaldehyde&# phenolics# and al*yd oils. ,o-ba*e moulds are growing in popularity due to their good
dimensional control in high production applications.
'.3 )he casting operation
-fter the core is positioned $if one is used& and the two hal(es are clamped together# and then casting
is performed. Casting consists of pouring# solidification# and cooling of the cast part. !he gating and
the riser system must be designed to deli(er liquid metal into the ca(ity and pro(ide for sufficient
reser(oir of molten metal during solidification shrin*age. -ir and gases must be allowed to escape.
%ne of the ha.ards during pouring is that the buoyancy of the molten metal can displace the core
according to -rchimedes? principle. !he force tending to lift the core is equal to the weight of the
displaces liquid less than the weight of the core:
F
b
6 1
m
" 1
c
1here F
b
is the buoyancy force# 1
m
is the weight of molten metal displaced# and 1
c
the weight of the
core. !he weights are determines as (olume of the core multiplied by the density of the core material
and the metal being cast. !he density of the sand core is around 1.+ g<cm
=
.
!able 03: 0ensity of selected casting alloys
16
aterial 0ensity $g<cm
=
& aterial 0ensity $g<cm
=
&
-luminium $IIG pure& 3.H0 Cast iron# gray H.1+
-luminium silicon alloy 3.+E Copper $IIG pure& J.H=
-luminium copper $I3G -l& 3.J1 Kead pure 11.=0
Arass J.+3 Steel H.J3
Following solidification and cooling# the sand mould is bro*en away from the casting to remo(e the
part. !hen it is cleaned# gating and riser systems separated# and sand is remo(ed. !he casting is then
inspected.
*.0 Other e+penda,le mould casting processes
!hough sand casting is (ersatile# other casting processes ha(e been de(eloped for special needs. !he
difference between these methods are in composition of the mould material# or the manner in which
the mould is made# or the way the pattern is made.
*.1 Shell moulding
!his is casting process where the mould is thin shell $LI mm& made of sand held together by
thermosetting resin binder. )t was de(eloped in the early 1ID0s in Fermany.
!here are many ad(antages of the shell moulding process. !he surface of the shell mould ca(ity is
smoother than a con(entional green sand mould and this permits easier flow of molten metal during
pouring and better surface finish on the final casting. Finished of 3.E Mm can be achie(ed# as well as
good dimensional accuracy $with tolerances of 0.3E mm possible on small to medium si.ed parts&.
!he good finish and accuracy often preludes the need for further machining. Collapsability of the
mould is generally sufficient to a(oid tearing and crac*ing of the casting.
0isad(antages include a more e'pensi(e metal pattern than used for green sand moulding. !his ma*es
the process difficult to /ustify for small quantities of parts. Shell moulding can be mechanised for
mass production and is (ery economical for (ery large quantities. )t is particularly suited to steel
castings led that 30 lb. @'amples of parts made using shell moulding include gears# (al(e bodies#
bushings# and camshafts.
17

Figure 13: Steps in shell moulding. $1& - match plate or cope-and-drag pattern is heated and placed
o(er a bo' containing sand mi'ed with thermosetting resin# $3& bo' is in(erted so that the sand and
resin fall onto the hot pattern# causing a layer of mi'ture to partially cure on the surface to form a hard
shell# $=& the bo' is repositioned so that the loose# uncured particles drop away# $D& Sand shell is
heated in o(en for se(eral minutes to complete the curing# $E& Shell mould is stripped from the
pattern# $+& !wo hal(es of the shell mould are assembled# supported by sand or metal shot in a bo'#
and pouring is accomplished. !he finished casting with sprue is remo(ed as shown in $H&.
*.2 -acuum moulding
4acuum moulding# also called 4-process# was de(eloped in ;apan around 1IH0. )t uses a sand mould
held together by (acuum pressure rather than by a chemical binder. 5eco(ery of sand is one of the
ad(antages of (acuum moulding# as no binders are used. -lso# the sand does not require e'tensi(e
mechanical reconditioning normally done when binders are used to mould sand. -s no water is mi'ed
with the sand# moisture related defects are absent. 0isad(antages of the 4-process are it is relati(ely
slow and not adaptable to mechanisation.
18

Figure 1=: Steps in (acuum moulding: $1& - thin sheet of preheated plastic is drawn o(er a match
plate or cope-and-drag pattern by (acuum. !he pattern has small (ent holes to facilitate (acuum
forming. $3& - specially designed flas* is placed o(er the pattern plate and filled with sand# and a
sprue and pouring cup are formed in the sand. $=& -nother thin plastic sheet is placed o(er the flas*#
and a (acuum is drawn that causes the sand grains to be held together# forming a rigid model. $D& the
(acuum on the mould pattern is released to permit the pattern to be stripped from the mould. $E& !his
mould is assembled with its matching half to form the cope and drag# and with (acuum maintained on
both hal(es# pouring can be achie(ed. !he plastic sheets burns quic*ly on contacting the metal -fter
solidification# nearly all the sand be reco(ered for reuse.
*.3 !+panded polystyrene process
!he e'panded polystyrene casting process uses a mould of sand pac*ed around a polystyrene foam
pattern that (aporises when the molten metal is poured into the mould. !his process is also *nown as
lost-foam process# lost pattern process# e(aporati(e foam process# and full mould process $this is the
trade name&. !he polystyrene pattern includes the sprue# risers# and gating system and it may also
contain internal cores# eliminating the need for a separate core. -lso# since# the foam pattern itself
becomes ca(ity in the mould# considerations of draft and parting lines can be ignored. !he mould does
not ha(e to be opened into cope and drag sections. !he sequence in this casting process is illustrated
in figure 1=. 4arious methods for ma*ing a pattern are used# depending on the quantities of castings to
be produced. For one-of-a-*ind castings# the foam is manually cut from large strips and assembled to
form the pattern. For large production runs# and automated moulding operation can be set up to mould
the patterns prior to casting. !he pattern is usually coated with a refractory compound to produce a
smoother surface on the pattern and to impro(e high temperature resistance.
oulding sands usually include bonding agents. 2owe(er# dry sand is used in certain processes in this
group# which aids reco(ery and reuse.
- significant ad(antage is that the pattern need not be remo(ed from the mould. !his simplifies and
e'pedites mould ma*ing. )n a con(entional green sand mould# two hal(es are required with proper
parting lines# draft allowances must be made# cores must be inserted# and the gating and riser system
19
must be built. 1ith e'panded polystyrene# these steps are added into the pattern itself. !he
disad(antage is that a new pattern in needed for e(ery casting. !he economic /ustification is highly
dependent on the cost of producing patterns. !his has been applied to mass produce castings for
automobile engines. -utomated production systems are installed to mould the polystyrene foam
patterns for these applications.

Figure 1D: @'panded polystyrene casting process: $1& pattern of polystyrene is coated with refractory
compound# $3& foam pattern is placed in mould bo'# $=& olten metal is poured into portion of the
pattern that forms pouring cup and sprue. -s the metal enters the mould# the polystyrene is (aporised
ahead of the ad(ancing liquid# allowing the resulting the mould ca(ity to be filled.
*." Investment casting
)n in(estment casting# a pattern made of wa' is coated with a refractory material to ma*e the mould#
after which wa' is melted away prior to pouring the metal. )t is a precision casting process because it
is capable of ma*ing castings of high accuracy and intricate detail. )t is also *nown as lost wa'
casting# as the wa' pattern is lost before the casting.
!he lost wa' casting process was de(eloped by ancient @gyptians about =E00 years ago. -lthough
who in(ented this process is not recorded# historians speculate that it resulted from the close
association between pottery and moulding in early times. )t was the potter who crafted the moulds
used for casting. !he core was made of clay in the general shape of the piece and then a wa' coating
was gi(en. !he wa' pro(ed to be an easy material to form intricate designs and shapes could be
created. %n the surface# se(eral layers of clay were carefully plastered to hold the resulting
components together. !hen the mould was ba*ed in a *iln# so that the clay hardened and the way
melted and drained away to forma ca(ity. -t last# molten bron.e was poured into the ca(ity. -fter
casting# the mould was bro*en away to retrie(e the casting.
Steps in modern in(estment casting is shown in figure 1E. -s the wa' pattern in lee doss after the
refractory pattern is made# a separate pattern is required for e(ery casting. Pattern production is
usually accomplished by a moulding operation " pouring or in/ection hot wa' into a master die that
has been designed with proper allowances for both wa' shrin*age and subsequent metal casting. )n
cases where the part geometry is complicated# se(eral wa' pieces must be /oined together to ma*e the
pattern. )n high production operations# se(eral patterns are attached to a sprue# also made of wa'# to
form a pattern tree# which is the geometry which will be cast out of metal.
Coating with refractory is usually accomplished by dipping the pattern tree into a slurry of (ery fine
grained silica or other refractory $almost powder form& mi'ed with plaster to bond he mould into
shape. !he small grain si.e of the refractory material pro(ides a smooth surface and captures the
intricate details of the wa' pattern. !he final mould is accomplished by repeatedly dipping the tree
20
into the refractory slurry or by gently pac*ing the refractory around the tree in a container. !he mould
is allowed to air dry for about J hours to harden the binder.

Figure 1E: Steps in in(estment casting: $1& wa' patterns are produced# $3& Se(eral patterns are
attached to a sprue to form a pattern tree# $=& !he pattern tree s coated with a thin layer of refractory
metal# $D& the full mould is formed by co(ering the coated tree with sufficient refractory material to
ma*e it rigid# $E& !he mould is held in an in(erted position and heated to melt the wa' and permit it to
drip out of the ca(ity# $+& the mould is preheated to a high temperature# which ensures that all
contaminants are eliminated from the mould. )t also permits liquid metal to flow more easily into the
detailed ca(ity. !he molten metal is poured and it solidifies# $H& the mould is bro*en away from the
finished casting. Parts are then separated from the sprue.
-d(antages of in(estment casting are:
Parts of great comple'ity and intricacy can be cast
Close dimensional control " tolerances of 0.0HE mm are possible
Food surface finish is possible
-dditional machining is not normally required as it is a net shape process.
Aecause many steps are in(ol(ed in this casting operation# it is relati(ely e'pensi(e. Parts made by
in(estment casting are generally small in si.e# tough parts with comple' geometries weighing up to HE
lb ha(e been successfully cast. -ll types of metal# including steels# stainless steels# and other high
temperature alloys can be in(estment cast. @'amples include comple' machinery parts# blades# and
other components for turbine engines# /ewellery# and dental fi'tures.
*.' laster.mould and ceramic mould casting
Plaster mould casting is similar to sand casting e'cept that the mould is mad of plaster of Paris
$gypsum " CaS%
D
-32
3
%& instead of sand. -dditi(es such as talc and silica flour are mi'ed with plaster
to control contraction and setting time# reduce crac*ing# and increase strength. !o ma*e the mould# the
plaster mi'ture combined with water is poured o(er a plastic or metal pattern in a flas* and allowed to
set. 1ood patterns are generally unsatisfactory due to e'tended contact with water in the plaster. !he
21
fluid consistency permits the plaster mi'ture to readily flow around the pattern# capturing its details
and surface finish. !hus the cast product in plaster moulding is noted for these attributes.
Curing us one of the disad(antages of this method# at least for high production. !he mould must be set
for about 30 minutes before the pattern is stripped. !he mould is then ba*ed for se(eral hours to
remo(e moisture. @(en with ba*ing# not all of the moisture is remo(ed. !he problem is that the mould
strength is reduced when the plaster is too dehydrated but moisture content can cause defects in the
product. - balance must be achie(ed between these. -nother disad(antage is that the mould is not
permeable# limiting the escape of gases from the mould ca(ity. !his can be sol(ed in se(eral ways:
@(acuating the mould ca(ity before pouring
-erating the plaster slurry prior to mould ma*ing so that the resulting hard plaster contains
finely dispersed (oids.
Nsing a special mould composition and treatment *nown as -ntioch process. !his in(ol(es
using about E0G sand mi'ed with plaster# heating the mould in an autocla(e# $an o(en that
uses superheated steam under pressure&# and then drying. !he resulting mould has
considerably greater permeability that the con(entional plaster mould.
Plaster moulds withstand the same high temperature as sand moulds. !hey are therefore limited to the
casting of lower-melting point alloys# such as aluminium# magnesium# and some copper based alloys.
-pplications include metal moulds for plastic and rubber moulding# pump and turbine impellers# and
other parts of relati(ely intricate geometry. Castings range from 30 g to more than 100 *g. Parts
weighing less than 10 *g are common. -d(antages of plaster moulding for these applications are good
surface finish and dimensional accuracy and the capability of thin cross-sections in casting.
Ceramic mould casting is similar to plaster mould casting# e'cept that the mould is made of refractory
ceramic materials that can withstand higher temperature that plaster. !hus ceramic moulding can be
used to cast steels# cast irons# and other temperature alloys. )ts applications $mould and relati(ely
intricate parts&are similar to those of plaster mould casting e'cept for the metals cast. )ts ad(antages
$good accuracy and finish& are also similar.
/.0 ermanent mould casting processes
)n this group# the mould is fabricated out of metal or some other durable metal and is used for many
castings. Permanent mould casting can considered the basic in a group of casting processes that use
reusable moulds. %thers in this group include die casting and centrifugal casting.
/.1 )he ,asic permanent mould process
!his uses a metals mould constructed of two sections that are designed for easy# precise opening and
closing. !he moulds are commonly made of steel or cast iron. !he ca(ity# with the gating system
included# is machined into the two hal(es to produce accurate dimensions and good surface finish.
etals commonly cast in permanent moulds include -luminium# agnesium# copper-base alloys# and
cast irons. 2owe(er# cast iron requires a high pouring temperature $13E0 " 1E00
o
C& which affects
mould life. !he (ery high pouring temperatures of steel ma*es permanent moulds unsuitable for it#
unless it is made of refractory material.
Cores can be used in permanent moulds to form interior surfaces in the cast product. !he cores can be
made of metal# but either their shape must allow for remo(al from the casting pr they must be
22
mechanically collapsible to permit remo(al. )f the withdrawal of a metal core is difficult# a sand core
can be used# in which case the process becomes semi-permanent mould casting.

Figure 1+: Steps in permanent mould casting: $1& mould is preheated and coated# $3& cores $if used&
are inserted# and mould is closed# $=& molten metal is poured into the mould# and the mould is opened.
$E& shows the finished part.
Steps in the permanent mould casting process are shown in figure 1+. )n preparation for casting# the
mould is first preheated and one or more coatings are sprayed into the ca(ity. Preheating facilitates
metal flow through the gating system and into the ca(ity. !he coating aid heat dissipation and
lubricate the mould surfaces for easier separation of the cast product. -fter pouring# as soon as the
metal solidifies# the mould is opened and the casting is remo(ed. Nnli*e e'pendable moulds#
permanent moulds do not collapse# so the mould must be opened before appreciable cooling
contraction# occurs in occurs in order to pre(ent crac*s from de(eloping in the casting.
-d(antages of permanent mould casting include close dimensional control. -lso# he more rapid
solidification caused by the metal mould results in a finer grain structure# so the castings are stronger.
!his is generally limited to metals of lower melting points. %ther limitations include simple part
geometries compared to sand casting $because of the need to open the mould. Aecause mould cost is
substantial# the process is best suited to high-(olume production and can be automated accordingly.
-typical parts include automoti(e pistons# pump bodies# and certain castings for aircraft and missiles.
/.2 -ariations of permanent mould casting
Se(eral casting processes are similar to the permanent mould method. !hese include slush casting#
low pressure casting# and (acuum permanent mould casting.
23
/.2.1 Slush casting
!his is a permanent mould casting method in which a hollow casting is formed by in(erting the mould
after partial free.ing at the surface to drain out the liquid metal in the centre. Solidification begins
mould walls because they are relati(ely cool# and it progresses o(er time towards the middle of the
casting. !hic*ness of the shell is controlled by the length of time allowed before draining. Slush
casting is used to ma*e statues# lamp pedestals# and toys out of low melting point metals such as lead#
.inc# and tin. )n these# e'ternal appearance is important# but strength and interior geometry are minor
considerations.
/.2.2 0ow pressure casting
)n basic permanent mould casting and slush casting# the flow of metal into the mould is caused by
gra(ity. )n low pressure casting# the liquid metal is forces into the ca(ity under low pressure#
appro'imately 0.1 Pa from beneath so that the flow is upwards. !he ad(antage is the clean molten
metal from the centre of the ladle is introduced to the mould# rather than those e'posed to air. Fas
porosity and o'idation defects are minimised and mechanical properties are impro(ed.

Figure 1H: Kow-pressure casting. !he diagram shows how air pressure is used to force the molten
metal in the ladle upwards into the mould ca(ity. Pressure is maintained until the casting has
solidified.
/.2.3 -acuum permanent mould casting
!his is a (ariation of low-pressure casting in which (acuum is used to draw the molten metal into the
metal ca(ity. !he general configuration is similar to the low pressure casting operation. !he difference
is that reduced air pressure from the (acuum in the mould is used to draw the liquid metal into the
ca(ity# rather than forcing it by positi(e air pressure from below. !here are se(eral befits of the
(acuum technique relati(e to low pressure casting " air porosity and related effects are reduced# and
greater strength is gi(en to the cast product.
/.3 &ie casting
!his is a permanent mould casting operation where the molten metal is in/ected into the mould under
high pressure. !ypical pressures are H to =E0 Pa. 2e pressure is maintained during solidification#
after which the mould is opened and the part is remo(ed. !he moulds in this operation are called dies
$hence the name die casting&. !he use of high pressure is to force the metal into the die ca(ity in the
most notable feature that distinguishes this process from others in the permanent mould category.
24
0ie casting operations are carried out in special die casting machines. odern die casting machines
are designed to hold and accurately close the two hal(es of the mould# and *eep them closed while the
liquid metal is forces into the ca(ity. !here are two main types of die casting machines: $1& hot
chamber and $3& cold chamber# differentiated by how the molten metal is in/ected into the ca(ity.

Figure 1J: Feneral configuration of a cold chamber die casting machine

Figure 1I: Cycle in hot chamber casting: $1& with die closed and plunger withdrawn# molten metal
flows into the chamber# $3& plunger forces metal into to flow into die# maintaining pressure during
cooling and solidification# $=& Plunger is withdrawn# die is opened# and solidified part is e/ected.
Finished part is shown in $D&.
)n hot chamber machines# the metal is melted in a container attached to the machine# and a piston is
used to in/ect the liquid metal under high pressure into the die. !ypical in/ection pressure are H-=E
Pa. !he casting cycle is shown in figure 1I. Production rates up to E00 parts per hour is common.
2ot chamber die casting imposes a special hardship in the in/ection system because much it is
submerged in molten metal. !he process is therefore limited to low melting point metals that do not
attac* the plunger and other mechanical components chemically. !he metals include .inc# lead# tin#
and sometimes# magnesium.
)n cold chamber die casting machines# the molten metal is poured into an unheated chamber from an
e'ternal melting container# and a piston is used to in/ect the metal under high pressure into the die
25
ca(ity. !he production cycle is e'plained in figure 30. )n/ection pressures (ery from 1D to 1D0 Pa.
Compared to hot chamber machines# the cycle rates are usually not that fast because of the need to
ladle the liquid metal into the chamber from an e'ternal source. ,e(ertheless# this casting process is a
high production operation. Cold-chamber machines are typically used for casting aluminium# brass#
and magnesium alloys. Kow melting point alloys $.inc# tin# lead& can also be cast# but the ad(antages
of the hot chamber process fa(our its use with these metals.
Figure 30:
Cycle in cold chamber casting: $1& with die closed and ram withdrawn# molten metal is poured into
the chamber# $3& 5am forces metal to flow to die# maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification# $=& ram is withdrawn# die is opened# and part is e/ected.
oulds used in die casting machines are usually made of tool steel# mould steel# or maraging steel.
!ungsten and molybdenum with good refractory qualities are also being used# especially in attempts
to die cast steel and cast iron. 0ies can be single ca(ity or multiple ca(ity. @/ector pins are required to
remo(e the part form the die as it open. !hese pins push away from the mould surface so that it can be
remo(ed. Kubricants must also be sprayed into ca(ities to pre(ent stic*ing.
-s die casting materials ha(e no natural porosity and molten metal flows rapidly into the die during
in/ection (enting holes and passways are built into the dies at the parting line to e(acuate gases in the
ca(ity. !he (ents are usually small# but they fill with metal during in/ection. !his must be trimmed
from the part. -lso# flash formation is common# where the liquid metal under high pressure squee.es
into the small space between die hal(es at the parting line or into the clearances around cores and
e/ector pins. !his also must be trimmed from the casting along with the sprues and the gating system.
-d(antages of die casting include:
2igh production rates possible
@conomical for large production quantities
Close tolerances possible# on the order of 0.0H+ mm
Food surface finish
!hin sections are possible# down to about 0.E mm
5apid cooling pro(ides small grain si.e and good strength to the casting
!he limitation in this process# other than for metals# is the shape restriction. !he part geometry must
allow for the remo(al from the die ca(ity.
26
/." Centrifugal casting
!his refers to se(eral casting methods in which the mould is rotated at high speed so that centrifugal
force distributes the molten metal to the outer regions of the die ca(ity. !his includes true centrifugal
casting# semi centrifugal casting# and centrifuge casting.
/.".1 )rue centrifugal casting
)n true centrifugal casting# molten metal is poured into a rotating mould to produce a tubular part.
@'amples of parts made by this process include pipes# tubes# bushings# and rings. - possible approach
is shown below. olten metal is poured into a hori.ontal rotating mould at one end. )n some
operations# mould rotation commences after pouring has occurred rather than beforehand. !he high
speed rotation produces centrifugal forces that cause the metal to ta*e the shape of the mould ca(ity.
!hus# the outside shape of the casting can be round# octagonal# he'agonal# etc. !he inside shape is
perfectly round $theoretically& due to the radially symmetric forces on the wor*.
!he orientation of the mould may be hori.ontal or (ertical# the former being common. Considering
the speed required to produce a hori.ontal centrifugal casting# the centrifugal force is gi(en by the
equation
F 6 m(
3
<5
1here F is the force $,&# m 6 mass $*g&# 5 6 inside radius of the mould $m&# !he force of gra(ity is
its weight 1 6 mg where 1 is the weight $,&# and g 6 I.J1 m<s
-3
. !he F factor $FF& is the ratio of the
centrifugal force di(ided by the weight:
FF 6 m(
3
<5mg 6 (
3
<5g
!he (elocity ( can e'pressed as 3O5,<+0 6 O5,<=0# where , is the rotational speed $re(<min&.
Substituting this#
FF 6 P5$O,<=0&
3
Q<g
5earranging for rotational speed#
, 6 $=0<O&BP$3gFF&<0Q
1here 0 is the diameter of the mould. )f FF is too low# the liquid metal will not remain forced against
wall but instead will Rrain? into the ca(ity. Slipping occurs between the molten metal and the wall#
which means the rotational speed of the metal is less than that of the mould. %n an empirical basis#
(alues of FF 6 +0 to J0 are found to be appropriate for hori.ontal centrifugal casting though this may
depend on the metal being cast.
)n (ertical centrifugal casting# the effect of gra(ity acting on the liquid metal causes the casting to be
thic*er at the bottom. !he inside profile will ta*e a parabolic shape. !he difference in the inside radius
between the top and bottom is related to the speed of rotation as:
, 6 $=0<O&BP$3gK&<$5
l
3
" 5
b
3
&Q
!his equation can be used to determine the speed required for (ertical centrifugal casting gi(en the
specifications in the inside radii at the top and bottom. )f 5
l
6 5
b
the speed will ha(e to be infinite#
which is impossible. Practically# parts made by (ertical centrifugal casting are usually no more than
27
about twice their diameter. !his is sufficient for bushings and other parts that ha(e large diameters
relati(e to length# especially is machining is used to accurately si.e the inside diameter.
Castings made by true centrifugal casting re characterised by high density# especially in the outer
regions of the part where F is the greatest. Solidification shrin*age at the e'terior of the cast tube is
not a factor# because centrifugal force continually reallocates molten metal towards the mould wall
during free.ing. -ny impurities in casting tend to be on the inner wall and can be remo(ed by
machining if necessary.
/.".2 Semicentrifugal casting
)n this method# centrifugal force is used to produce solid castings rather than tubular parts. !he
rotation speed is set to FF about 1E. !he moulds are designed with risers in the centre to supply the
feed material. 0ensity of the metal in the final casting is greater than the outer sections at the centre of
the rotation. !his process is usually used in components where the centre of the casting is machined
away# eliminating the part of the casting where the quality is the lowest. 1heels and pulleys are
e'amples. @'pendable moulds are often used in semicentrifugal casting.
Figure 31: Semicentrifugal casting
/.".3 Centrifuge casting

Figure 33: $a& Centrifuge casting " centrifugal forces causes metal to flow to the mould ca(ities away
from the a'is of rotation# $b& the casting
)n centrifuge casting# the mould is designed with part ca(ities located away from the a'is of rotation#
so that the molten metal poured into the mould is distributed to these ca(ities by centrifugal force. !he
28
process is used for smaller parts# and radial symmetry of the part is not a requirement as it is for the
other two centrifuge casting methods.
1.0 #oundry practice
)n all casting processes# the metal must be heated to the molten state and then poured or otherwise
force into the mould. 2eating and melting are accomplished in a furnace.
1.1 #urnaces
!he types of furnaces commonly used in foundries are cupolas# direct-fuel-field furnaces# crucible
furnaces. @lectric-arc furnaces and induction furnaces. Selection if the most appropriate furnace type
depends on factors such as casting alloy# its melting and pouring temperatures# pouring temperatures#
capacity requirements# costs if in(estment# operation and maintenance# and en(ironmental pollution
considerations.
1.1.1 Cupolas
)t is a (ertical cylindrical furnace equipped with a tapping spout near its base. Cupolas are used only
for melting cast irons# and although other furnaces are used# the largest tonnage of cast iron is melted
in cupolas. Feneral construction and operating features are shown in figure 3=.

Figure 3=: Cupola used for melting cast iron. Furnace shown is typical for a small foundry and omits
details of emissions control system required in a modern cupola.
!he cupola consists of a large shell of steel plate lined with refractory. !he charge consists of iron#
co*e# flu'# and possible alloying elements. )t is loaded through a charging door located less that
halfway up the height of the cupola. !he ironis usually a mi'ture of pig iron and scrap iron $which
29
includes risers# runner# sprues# etc. From old castings&. Co*e is used as fuel. Forces air is introduces#
through openings near the bottom of the shell for combustion of co*e. !he flu' is a basic compound
such as limestone that reacts with co*e ash and other impurities to form slag. !he slag co(ers the
melt# protecting it from reaction and en(ironment inside the cupola and reducing heat loss. -s the
mi'ture is heated inside the cupola# and reduce heating loses. -s the mi'ture is heated and melting of
iron occurs# and the furnace is periodically tapped to pro(ide liquid to pour.
1.1.2 &irect fuel.fired furnaces
- direct fuel first furnace contains a small open hearth# in which metal charge is heated by fuel
burners on the side of the furnace. !he roof assists the heating action and by reflecting the flame down
against the charge. !ypical fuel are natural gas# and the combustion products e'it from the furnace
through a stac*. -t the bottom if the hearth is a tap hole to release the molten metal. 0irect fuel-fired
furnaces are generally used in casting for melting nonferrous metals such as copper base alloys and
aluminium.
1.1.3 Cruci,le furnaces
!hese melt the metal without direct contact with a burning fuel mi'ture $they are sometimes called
indirect fuel furnaces&. !hese types of crucible furnaces are used in foundries: lift-out type# stationary#
and tilting.

Figure 3D: !hree types of crucible furnaces: $a& lift-out crucible# $b& stationary pot# $c& tilting pot
furnace
!hese utilise a container $crucible&# made out of a suitable refractory material $e.g.# clay-graphite
mi'ture& or high-temperature steel alloy to hold the charge. )n a lift-out crucible furnace# the crucible
s placed in a furnace and heated sufficiently to melt the metal charge. %il# gas# or powdered coals are
typical fuels for these furnaces. 1hen the metal is melted# the crucible is lifted out of the furnace and
used at a pouring ladle. !he other two types# sometimes referred to as pot furnaces ha(e the heating
furnace and container as one unit. )n the stationary pot furnace# the furnace is stationary and the
molten metal is ladled out of the container. )n the tilting pot furnace# the entire assembly can be tilted
for pouring. Crucible furnaces are used for nonferrous metals such as bron.e# brass# and alloys of .inc
and -luminium. Furnace capacities are generally limited to se(eral hundred pounds.
1.1." !lectric arc furnaces
)n this furnace type# the charge is melted by the heat generated by an electric arc. 4arious
configurations are a(ailable# with two or three electrodes. Power consumption is high# but electric arc
furnaces are designed for high melting capacity $3=000-DE000 ton<hr& and they are used primarily for
casting steel.
30
1.1.' Induction furnaces
!his type of furnace uses an ac current trough a coil to de(elop a magnetic field in the metal. !he
resultant induced current causes rapid heating and melting. Features of an induction furnace are
shown in figure 3E. !he electromagnetic force field causes a mi'ing action to occur in the liquid
metal. -lso# as the metal does not come into direct contact with the heating elements# the en(ironment
in which melting ta*es place can be closely controlled. -ll this result in molten metal of high quality
and purity and induction furnaces are used for nearly e(ery casting alloy when these requirements are
important. elting steel# cast iron# and aluminium alloys are common applications in foundry wor*.
Figure 3E: )nduction furnace
1.2 ouring2 cleaning2 and heat treatment
o(ing molten metal from the melting furnace to the mould is sometimes done using crucibles. ore
often the transfer is accomplished by ladles of (arious *inds. !hey recei(e the metal from the furnace
and allow con(enient pouring into moulds. !wo types of ladle are illustrated below " one for mo(ing
large (olumes of molten metal using an o(erhead crane and a two man ladle for manually mo(ing and
pouring smaller amounts.

Figure 3+: two common types of ladles: $a& crane ladle and $b& two-man ladle
%ne of the problems in pouring is that o'idised metal can be introduced into the mould. !hese reduce
product quality# perhaps ma*ing the casting defecti(e# so measures must be ta*en to minimise the
entry of these o'ides into the mould during pouring. Filters are sometimes used to catch the o'ides
and other impurities as the metal is poured from the spout# and flu'es are used to co(er the molten
metal to retard o'idation. )n addition# ladles ha(e been designed to pour the liquid metal from the
bottom# since the top surface is where the o'ides accumulate.
-fter the casting has solidified and been remo(ed from the mould# a number of additional steps are
required. !hese are:
!rimming
31
5emo(ing the core
Surface cleaning
)nspection
5epair
2eat treatment $if required&
Steps 1 to E are referred to as cleaning. !he e'tent to which these additional operations are required
(aries with the casting process and metals. 1hen required# they tend to be labour intensi(e and costly.
!rimming in(ol(es remo(al of sprues# runners# riser# parting-line flash# fins# chaplets and any other
e'cess material. )n the case of brittle casting alloys and when the cross sections are relati(ely small#
these can be bro*en off. %therwise hammering# shearing# hac* sawing# abrasi(e wheel cutting# or
(arious torch cutting methods are used.
)f cores were used# they must be remo(ed. ost cores are chemically bonded or oil-bonded sand# and
they often fall out of the casting as the binder deteriorates. )n some cases# they are remo(ed by
sha*ing the casting# either mechanically or manually. )n rare instances# cores are remo(ed by
chemically dissol(ing the bonding agent used in the sand core. Solid cores must be hammered or
pressed out.
Surface cleaning is the most important in case of sand casting. )n any of the other casting methods#
especially the permanent mould processes# this step can be a(oided. Surface cleaning in(ol(es the
remo(al of sand from the surface of the casting or otherwise enhancing the appearance of the surface.
ethods used to clean the surface include tumbling# air-blasting with coarse sand grit or metal shot#
wire brushing# buffing# and chemical pic*ling.
0efects are possible in casting# and inspection is needed to detect their presence.
Castings are often heat treated to enhance their properties# either for subsequent processing operations
such machining or to bring out the desired properties for application of the part in ser(ice.
3.0 Casting 4uality
!here are numerous for defects in a casting operation# resulting in quality defects in the product.
3.1 Casting defects
Some defects are common to any casting process. !hese defects are described below
isruns: which are castings that solidify before filling the mould ca(ity completely. !ypical
causes include insufficient fluidity of molten metal# too low pouring temperatures# too slow
pouring or too thin cross section of the ca(ity.
Cold shuts: these occur when two portions of metal flow together but do not fuse properly due
to premature free.ing. !he causes are similar to a misrun.
Cold shots: these are caused due to splattering during pouring# causing the formation of solid
globules of metal that become entrapped in the casting. Pouring procedures and gating system
designs that a(oid splattering can pre(ent the defect.
Shrin*age ca(ity: is a depression in the surface or an internal (oid in the casting caused by
solidification shrin*age that restricts the amount of molten metal a(ailable in the last region to
free.e. )t often occurs near the top of the casting# in which case it is referred to as a Rpipe?.
!his can be sol(ed by proper riser design.
32
icroporosity: this consists of a networ* of small (oids distributed throughout the casting
caused by localised solidification shrin*age of the final molten metal in the dendritic
structure. !his is usually associated with alloys# because of the protracted manner in which
free.ing occurs in these metals.
2ot tearing: also called hot crac*ing# occurs when a casting is restrained from shrin*ing by an
unyielding mould during the final stages of solidification. !his causes separation of the metal
at a point of high tensile stress caused by the metal?s inability to shrin* naturally. )n sand
casting and other e'pendable mould processes# it is pre(ented by compounding the mould to
be collapsible. )n permanent moulding processes# hot tearing is reduced by remo(ing the part
from the mould immediately after solidification.

Figure 3H: Some common defects in castings: $a& misrun# $b& cold shut# $c& cold sot# $d& shrin*age
ca(ity# $e& microporosity# $f& hot tearing
Some defects are related to the use of sand moulds and therefore occur only in sand castings. !o a
certain degree# other e'pendable mould processes are also (ulnerable. !he defects include:
Sand blow: is a defect consisting of a balloon shaped gas ca(ity caused by the release of
mould gases during pouring. )t occurs at or below the surface near the top of the casting. !he
usual causes are lo permeability# poor (enting# and high moisture content of the sand mould.
Pinholes: these are also caused by the release of gases during pouring# and consist of many
small gas ca(ities formed at or slightly below the surface of the casting.
Sand wash: is an irregularity in the surface caused by the erosion of the sand mould during
pouring# and the contour of erosion is formed in the surface of the final cast part.
Scabs: these are rough areas on the casting due to encrustations of sand and metal. )t is caused
by the portions of the mould surface fla*ing off during solidification and becoming embedded
to the casting surface.
Penetration: this refers to a surface defect that occurs when the fluidity of the liquid metal is
high and it penetrates into the sand mould or sand core. Npon free.ing# the casting surface
consists of a mi'ture of sand grains and metal. 2arder pac*ing of sand mould helps to
alle(iate this condition.
ould shift: this is a defect caused by sideways displacement of the cope relati(e to the drag#
which results in a step in the cast at the parting line.
Core shift: this is similar to mould shift but the core is displaced# and the displacement is
usually (ertical. Core shift and mould shit are caused by the buoyancy of the metal.
33
ould crac*: this occurs when the strength of the mould is insufficient and a crac* de(elops.
!he liquid metal can then seep into the crac*# forming a Rfin?.
Figure 3J:
Common defects in san castings: $a& sand blow# $b& pin holes# $c& sand wash# $d& scabs# $e&
penetration# $f& mould shift# $g& core shift# $h& mould crac*.
Foundry inspection procedures include
4isual inspection to detect ob(ious defects such as misruns# cold shuts# and se(ere surface
flaws
0imensional measurements to ensure that tolerances ha(e been met
etallurgical# chemical# physical# and other tests concerned with the inherent quality of the
cast metal. !ests in this category include
o Pressure testing to locate lea*s in the casting
o 5adiographic methods# magnetic particle tests# the use of fluorescent penetrates# and
supersonic testing to detect either surface or internal defects in the casting
o echanical testing to determine properties such as tensile strength and hardness.
)f defects detected are not too serious# it is often possible to sa(e the casting by welding# grinding# or
some other method to which the customer has agreed.
10.0 $etals for casting
ost common casting are made using alloys rather than pure metals. -lloys are generally easier cast#
and properties of the resulting product are better. Casting alloys can be classified as ferrous or
nonferrous. !he ferrous category is di(ided into cast iron and cast steel.
10.1 #errous casting alloys
10.1.1 Cast iron
!his is the most important of all casting alloys. !he tonnage of cast iron castings is se(eral times that
of all other metals combined. !here are se(eral types of cast iron " gray cast iron# nodular iron# white
cast iron# malleable iron# and alloy cast irons. !ypical pouring temperatures are around 1D00
o
C
depending on composition.
10.1.2 Steel
34
!he mechanical properties of steel ma*e it an attracti(e engineering material and the capability to
create comple' geometries ma*es casting an appealing process. 2owe(er# great difficulties are faces
by the foundry specialising in steel. !he melting point of steel is considerably higher than that of most
metals cast. Solidification range for low carbon steels begins /ust under 1ED0
o
C. !herefore the
required pouring temperatures are (ery high# at about 1+E0
o
C.-t these temperatures# steel is (ery
reacti(e chemically and o'idises readily. Special procedures are required to isolate the molten metal
from air. -lso# it has relati(ely poor fluidity# which limits the design of thin sections.
Se(eral characteristics ma*e it worthwhile sol(ing these problems. !he tensile strength is higher than
most casting materials# ranging upwards from about D10 Pa. !hey also ha(e better toughness than
most other casting alloys. Properties of castings are isotropic " strength is (irtually the same in all
directions $mechanically formed parts by forging# rolling# etc. 0isplay directional properties&.
0epending on the requirement# the isotropic beha(iour might be desirable. -nother ad(antage is the
ease of welding. !hey are welded readily without a significant loss of strength to repair the casting or
to fabricate structures with other steel components.
10.2 5onferrous casting alloys
,onferrous casting alloys include alloys of -l# g# Cu# Sn# ,i# and !i. -luminium alloys are
generally considered (ery castable. !he melting point of pure -l is ++0
o
C so pouring temperatures for
-l casting alloys are low compared to cast iron and steel. !he properties that ma*e Steel attracti(e to
castings " light weight# wide range of strength properties possible thorough sheat treatment# and the
ease of machining
agnesium alloys are the lightest of casting metals. %ther properties include corrosion resistance## as
well as high strength-to-weight and stiffness-to-weight ratios
Copper alloys include bron.e# brass# and aluminium bron.e. Properties that ma*e these attracti(e
include corrosion resistance# attracti(e appearance# and good bearing qualities. !he high cost of
copper is a limitation on the use of its alloys. -pplication include pipe fittings# marine propeller
blades# pump components# and ornamental /ewellery.
!in has the lowest melting point of the casting metals. !in-based alloys are generally easy to cast.
!hey ha(e good corrosion resistance but poor mechanical strength# which limits their application to
pewter mugs and similar products not requiring high strength. Sinc alloys are commonly used in die
casting. Sinc has a low melting point and good fluidity# ma*ing it highly castable. )ts ma/or wea*ness
is low creep strength# so its castings cannot be sub/ect to prolonged high stress.
,ic*el alloys ha(e good hot strength and corrosion resistance# which ma*es them suited to high
temperature applications such as /et engine and roc*et components# heat shields# and similar
components. ,ic*el alloys also ha(e high melting point and are not easy to cast.
!itanium alloys used for casting are corrosion resistant and posses high strength-to-weight ratios.
2owe(er# titanium has a high melting point# low fluidity# and a propensity to o'idise at high
temperatures. !hese properties ma*e is and its alloys difficult to cast.
11.0 roduct design considerations
)n casting is used as the primary manufacturing process for a product# some guidelines must be
obser(ed to facilitate production and a(oid defects:
35
Feometric simplicity: -lthough casting is a process that can be used to produce comple' part
geometries# simplifying the part design will impro(e its castability. -(oiding unnecessary
comple'ities simplifies mould ma*ing reduces the need for cores# and impro(es the strength
of the casting.
Corners: Sharp corners and angles should be a(oided as they are sources of stress
concentration and may cause hot tearing and crac*s in the casting. Fenerous fillers should be
design on inside corners# and sharp edges should be blended.
Section thic*ness: Section thic*ness must be uniform to a(oid shrin*age ca(ities. !hic*er
sections create hot spots in the casting as more time is needed for solidification and cooling.
!hese are li*ely locations of shrin*age ca(ities.
0raft: Part sections that pro/ect into the mould should ha(e a draft or taper. )n e'pendable
mould casting# the purpose of this is to facilitate remo(al of the pattern from the mould. )n
permanent mould casting# the purpose is to help remo(e the part from the mould. Similar
tapers should be allowed if solid cores are used in the casting process. !he required draft need
only be about 1
o
for sand casting and 3-=
o
for permanent mould processes.
Nse of cores: minor design changes can reduce the need for coring.
0imensional tolerances: !here are significant differences in the dimensional accuracies that
can be achie(ed in castings# depending on the process used.
Surface finish: !ypical surface roughness achie(ed in sand casting is around +Mm. @qually
poor finishes are obtained in shell moulding while plaster mould and in(estment casting
produce much better roughness (alues $0.HEMm&. -mong the permanent mould processes# die
casting is noted for good surface finishes at around 1Mm.
achining allowances: tolerances achie(able in many casting processes are insufficient to
meet functional needs in many applications. sand casting is the most prominent e'ample of
this deficiency. )n these cases# portions of the casting must be machined to the required
dimensions. -lmost all sand castings must be machined to a certain e'tent in order for the part
to be made functional. !herefore# additional material# called# the machining allowance# is left
on the casting for machining those surfaces where necessary. !ypical machining allowances
for sand castings are between 1.E mm and = mm.

Figure 3I: $a& thic* section at intersection can result in shrin*age ca(ity. 5emedies include $b&
redesign to reduce thic*ness and $c& use of a core.
Figure =0: 0esign change to
eliminate the need for using a core: $a& original design and $b& redesign
!able 0=: !ypical dimensional tolerances for (arious casting processes and metals
Casting process Part si.e !olerance<mm Casting process Part si.e !olerance<mm
36
Sand casting Permanent mould
-luminium Small 0.E -luminium Small 0.3E
Cast iron Small 1.0 Cast iron Small 0.J
Karge 1.E Copper alloys Small 0.D
Copper alloys Small 0.D Steel Small 0.E
Steel Small 1.= 0ie casting
Karge 3.0 -luminium Small 0.13
Shell moulding Copper alloys Small 0.13
-luminium Small 0.3E )n(estment
Cast iron Small 0.E -luminium Small 0.13
Copper alloys Small 0.D Cast iron Small 0.3E
Steel Small 0.J Copper alloys Small 0.13
Plaster mould Small 0.13 Steel Small 0.3E
Karge 0.D
37