ULTIMATE STRENGTH ANALYSIS OF

PLATES WITH INITIAL IMPERFECTIONS

Indian Register of Shipping, Mumbai
Research & Rule Development (Structures)

Submitted by :
NIKHILESH MADDHESHIYA
INDIAN MARITIME UNIVERSITY
Internship Period from 2
nd
June to 26
th
July, 2014

Under the supervision of :
Dr.Suhas C. Vhanmane
Senior Surveyor
Research and Rule Development Division
Indian Register of Shipping
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I have taken efforts in this project. However, it would not have been possible
without the kind support and help of many individuals and organization. I
would like to extend my sincere thanks to all of them.
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to the management of Indian
Register of Shipping (IRS) for giving me an opportunity to do an internship in
the organization. I am highly indebted to Dr.Suhas C. Vhanmane for his
guidance and constant supervision as well as for providing necessary
information regarding the project and also for his support in completing
the project. I would also like to thank Dr. A Samanta, Head of the Structures
department who had reviewed my work and given valuable suggestions to
improve the quality of my project.













Table of Contents
1. Introduction To Finite Element Analysis .................................................................. 1
1.1 WHAT IS FINITE ELEMENT ANALYSIS ............................................................................................. 2
1.2 How Does Finite Element Analysis Work ..................................................................................... 3
1.3 Types Of Engineering Analysis ...................................................................................................... 3
1.4 Results of Finite Element Analysis ............................................................................................... 3
2. Introduction To ANSYS............................................................................................... 4
2.1 ANSYS Environment ...................................................................................................................... 5
2.2 ANSYS Interface ............................................................................................................................. 6
2.3 Convergence Testing ..................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Saving or Restoring job .................................................................................................................. 6
2.4 ANSYS files ..................................................................................................................................... 6
2.4 Printing Results .............................................................................................................................. 6
3. Nonlinear Analysis .................................................................................................... 4
3.1 Introduction to nonlinear analysis ................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Reasons for nonlinear analysis ......................................................................................................... 6
3.3 Consequences of nonlinear analysis ................................................................................................ 6
3.4 Types of nonlinearity ........................................................................................................................ 6
3.5 Basic concept of nonlinear analysis ................................................................................................. 6









1. Introduction To Finite Element
Analysis

1.1 What Is Finite Element Analysis (FEA)?

FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and
analyzed for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing
product refinement. A company is able to verify a proposed design will be able
to perform to the client's specifications prior to manufacturing or construction.
Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify the product or
structure for a new service condition. In case of structural failure, FEA may be
used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new condition.

1.2 How Does Finite Element Analysis Work?
FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called
a mesh. This mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural
properties which define how the structure will react to certain loading
conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the material
depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. Regions which
will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than
those which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of:
fracture point of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and
high stress areas. This web of vectors is what carries the material properties to
the object, creating many elements.
A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available
for minimization or maximization:
Mass, volume, temperature
Strain energy, stress strain
Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration
Synthetic (User defined)
There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system:
Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads
Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis
Enforced displacements
Heat flux and convection
Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads
Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed
over time. Some sample elements are:
Rod elements
Beam elements
Plate/Shell/Composite elements
Shear panel
Solid elements
Spring elements
Mass elements
Rigid elements
Viscous damping elements
Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple
materials within the structure such as:
Isotropic, identical throughout
Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees
General anisotropic, different throughout
1.3 Types Of Engineering Analysis
Structural analysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use
simple parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed.
Non-linear models consist of stressing the material past its elastic capabilities.
Vibrational analysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock,
and impact. Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibration frequency
of the material which, in turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure.
Fatigue analysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by
showing the effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show
the areas where crack propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue
may also show the damage tolerance of the material.
Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of
the material or structure. This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer.
Steady-state transfer refers to constant thermo-properties in the material that
yield linear heat diffusion.
1.4 Results of Finite Element Analysis
FEA has become a solution to the task of predicting failure due to unknown
stresses by showing problem areas in a material and allowing designers to see
all of the theoretical stresses within. This method of product design and testing
is far superior to the manufacturing costs which would accrue if each sample
was actually built and tested. To ensure correct results in a Finite Element
Analysis, the element type should be carefully chosen and the meshing should
be fine enough to capture all the minute details.











2. Introduction to ANSYS

ANSYS is a general purpose finite element modeling package for
numerically solving a wide variety of mechanical problems. These problems
include: static/dynamic structural analysis (both linear and non-linear), heat
transfer and fluid problems, as well as acoustic and electro-magnetic
problems.
In general, a finite element solution may be broken into the following three
stages. This is a general guideline that can be used for setting up any finite
element analysis.
1. Preprocessing: defining the problem; the major steps in
preprocessing are given below:
o Define keypoints/lines/areas/volumes
o Define element type and material/geometric properties
o Mesh lines/areas/volumes as required
The amount of detail required will depend on the dimensionality of
the analysis (i.e. 1D, 2D, axi-symmetric, 3D).
2. Solution: assigning loads, constraints and solving; here we
specify the loads (point or pressure), contraints (translational and
rotational) and finally solve the resulting set of equations.
3. Postprocessing : further processing and viewing of the
results; in this stage one may wish to see:
o Lists of nodal displacements
o Element forces and moments
o Deflection plots
o Stress contour diagrams

2.1 ANSYS Environment
The ANSYS Environment for ANSYS 14.0 contains 2 windows : the Main
Window and an Output Window. Note that this is somewhat different from
the previous version of ANSYS which made use of 6 different windows.
1. Main Window



Within the Main Window are 5 divisions:
a. Utility Menu
The Utility Menu contains functions that are available
throughout the ANSYS session, such as file controls,
selections, graphic controls and parameters.
b. Input window
The Input Line shows program prompt messages and allows
you to type in commands directly.
c. Toolbar
The Toolbar contains push buttons that execute commonly
used ANSYS commands. More push buttons can be added if
desired.
d. Main Menu
The Main Menu contains the primary ANSYS functions,
organized by preprocessor, solution, general postprocessor,
design optimizer. It is from this menu that the vast majority of
modelling commands are issued. This is where you will note
the greatest change between previous versions of ANSYS and
version 7.0. However, while the versions appear different, the
menu structure has not changed.
e. Graphics Window
The Graphic Window is where graphics are shown and
graphical picking can be made. It is here where you will
graphically view the model in its various stages of construction
and the ensuing results from the analysis.




2. Output Window

The Output Window shows text output from the program, such as
listing of data etc. It is usually positioned behind the main window
and can be put to the front if necessary.


2.2 ANSYS Interface

Graphical Interface vs. Command File Coding
There are two methods to use ANSYS. The first is by means of the
graphical user interface or GUI. This method follows the conventions of
popular Windows and X-Windows based programs.
The second is by means of command files. The command file approach
has a steeper learning curve for many, but it has the advantage that an
entire analysis can be described in a small text file, typically in less than 50
lines of commands. This approach enables easy model modifications and
minimal file space requirements.
For information and details on the full ANSYS command language, consult:
Help > Table of Contents > Commands Manual.



2.3 Convergence Testing

Introduction
A fundamental premise of using the finite element procedure is that the
body is sub-divided up into small discrete regions known as finite elements.
These elements defined by nodes and interpolation functions. Governing
equations are written for each element and these elements are
assembled into a global matrix. Loads and constraints are applied and the
solution is then determined.
The Problem
The question that always arises is: How small do I need to make the
elements before I can trust the solution?
What to do about it...
In general there are no real firm answers on this. It will be necessary to
conduct convergence tests! By this we mean that you begin with a mesh
discretization and then observe and record the solution. Now repeat the
problem with a finer mesh (i.e. more elements) and then compare the
results with the previous test. If the results are nearly similar, then the first
mesh is probably good enough for that particular geometry, loading and
constraints. If the results differ by a large amount however, it will be
necessary to try a finer mesh yet.
The Consequences
Finer meshes come with a cost however : more calculation time and large
memory requirements (both disk and RAM)! It is desired to find the
minimum number of elements that give you a converged solution.
General Models
In general however, it is necessary to conduct convergence tests on your
finite element model to confirm that a fine enough element discretization
has been used. In a solid mechanics problem, this would be done by
creating several models with different mesh sizes and comparing the
resulting deflections and stresses, for example. In general, the stresses will
converge more slowly than the displacement, so it is not sufficient to
examine the displacement convergence.

2.4 Saving/Restoring Jobs

Saving Your Job
It is good practice to save your model at various points during its creation.
Very often you will get to a point in the modeling where things have gone
well and you like to save it at the point. In that way, if you make some
mistakes later on, you will at least be able to come back to this point.
To save your model, select Utility Menu Bar -> File -> Save
As Jobname.db. Your model will be saved in a file called jobname.db,
where jobname is the name that you specified in the Launcher when you
first started ANSYS.
It is a good idea to save your job at different times throughout the building
and analysis of the model to backup your work in case of a system crash or
other unforeseen problems.
Recalling or Resuming a Previously Saved Job
Frequently you want to start up ANSYS and recall and continue a previous
job. There are two methods to do this:
1. Using the Launcher...
o In the ANSYS Launcher, select Interactive... and
specify the previously defined jobname.
o Then when you get ANSYS started, select Utility Menu -
> File -> Resume Jobname.db.
o This will restore as much of your database (geometry, loads,
solution, etc) that you previously saved.
2. Or, start ANSYS and select Utitily Menu -> File ->
Resume from... and select your job from the list that appears.

2.5 ANSYS Files

Introduction
A large number of files are created when you run ANSYS. If you started
ANSYS without specifying a jobname, the name of all the files created will
be FILE.* where the * represents various extensions described below. If
you specified a jobname, say Frame, then the created files will all have the
file prefix, Frame again with various extensions:
frame.db
Database file (binary). This file stores the geometry, boundary
conditions and any solutions.

frame.dbb
Backup of the database file (binary).
frame.err
Error file (text). Listing of all error and warning messages.
frame.out
Output of all ANSYS operations (text). This is what normally scrolls in
the output window during an ANSYS session.
frame.log
Logfile or listing of ANSYS commands (text). Listing of all equivalent
ANSYS command line commands used during the current session.
etc...
Depending on the operations carried out, other files may have been
written. These files may contain results, etc.
What to save?
When you want to clean up your directory, or move things from
the /scratch directory, what files do you need to save?
If you will always be using the GUI, then you only require
the .db file. This file stores the geometry, boundary conditions and
any solutions. Once the ANSYS has started, and the jobname has
been specified, you need only activate the resume command to
proceed from where you last left off.
If you plan on using ANSYS command files, then you need only store
your command file and/or the log file. This file contains a complete
listing of the ANSYS commands used to get you model to its current
point. That file may be rerun as is, or edited and rerun as desired
(Command File Creation and Execution).
If you plan to use the command mode of operation, starting with an
existing log file, rename it first so that it does not get over-written or
added to, from another ANSYS run.


2.6 Printing Results

Printing Text Results to a File
ANSYS produces lists and tables of many types of results that are normally
displayed on the screen. However, it is often desired to save the results to
a file to be later analyzed or included in a report.
1. Stresses: instead of using 'Plot Results' to plot the stresses, choose
'List Results'. Select 'Elem Table Data', and choose what you want to
list from the menu. You can pick multiple items. When the list
appears on the screen in its own window, Select 'File'/'Save As...'
and give a file name to store the results.
2. Any other solutions can be done in the same way. For example
select 'Nodal Solution' from the 'List Results' menu, to get
displacements.
3. Preprocessing and Solution data can be listed and saved from the
'List' menu in the 'Utility Menu bar'. Save the resulting list in the same
way described above.
Plotting of Figures
There are two major routes to get hardcopies from ANSYS. The first is a
quick a raster-based screen dump, while the second is a scalable vector
plot.
1.0 Quick Image Save
When you want to quickly save an image of the entire screen or the current
'Graphics window', select:
'Utility menu bar'/'PlotCtrls'/'Hard Copy ...'.
In the window that appears, you will normally want to select 'Graphics
window', 'Monochrome', 'Reverse Video', 'Landscape' and 'Save to:'.
Then enter the file name of your choice.
Press 'OK'
This raster image file may now be printed on a PostScript printer or
included in a document.
2.0 Better Quality Plots
The second method of saving a plot is much more flexible, but takes a lot
more work to set up as you'll see...
Redirection
Normally all ANSYS plots are directed to the plot window on the screen. To
save some plots to a file, to be later printed or included in a document or
what have you, you must first 'redirect' the plots to a file by issuing :
'Utility menu bar'/'PlotCtrls'/'Redirect Plots'/'To
File...'.
Type in a filename (e.g.: frame.pic) in the 'Selection' Window.
Now issue whatever plot commands you want within ANSYS, remembering
that the plots will not be displayed to the screen, but rather they will be
written to the selected file. You can put as many plots as you want into the
plot file. When you are finished plotting what you want to the file, redirect
plots back to the screen using:
'Utility menu bar'/'PlotCtrls'/'Redirect Plots'/'To
Screen'.
Display and Conversion
The plot file that has been saved is stored in a proprietary file format that
must be converted into a more common graphic file format like PostScript,
or HPGL for example. This is performed by running a separate program
called display. To do this, you have a couple of options:
1. select display from the ANSYS launcher menu (if you started
ANSYS that way)
2. shut down ANSYS or open up a new terminal window and then
type display at the Unix prompt.
Either way, a large graphics window will appear. Decrease the size of this
window, because it most likely covers the window in which you will enter
the display plotting commands. Load your plot file with the following
command:
file,frame,pic
if your plot file is 'plots.pic'. Note that although the file is 'plots.pic' (with a
period), Display wants 'plots,pic'(with a comma). You can display your plots
to the graphics window by issuing the command like
plot,n
where n is plot number. If you plotted 5 images to this file in ANSYS,
then n could be any number from 1 to 5.
Now that the plots have been read in, they may be saved to printer files of
various formats:
1. Colour PostScript: To save the images to a colour postscript file,
enter the following commands in display:
2. pscr,color,2
3. /show,pscr
4. plot,n
where n is the plot number, as above. You can plot as many images
as you want to postscript files in this manner. For subsequent plots,
you only require the plot,n command as the other options have
now been set. Each image is plotted to a postscript file such as
pscrxx.grph, where xx is a number, starting at 00.
Note: when you import a postscript file into a word processor, the
postscript image will appear as blank box. The printer information is
still present, but it can only be viewed when it's printed out to a
postscript printer.
5. Black & White PostScript: The above mentioned colour postscript
files can get very large in size and may not even print out on the
postscript printer in the lab because it takes so long to transfer the
files to the printer and process them. A way around this is to print
them out in a black and white postscript format instead of colour;
besides the colour specifications don't do any good for the black and
white lab printer anyways. To do this, you set the postscript color
option to '3', i.e. and then issue the other commands as before
6. pscr,color,3
7. /show,pscr
8. plot,n
Note: when you import a postscript file into a word processor, the
postscript image will appear as blank box. The printer information is
still present, but it can only be viewed when it's printed out to a
postscript printer.
9. HPGL: The third commonly used printer format is HPGL, which stands
for Hewlett Packard Graphics Language. This is a compact vector
format that has the advantage that when you import a file of this type
into a word processor, you can actually see the image in the word
processor! To use the HPGL format, issue the following commands:
10. /show,hpgl
11. plot,n

Final Steps
It is wise to rename these plot files as soon as you leave display,
for display will overwrite the files the next time it is run. You may
want to rename the postscript files with an '.eps' extension to indicate
that they are encapsulated postscript images. In a similar way, the
HPGL printer files could be given an '.hpgl' extension. This renaming
is done at the Unix commmand line (the 'mv' command).
A list of all available display commands and their options may be
obtained by typing:
help
When complete, exit display by entering
finish























3. NONLINEAR ANALYSIS
3.1 INTRODUCTION TO NONLINEAR ANALYSIS
Some important engineering phenomena can only be assessed on the basis of
a nonlinear analysis:
Collapse or buckling of structures due to sudden overloads
Progressive damage behavior due to long lasting severe loads
For certain structures (e.g. cables), nonlinear phenomena need be included
in the analysis even for service load calculations.

The need for nonlinear analysis has increased in recent years due to the need
for
- use of optimized structures
- use of new materials
- addressing safety-related issues of structures more rigorously
The corresponding benefits can be most important.
Problems to be addressed by a non-linear finite element analysis are found in
almost all branches of engineering, most notably in,
Nuclear Engineering
Earthquake Engineering
Automobile Industries
Defense Industries
Aeronautical Engineering
Mining Industries
Offshore Engineering and so on.
A nonlinear analysis is needed if the loading on a structure causes significant
changes in stiffness. Typical reasons for stiffness to change significantly are:
Strains beyond the elastic limit (plasticity)
Large deflections, such as with a loaded fishing rod
Contact between two bodies

Linear v/s Nonlinear Response

Numerical simulation of the response where both the LHS and RHS depends
upon the primary unknown.
Linear versus Nonlinear FEA:
Linear FEA:
[K]{D}={R}
Nonlinear FEA:
[K(D)]{D}={R(D)}

Field of Nonlinear FEA:
Continuum mechanics
FE discretization (FEM)
Numerical solution algorithms
Software considerations (engineering)


Equilibrium path

The equilibrium path is a graphical representation of the response (load-
deflection) diagram that characterize the overall behaviour of the problem
Each point on the equilibrium path represent a equilibrium point or
equilibrium configuration
The unstressed and undeformed configuration from which loads and
deflection are measured is called the reference state
The equilibrium path that crosses the reference state is called the
fundamental (or primary) path




Any equilibrium path that is not a fundamental path but connects with it at a
critical point is called a secondary path











Critical points




Limit points (L) , are points on the equilibrium path at which the tangent is
horizontal
Bifurcation points (B), are points where two or more equilibrium paths
cross
Turning points (T), are points where the tangent is vertical
Failure points (F), are points where the path suddenly stops because of
physical failure.


Advantages of linear response

A linear structure can sustain any load whatsoever and undergo any
displacement magnitude
There are no critical (limit, bifurcation, turning or failure) points
Solutions for various load cases may be superimposed
Removing all loads returns the structure to the reference state
Simple direct solution of the structural stiffness relationship without need for
costly load incrementation and iterative schemes





3.2 Reasons for Nonlinear FEA

Strength analysis how much load can the structure support before global
failure occurs
Stability analysis finding critical points (limit points and bifurcation points)
closest to operational range
Service configuration analysis finding the operational equilibrium
configuration of certain slender structures when the fabrication and service
configurations are quite different (e.g. cable and inflatable structures)
Reserve strength analysis finding the load carrying capacity beyond critical
points to assess safety under abnormal conditions
Progressive failure analysis a combined strength and stability analysis in
which progressive detoriation (e.g. cracking) is considered
Establish the causes of a structural failure
Safety and serviceability assessment of existing infrastructure whose
integrity may be in doubt due to:
Visible damage (cracking, etc)
Special loadings not envisaged at the design state
Healthmonitoring
Concern over corrosion or general aging
A shift towards high performance materials and more efficient utilization of
structural components
Direct use of NFEA in design for both ultimate load and serviceability limit
states
Simulation of materials processing and manufacturing (e.g. metal forming,
extrusion and casting processes)
In research:
To establish simple code-based methods of analysis and design
To understand basic structural behaviour
To test the validity of proposed material models
Computer hardware becomes cheaper and faster and FE software becomes
more robust and user-friendly
It will simply become easier for an engineer to apply direct analysis rather
than code-based checking.

3.3 Consequences of Nonlinear FEA

For the analyst familiar with the use of LFEA, there are a number of
consequences of nonlinear behavior that have to be recognized before
embarking on a NFEA:
The principle of superposition cannot be applied
Results of several load cases cannot be scaled, factored and combined
as is done with LFEA
Only one load case can be handled at a time
The loading history (i.e. sequence of application of loads) may be
important
The structural response can be markedly non-proportional to the
applied loading, even for simple loading states
Careful thought needs to be given to what is an appropriate measure of
the behavior
The initial state of stress(e.g. residual stresses from welding,
temperature, or prestressing of reinforcement and cables) may be
extremely important for the overall response

3.4 TYPES OF NONLINEARITY

3.4.1 Nonlinear Material
Physical source:
Material behavior depends on current deformation state and possibly
past history of the deformation.
The constitutive relation may depend on other variables (prestress,
temperature, time, moisture, electromagnetic fields, etc)
Applications:
Nonlinear elasticity
Plasticity
Viscoelasticity
Creep, or inelastic rate effects
Mathematical source:
The constitutive relation that relates strain and stresses,C, is nonlinear
when the material no longer may be expressed in terms of e.g. Hookes
generalized law:
=C(-o)

3.4.2 Nonlinear Geometry
Geometric nonlinearities involve nonlinearities in kinematic quantities
such as the strain-displacement relations in solids. Such nonlinearities
can occur due to large displacements, large strains, large rotations, and
so on.
Example:
Snap-through behavior of a shallow spherical cap with various ring loads






3.4.3 Nonlinear Boundary Condition
Boundary conditions that involve components in contact with one another
often produce disproportionate changes in deformation.
Force Boundary Condition Nonlinearity:
Physical source:
Applied forces depend on the deformation.
Applications:
Hydrostatic loads (submerged tubular bridges)
Aerodynamic or hydrodynamic loads
Non-conservative follower forces
Mathematical source:
The applied forces, prescribed surface tractions t and/or body forces b,
depend on the unknown displacements u:
t=t(u)
b=b(u)
Displacement Boundary Condition Nonlinearity:
Physical source:
Displacement boundary conditions depend on the deformation.
Applications:
The most important application is the contact problem, in which no
interpenetration conditions are enforced on flexible bodies while the
extent of contact area is unknown.
Mathematical source:
The prescribed displacements u depend on unknown displacements, u:
u=u(u)

3.4.4 Nonlinear Loading Condition
Loading changes over time.



3.5 BASIC CONCEPT OF NONLINEAR ANALYSIS

When a load causes significant changes in stiffness, the load-deflection
curve becomes nonlinear.
The challenge is to calculate the nonlinear displacement response using
a linear set of equations.



One approach is to apply the load gradually by dividing it into a series of
increments and adjusting the stiffness matrix at the end of each
increment.
The problem with this approach is that errors accumulate with each load
increment, causing the final results to be out of equilibrium.


ANSYS uses the Newton-Raphson algorithm:
Applies the load gradually, in increments.
Also performs equilibrium iterations at each load increment to drive the
incremental solution to equilibrium.
Solves the equation [K
T
]{Du} = {F} - {F
nr
}
[K
T
] = tangent stiffness matrix
{u} = displacement increment
{F} = external load vector
{F
nr
} = internal force vector
Iterations continue until {F} - {F
nr
} (difference between external and
internal loads) is within a tolerance.



This process is repeated for each load increment until the full external
load has been applied.
3.5.1 Weaknesses of Newtons method

The standard (true) Newtons method, although effective in most cases, is
not necessarily the most economical solution method and does not always
provide rapid and reliable convergence.
Weaknesses of the method:
Computational expense:
Tangent stiffness has to be computed and assembled at each iteration
within each load step
If a direct solver is employed Kt also needs to be factored at each
iteration within each load step
Increment size:
If the time stepping algorithm used is not robust (self-adaptive), a
certain degree of trial and error may be required to determine the
appropriate load increments
Divergence:
If the equilibrium path include critical points negative load increments
must be prescribed to go beyond limit points
If the load increments are too large such that the solution falls outside
the ball of convergence analysis may fail to converge
3.5.2Modified Newton methods
Modified Newton methods differ from the standard method in that the
tangent stiffness Kt is only
updated occasionally.
Initial stiffness method:
Tangent stiffness Kt updated only once
The method may result in a slow rate of convergence


Modified Newtons method:
Tangent stiffness Kt updated occasionally (but not for every iteration)
More rapid convergence than the initial stiffness method (but not
quadratic)

Quasi (secant) Newton methods:
The inverse of the tangent stiffness obtained by a secant approximation
rather than recomputing and factorizing Kt at every iteration

Thus a nonlinear solution typically involves the following:
One or more load steps to apply the external loads and boundary
conditions. (This is true of linear analyses too.)

Multiple substeps to apply the load gradually. Each substep
represents one load increment. (A linear analysis needs just one
substep per load step.)


Equilibrium iterations to obtain equilibrium (or convergence) at
each substep. (Does not apply to linear analyses.)



Time and Time Step
Each load step and substep is associated with a value of time.
Time in most nonlinear static analyses is simply used as a counter and
does not mean actual, chronological time.


By default, time = 1.0 at the end of load step 1, 2.0 at the end of
load step 2, and so on.
For rate-independent analyses, you can set it to any desired value
for convenience. For example, by setting time equal to the load
magnitude, you can easily plot the load-deflection curve.

The "time increment" between each substep is the time step Dt.
Time step Dt determines the load increment DF over a substep. The
higher the value of Dt, the larger the DF, so Dt has a direct effect on the
accuracy of the solution.
ANSYS has an automatic time stepping algorithm that predicts and
controls the time step size for all substeps in a load step.



3.5.3 Choosing step length

The optimal choice of the incremental step depends on:
The shape of the equilibrium path:
Large increments may be used were the path is almost linear and
smaller ones where the curve is highly nonlinear
The objective of the analysis:
If it is necessary to trace the entire equilibrium path accurately, small
increments are needed, while if only the failure load is of interest,
largersteps can be used until the load is close to the limit value
The solution algorithm employed:
The initial stiffness method require smaller increments than the
modified Newtons method that again require smaller increments than
the standard Newtons method
It is desirable that the solution algorithm includes a solution monitoring
device that on basis of:
Certain user prescribed input, and
Degree of nonlinearity of the equilibrium path is able to adjust the size
of the load increment

3.5.4 Load incrementation
For monotonic loading, the load increment can be based on number of
iterations:

)
Where

is a desired number of iterationsselected by the

analyst,

is the number of iterations required for convergence at

increment n-1, while

and

are upper and lower limit of

the increment prescribed by the analyst.
However, the initial load increment still have to be selected by the analyst


3.5.4.1 Automatic load incrementation

Even though you may find more sophisticated incremental load control
methods, they can only work effectively if nonlinearity spreads gradually.
Such methods cannot predict a sudden change in the stiffness.
Solution methods based on prescribed load {

} {

} or
prescribed displacements {

} {

} are not able to trace the equilibrium

path beyond limit and turning points, respectively.


3.5 Convergence criteria

A convergence criteria measures how well the obtained solution satisfies
equilibrium.
In NFEA of the convergence criteria are usually based on some norm of the:
Displacements (total or incremental)
Residuals
Energy (product of residual and displacement)
Although displacement based criteria seem to be the most natural choice
they are not advisable in general as they can be misleadingly satisfied by a slow
convergence rate.
Residual based criteria are far more reliable as they check that equilibrium
has been achieved within a specified tolerance in the current increment.
Alternatively energy based criteria that use both displacements and residuals
may be applied However, energy criteria should not be used together with LS.
In general NFEA it is recommended that a combination of the three criteria is
applied.
The convergence criteria and tolerances must be carefully chosen so as to
provide accurate yet economical solutions.
If the convergence criterion is too loose inaccurate results are obtained.
If the convergence criterion is too tight too much effort spent in
obtaining unnecessary accuracy.