Lighting Fundamentals 1

Lighting
Fundamentals

Lighting basics
Light sources-- Lamp
characteristics
Photometry
Calculations
Lighting quality

Index Introduction

Illumination is light falling on a surface
measured in footcandles. Distributed
with an economic and visual plan, it
Page 1 of 36 School of Lighting / Lighting Fundamentals / HL-862
2/4/2006 http://www.holophane.com/School/HL-862.htm
Introduction
Holophane Research and
Development
Lighting Basics
Luminous Flux
Luminous Intensity
Illuminance
Luminance
Metric conversions
Light Sources-Lamp Characteristics
Incandescent
Fluorescent
High Intensity Discharge
Mercury
Metal Halide
High Pressure Sodium
Low Pressure Sodium
Quartz
Photometry
Candlepower Distribution Curve
Coefficient of Utilization
Isofootcandle Chart
Spacing Criteria
Methods of Calculating Levels of
Illuminance
The Zonal Cavity Method of Calculating
Average Illuminance Levels
Calculating Average Illuminance using the
Utilization Curve
Point Calculations using Candlepower Data
Point Calculations using Isofootcandle Chart
Lighting Quality
Visual Comfort Illumination
Equivalent Sphere Illumination
Selection of Level of Illuminance
becomes engineered lighting and
therefore, practical illuminance.
A lighting designer has four major
objectives:
1. Provide the visibility required based
on the task to be performed and the
economic objectives.
2. Furnish high quality lighting by
providing a uniform illuminance level
and by minimizing the negative effects
of direct and reflected glare.
3. Choose luminaires esthetically
complimentary to the installation with
mechanical, electrical and maintenance
characteristics designed to minimize
operational expense.
4. Minimize energy usage while
achieving the visibility, quality and
aesthetic objectives.
There are two parts to the solution of a
design problem. One is to select
luminaires which are designed to
control the light in an effective and
energy efficient manner. The other is to
apply them to the project with all the
skill and ingenuity the designer can
bring to bear from his own knowledge
and all the reliable sources at his
disposal.
This primer has been developed to give
the designer a useful summary of basic
lighting principles. It gives important
data and practical information on how
to apply them. It offers the assistance of
the Holophane technical sales force who
have CALAPro application software
and LSAC!" economic analysis software
at their disposal. The facilities and staff
of the Holophane Technical Support
Group are also available.
In addition, it prefaces a selection of


quality lighting products that use the
best design and manufacturing
techniques of illumination science and
technology available today. Their use
assures the ultimate in lighting quality,
economy, light distribution, energy
efficiency and glare control.
Reasearch & Development

The high caliber performance
characteristic of Holophane
luminaires is a result of
quality in concept, research,
develop-ment and execution.
This depends on a staff with
ability and integrity, along
with the physical plant and
equipment, to carry on their
work. The following are some
brief aspects of the more
important activities and
facilities vital to the creation
of quality Holophane lighting
products.
Photometers (A/B) A full
scale radial photometer (A)
with a radius of 25' that will
accom-modate up to an 8'
long or 5' square luminaire.
There are photocells along the
arc at every 2 1/2, starting at
0 (nadir) up to 180 and a
single cell spinning mirror
photometer with an effective
test distance of 25'. Each
luminaire that is tested is
rotated to measure up to 72
planes of data. The systems
are fully automated so the
photocell readings are sent
directly to an inhouse
computer (B) which generates


Photometric Test Reports
used for calculation and
analysis. Photometric data is
available in IESNA format on
disks for use in CALAPro and
other lighting application
programs.
Electric and ballast
laboratory A heavy current
laboratory to simulate various
field power and load
situations. Ballasts are
designed and tested to ensure
that they operate within
applicable American National
Standards design limits. A
properly designed ballast will
optimize its own life while
pro-viding full lamp life and
output.
Thermal laboratory (C)
Heat testing facility where
luminaires and components
are subjected to heat
conditions well in excess of
their normally expected
exposure under field use.
While this laboratory is used
for research and development
of luminaires, a significant
part of its activities is directed
to the meeting and
maintenance of Underwriters'
Laboratories requirements.


Sound laboratory (D) An
anechoic (non-echoing) sound
room that has been isolated
from extraneous sounds. The
sound power is measured over
each 1/3 of an octave band
through the audible spectrum
from 20 to 20,000 hertz. The
values are weighted according to
a "standard hearer", then a
Lighting System Noise Criterion
(LSNC) is established for a given
room and layout.
Vibration laboratory (E)
Stability of equipment under a
variety of vibration loadings is
rigorously tested to meet
specifications and field-use
conditions. This assures product
reliability when luminaires and
poles are subjected to various
wind conditions.
Water spray facilities (F)
Resistance to water penetration
is evaluated in this closed cycle
water spray system. Luminaires
can be tested for standard UL
wet-location and outdoor
marine suitability; also, a special
100 gallon per minute, 100 psi
capacity can be used to test such
severe conditions as those found
in tunnels.
CAD system (G) A Computer
Aided Design system is used for
the precise design of optical and
fixture components to assure
precise light control and
manufacturing tolerances from
all the elements which make up
the luminaire assembly.
Electronics laboratory A
complete facility for the design,
development and testing of
electronic components of a
luminaire. All designs are


thoroughly life tested to assure
full service life and performance.
Light and Vision institute
(H) A facility for teaching
principles of lighting design and
calculation as well as a center for
the consideration of lighting
problems in consultation with
recognized experts in the field.
Seminars on energy
conservation, lighting for retail
and roadway lighting are
conducted together with schools
for electrical consultants,
distributors and utility
personnel. Contact your local
Holophane representative for
schedule.


Lighting demonstration
center (I) In this
laboratory, complete
luminaires and systems are
installed for measurement
and visual evaluation of
performance. The room is
highly flexible and
mounting heights can be
altered to duplicate various
lighting conditions.
Outdoor lighting
laboratory (J/K) A street
and parking lot area
arranged for the measure-
ment and visual evaluation
of a variety of lighting
systems including signage.


Outdoor architectural,
historical and municipal
luminaires may also be
examined in an adjacent
park-like setting
Technical Support
Group (L) A computer
equipped department,
staffed with professional
lighting designers and
engineers, to aid consultants
and users in reaching their
lighting decisions. The
department uses the
CALAPro lighting analysis
program for all of their
lighting designs.
Optical laboratory (M) A
visual evaluation facility to
aid in the optical design of
high quality light control
elements of Holophane
luminaires.
Materials laboratory (N)
A facility for the testing of
materials for strength,
corrosion resistance and
other properties related to
luminaires.
Model shop (O) A
complete wood and metal
working shop for the
preparation of models - and
working prototypes of
luminaires under design.

Lighting Basics

An understanding of some of the fundamental terms in lighting technology is basic to
good design practice. The more important terms and concepts are reviewed here for
this purpose.
Luminous flux Luminous flux is the time rate of flow of light as measured in lumens.
It is a measure of the total light emitted by a source and is most commonly used for
measurement of total lamp output.
Luminous intensity The candela is the unit of intensity (I) and is analogous to
pressure in a hydraulic system. it is sometimes called "candlepower" and describes the
amount of light (lumens) in a unit of solid angle. This unit of solid angle is called the
steradian. It will be seen from figure 1 that while the light travels away from the source
the solid angle covers a larger and larger area; but the angle itself remains the same, as
does the amount of light it contains. Intensity therefore, in a given direction is constant
regardless of distance.
Illuminance (E) Illuminance is the quantity of light reaching a unit area of surface
and is measured in footcandles or lux. It is defined by intensity (), in candelas, directed
toward point P divided by the square of the distance (D) from the source to the surface.
As the area covered by a given solid angle becomes larger with distance from the source,
the included light flux remains the same. The illumination density of light on the
surface decreases, therefore, as the inverse square of the distance. This forniula holds
only if the receiving surface is perpendicular to the source direction. If light is incident
at some other angle, the formula becomes:

I=
(lumens)
(steradians)

E=
I
D2
E=
I cos 0
D2

where E = illumination in footcandles (fC) or lux
I = intensity in candela (cd) toward point P
D = distance in feet or meters
0 = angle of incidence
Luminance (L) Luminance, often called "brightness", is the name given to what we
see. "Brightness" is a subjective sensation varying from very dim or dark to very bright.
Objectively it is referred to as luminance, defined as intensity in a given direction
divided by a projected area as seen by the observer. Luminance is usually referred to in
one of two ways, either pertaining to a luminaire or to a surface.
The direct luminance or brightness of luminaires at various angles of view is a major
factor in the visual comfort evaluation of an installation using those luminaires. In
general, it is desirable to minimize the brightness of ceiling mounted luminaires at the
high vertical angles, 60-90. When the intensity is in candelas, and the projected area
is in meters, the unit of luminance is candelas per square meter (cd/m2).
Exitance (M) It is often desirable to calculate the amount of light reflected from room
surfaces. Many room surfaces are diffuse in nature and as a result the correct term to
use is Exitance (M), Where: Existance = illuminance x reflection factor
M = E x p
Where E = Illuminance in footcandles
p = the reflection factor of the surface expressed as the fraction of light reflected over
incident light
M = the resulting exitance in footcandles
Metric system As the U.S.A. moves toward conversion to the metric system to
conform with the scientific fields and the rest of the world, our illumination
engineering, will convert to the International System of Units (SI). Only the terms
involving length or area, illuminance and luminance, are affected. Illuminance (E) is
stated in lux in the metric System. lfc= 10.76 lux. Luminance (L) is stated in nits in the
metric system.

Light Sources Lamp Characteristics


One of the first decisions in the
design of a good lighting system is
the choice of a light source. A
number of light sources are
available, each with its own unique
combination of operating
characteristics. A few of the lamp
characteristics that a lighting
designer should consider when
choosing a light source include
efficacy, or lumens per watt; color;
lamp life; and lamp lumen
depreciation, or the percent of
output that a lamp loses over its life.
Although there are hundreds of lamps on the market today, they can be categorized
by construction and operating characteristics into three groups: incandescent,
fluorescent and high intensity discharge (HID). HID lamps can be grouped into four
major classes: high pressure sodium, metal halide, mercury and low pressure sodium.
Incandescent An incandescent filament lamp is the light source most commonly
used in residential lighting. Light is produced in this source by a wire or filament
being heated to incandescence by a flow of current through it. The short life and low
efficacy (lumens per watt) of this source limits its use mostly to residential and
decorative commercial lighting. Efficacy varies with wattage and filament type, but
generally ranges from 15 to 25 lumens per watt for general service lamps.
The incandescent source does, however, produce a highly accepted warm color
rendition. It is more convenient than other light sources because it can be run directly
on line current and therefore does not require a ballast. It can also be dimmed using
relatively simple equipment. It is also available in different bulb sizes, shapes and
distributions to add a decorative touch to an area.
Fluorescent The fluorescent lamp produces light by activating selected phosphors
on the inner surface of the bulb with ultraviolet energy which is generated by a
mercury, arc. Because of the characteristics of a gaseous arc, a ballast is needed to
start and operate fluorescent lamps.
The advantages of the fluorescent light source include improved efficacy and longer
life than incandescent lamps. Efficiencies for fluorescent lamps range anywhere from
45 to 90 lumens per watt. Their low surface brightness and heat generation make
them ideal for offices and schools where thermal and visual comfort are important.
The disadvantages of fluorescent lamps include their large size for the amount of light
produced. This makes light control more difficult which results in a diffuse
shadowless environment. Their use in outdoor areas becomes less economical
because light output of a fluorescent source is reduced at low ambient temperatures.


Also, although fluorescent efficacy is higher than that of an incandescent lamp, higher
lumens per watt often can be achieved by high pressure sodium or metal halide
lamps.
High Intensity Discharge (HID) High intensity discharge sources include
mercury, metal halide, high pressure sodium (HPS) and low pressure sodium lamps.
Light is produced in HID sources through a gaseous arc discharge using a variety of
elements. Each HID lamp consists of an arc tube which contains certain elements or
mixtures of elements which when an arc is created between the electrodes at each
end, gasify and generate visible radiation.
The major advantages of HID sources are their high efficacy in lumens per watt, long
lamp life and point source characteristic for good light control. Disadvantages include
the need for a ballast to regulate lamp current and voltage as well as a starting aid for
HPS and the delay in restriking instantly after a momentary power interruption.
Light Sources Lamp Characteristics

Mercury (MV) The mercury source was the first HID lamp developed, filling the
need for a more efficient, yet compact, high output lamp. When first developed, the
major disadvantage of this lamp was its poor color rendition. The color of the deluxe
white lamp, is greatly improved through use of a phosphor coated bulb wall.
The life of mercury lamps is good, averaging 24,000 hours for most larger wattage
lamps. However, because the output diminishes so greatly over time, economic
operational life is often much shorter. Efficacy ranges from 30 to 60 lumens per watt,
with the higher wattages being more efficient than the lower wattages.
Like other HID lamps, starting of a mercury lamp is not immediate. Starting time is
short, though, taking 4-7 minutes to achieve maximum output depending upon the
ambient temperature.
Metal halide (MH) Metal halide lamps are similar in construction to mercury
lamps with the addition of various other metallic elements in the arc tube. The major
benefits of this change are an increase in efficacy to 60 to 100 lumens per watt and an
improvement in color rendition to the degree that this source is suitable for
commercial areas. Light control of a metal halide lamp is also more precise than that
of a deluxe mercury lamp since light emanates from the small arc tube, not the total
outer bulb of the coated lamp.
A disadvantage of the metal halide lamp is its shorter life (7,500 to 20,000 hrs) as
compared to mercury and high pressure sodium lamps. Starting time of the metal
halide lamp is approximately the same as for mercury lamps. Restriking, after a


voltage dip has extinguished the lamp, however can take substantially longer, ranging
from 4 to 12 minutes depending on the time required for the lamp to cool.
High pressure sodium (HPS) In
the 1970's, as increasing energy costs
placed more emphasis on the efficiency
of lighting, high pressure sodium
lamps (developed in the 1960's) gained
widespread usage. With efficacies
ranging from 80 to 140 lumens per
watt, these lamps provide about 7
times as much light per watt as
incandescent and about twice as much
as some mercury or fluorescent. The
efficacy of this source is not its only,
advantage. An HPS lamp also offers the
longest life (24,000 hrs.) and the best
lumen maintenance characteristics of
all HID sources.
The major objection to the use of HPS
is its yellowish color. It is ideal for most industrial and outdoor applications.
Low pressure sodium (LPS) Low pressure sodium offers the highest initial
efficacy of all lamps on the market today, ranging from 100 to 180 lumens per watt.
However, because all of the LPS output is in the yellow portion of the visible
spectrum, it produces extremely poor and unattractive color rendition. Control of this
source is more difficult than other HID sources because of the large size of the arc
tube. Average life of low pressure sodium lamps is 18,000 hours. While lumen
maintenance through life is good with LPS, there is an offsetting increase in lamp
watts reducing the efficiency of this lamp type with use.

Photometry

The term "Photometry" is used to define any test data which
describes the characteristics of a luminaire's light output. The
most common type of photometric data includes candlepower
distribution curves, spacing criteria, luminaire efficiency,
isofootcandle charts, coefficient of utilization and luminance
data. The purpose of photometry is to accurately describe the
performance of a luminaire to enable the designer to select
the lighting equipment and to design a fixture layout which
best meets the needs of the job.
Following is a review of the more frequently used types of
photometric data.
Candlepower distribution curve (Figure 1) The
photometric distribution curve is one of the lighting designers
most valuable tools. It is a cross sectional "map" of intensity
(candelas) measured at many different angles. It is a two
dimensional representation and therefore shows data for one
plane only. If the distribution of the unit is symmetric, the
curve in one plane is sufficient for all calculations. If
asymmetric, such as with street lighting and fluorescent
units, three or more planes are required. In general,
incandescent and HID reflector units are described by a
single vertical plane of photometry. Fluorescent luminaires
require a minimum of one plane along the lamp axis, one
across the lamp axis and one at a 45 angle. The greater the
departure from symmetry, the more planes are needed for
accurate calculations.
Coefficient of utilization (Figure 2) A coefficient of
utilization refers to the ratio of lumens which ultimately
reach the work plane to the total lumens generated by the
lamp. CU figures are necessary for calculating average
illuminance levels, and are provided in one of two ways: a CU
table or a utilization curve. A utilization curve is usually
provided for units intended for outdoor use or units with a
distribution radically asymmetric. A CU table is provided for
units which are used primarily indoors, where the zonal
cavity method of calculation applies. Use of CU data will be
discussed in the section covering calculation methods.
Isofootcandle chart (Figure 3) Isofootcandle charts are
often used to describe the light pattern when a fixture
produces a distribution other than symmetric. These charts
are derived from the candlepower data and show exact plots
or lines of equal footcandle levels on the work plane when the
fixture is at a designated mounting height. Use of
isofootcandle charts in determining illuminance at
designated points will be discussed in the point calculations
section.
Spacing criteria Spacing criteria provides the designer with
information regarding how far apart to space luminaires and
maintain acceptable illumination uniformity on the work
plane. Criteria for spacing is generally conservative i.e., it
takes into account the direct component of illumination only
Candlepower curve
Figure 1
Figure 2

Figure 3


and ignores the indirect component of light which can
contribute significantly to the uniformity. However, used
within its limits, Spacing Criterion can be useful. To use the
spacing criterion, multiply the net mounting height
(luminaire to work plane) by the spacing criteria number.
This ratio is used predominantly with the zonal cavity method
of calculation. Since there are many assumptions built into
the zonal cavity method, the designer should be aware of the
assumptions.

Calculations


Methods of calculating illuminance
In order to design a luminaire layout which best meets the illuminance and
uniformity requirements of the job, two types of information are generally
needed; average illuminance levels and illuminance levels at a given point.
Calculation of illuminance at specific points is often done to help the designer
evaluate the lighting uniformity especially when using luminaires where
maximum spacing recommendations are not supplied or where task lighting
levels must be checked against ambient.
If average levels are to be calculated, two methods can be applied.
1. For indoor lighting situations, the zonal cavity method is used with data
from a coefficient of utilization table.
2. For Outdoor lighting applications, a coefficient of utilization curve is
provided and the CU is read directly from the curve and the standard lumen
formula is used.
The following two methods can be used if calculations are to be done to
determine illuminance at one point.
1. If an isofootcandle chart is provided, illuminance levels may be read
directly from this curve.
2. If sufficient candlepower data is available, illuminance levels may be
calculated from this data using the point to point method.
The following sections describe these methods of calculation.


Zonal Cavity Method

The zonal cavity method is the currently accepted method for calculating
average illuminance levels for indoor areas unless the light distribution is
radically asymmetric. It is an accurate hand method for indoor applications
because it takes into consideration the effect that interreflectance has on the
level of illuminance. Although it takes into account several variables, the
basic premise that footcandles are equal to flux over an area is not violated.
The basis of the zonal cavity method is that a room is made up of three spaces
or cavities. The space between the ceiling and the fixtures, if they are
suspended, is defined as the "ceiling cavity"; the space between the work
plane and the floor, the " floor cavity"; and the space between the fixtures and
the work plane, the "room cavity".
Once the concept of these cavities is understood, it is possible to calculate
numerical relationships called "cavity ratios", which can be used to determine
effective reflectance of the ceiling and floor and then to find the coefficient of
utilization.
There are four basic steps in any calculation of illuminance level:
1. Determine cavity ratio 2. Determine effective cavity reflectances
3. Select coefficient of utilization 4. Compute average illuminance level
Step 1: Cavity ratios may be determined by calculating using the following
formulas:
Ceiling
Cavity
Ratio
(CCR) =
5 hcc (L+W)
L x W
Room
Where:
hcc = distance in feet from luminaire to ceiling
hrc = distance in feet from luminaire to work plane
hfc = distance in feet from work plane to floor
L = length in feet of room
W= width in feet of room
An alternate formula for calculating any cavity ratio is:

Step 2: Effective cavity reflectances must be determined for the ceiling cavity
and for the floor cavity. These are located in Table A (pg. 12) under the
applicable combination of cavity ratio and actual reflectance of ceiling, walls
and floor. Note that if the luminaire is recessed or surface mounted, or if the
floor is the work plane, the CCR or FCR will be 0 and then the actual
reflectance of the ceiling or floor will also be the effective reflectance. The
effective reflectance values found will then be pcc (effective ceiling cavity
reflectance) and pfc (effective floor cavity reflectance) .
Step 3: With these values of pcc, pfc, and pw (wall reflectance), and knowing
the room cavity ratio (RCR) previously calculated, find the coefficient of
utilization in the luminaire coefficient of utilization (CU) table. Note that
since the table is linear, linear interpolations can be made for exact cavity
ratios or reflectance combinations.
The coefficient of utilization found will be for a 20% effective floor cavity
reflectance, thus, it will be necessary to correct for the previously determined
pfc. This is done by multiplying the previously determined CU by the factor
Cavity
Ratio
(RCR) =
5 hrc (L+W)
L x W
Floor
Cavity
Ratio
(FCR) =
5 hfc (L+W)
L x W
Cavity Ratio
=
2.5 x height of cavity x
cavity perimeter
area of cavity base


from Table B (pg.13).
CU final = CU (20% floor) x Multiplier for actual pfc. If it is other than 10% or
30% then interpolate or extrapolate and multiply by this factor.
Step 4: Computation of the illuminance level is performed using the
standard lumen method formula.
# of fixtures x lamps per fixture x lumens perFootcandles = lamp x CU x
LLF (maintained) area in square feet

Zonal Cavity Method

When the initial illuminance level required is known and the number of fixtures
needed to obtain that level is desired, a variation of the standard lumen formula is
used.

The total light loss factor (LLF) consists of two basic factors, lamp lumen
depreciation (LLD) and luminaire dirt depreciation (LDD). If initial levels are to be
found, a multiplier of 1 is used. Light loss factors, along with the total lamp lumen
output vary with manufacturer and type of lamp or luminaire and are determined by
consulting the manufacturers published data.
Occasionally, other light loss factors may need to be applied when they are
applicable. Some of these are, ballast factor, luminaire ambient temperature, voltage
factor and room surface dirt depreciation.
# of
luminaires =
maintained
footcandles
desired
x area in sq. ft.

lamp/fixture x
lumen/lamp x
CU x LLF

Zonal Cavity Example


Example: A typical lecture hall is 60' long and 30' wide with a l4' ceiling height.
Reflectances are ceiling 80%, walls 30%, floor 10%. Four lamp Prismawrap
(coefficients of utilization shown below) is to be used on 4' stems and the work plane
is 2' above the floor. Find the illuminance level if there are 18 luminaires in the room.
Solutions:
(l) Calculate cavity ratios as follows:
(2) In Table A, look up effective cavity reflectances for these ceiling and floor cavities,
pcc for the ceiling cavity is determined to be 62% while pfc for the floor cavity is 10%.
(3) Knowing the room cavity ratio (RCR), it is now possible to find the coefficient of
utilization for the Prismawrap luminaire in a room having an RCR of 2.0 and
effective reflectances as follows:
pcc = 62%; pw = 30%; pfc = 20%. By interpolation between boxed numbers in the
table this CU is .55. Note that this CU is for an effective reflectance of 20% while the
actual effective reflectance of the floor pfc is 10%. To correct for this, locate the
appropriate multiplier in Table B for the RCR already calculated (2.0). It is .962 and
CCR=
5(4)(30+60)

30 x 60
=1.0
RCR=
5(8)(30+60)

30 x 60
=2.0
FCR=
5(2)(30+60)

30 x 60
=5.0


is found by interpolating between the boxed number in Table B for 70% pcc, 30% pw,
and 50% pcc, 30% pw at an RCR of 2.0.
Then: CU final = .55 x .962 = .53
Note that all interpolations only need to be of the approximate "eyeball" type giving a
credible degree of accuracy to the calculation.
(4) Illuminance level can now be calculated if we know the number of units to be used
and the lamp lumen rating.
A possible arrangement for these fixtures is three columns of six fixtures spaced ten
feet on center in each direction. The Spacing Criterion is 1.4, making the maximum
allowable spacing 11 .2-feet. The actual spacing is less than the maximum allowable
spacing, therefore the illumination on the work plane should be
uniform.
FC initial =
# of fixtures x lamps/fixturex
lumens/lamp x CU
area
FC initial =
18 x 4 x 3150 x .53
60 x 30
FC initial = 67
Check spacing of
luminaires.

Lumen Method and
Example

Calculating average illuminance levels using a utilization curve
The standard lumen method formula is also used to calculate average illuminance
levels when CU's are taken from a utilization curve.

To calculate the number of luminaires needed to produce the desired footcandles,
the following formula is used:

A variation of this formula, which is used mostly for roadway lighting, calculates
how far apart the fixtures must be spaced to produce the necessary average
illuminance.

A utilization curve shows the percent of light which falls onto an area having a
designated width and an infinite length. This width is expressed on the utilization
curve in terms of a ratio of the width of the area to the luminaire mounting height.
A CU is found by reading across the bottom axis to this ratio, up until thedashed CU
line is intersected, thenacross to the right hand axis, to read the value of the CU.
Separate CU's are given for the area to the street side and area to the house side of
the fixture and may be used to find illumination on the roadway or sidewalk areas or
added to find the total light on the street in the case of median mounted luminaires.
Example:
A roadway 24 ft. wide is to be lighted to an average maintained illumination level of
1.0 fc. Holophane Mongoose MV400HPNC6 is to be used. They will be mounted
on 30 ft. poles which are set back 36 ft. from the road. Find the spacing required.
Footcanales
=
(maintained)
lumens/lamp x
lamps/
luminaire x #
luminaires
x CU x LLF
area in square feet
# of luminaires=
maintained footcandles
desired x area in sq. ft.
lumens/lamp x lamps/
luminaire x CU x LLF
Spacing =
lamp lumens x CU x LLF
Avg. MTD FC x width of
Road
Spacing
=
lamp lumens x CU x LLF

Avg. MTD FC x width of
Road


Solution The CU is determined by reading from the chart #l the intersection of the
distance across/mounting height with the CU and hence horizontally to the CU axis.

Chart 1
The CU for the roadway area only is determined by subtracting the CU of the setback
area from the CU of the total area of both roadway and setback. The width of the
total area is 60 feet ( 2.0 M.H.) and the width of the setback is 36 feet (1.2 M.H.).
From the CU curve (see chart 1 ) we find that the corresponding CU's are .52 and .3.
Deducting the second from the first we get a CU of .22. Inserting this CU into the
standard lumen method formula results in a spacing of 371 feet.

Spacing =
50,000 x .22 x .81
1.0 x 24
= 371 ft.
Point Calculations and
Example

Point calculations using candlepower data
This method is especially useful in the determination of variation of illumination
levels and the uniformity of illumination provided by a lighting design. It is most
frequently used in heavy industrial and design where interreflections are not a
consideration.
The point-by-point method accurately computes the illuminance level at any given
point in an installation by summing up the illumination contributions to that point
from every luminaire individually. It does not account for contributions from other
sources such as reflection from walls, ceiling, etc. For accuracy the calculation
distance from source to point of calculation should be at least five times the
maximum luminaire dimension. Using the photometric distribution for the unit we
may calculate values for specific points as follows for horizontal surfaces.
Example:
A single 400W HPS Prismpack luminaire is mounted 26' above a work plane. it is
desired to find the initial horizontal illumination at a point 15' to one side of the
luminaire. See figure 2.

Solution:
we need to determine the angle y and look up the cp at this angle. We also must
determine the distance D.
Since D2 = a2 + h2
D2 = (15)2 + (26)2
D = 30'
Then we can determine the candlepower of this luminaire from the cp curve, figure
3, to be, 18936 (cp).
fc =
candlepower x Cosq
D2
Since fc =
candlepower x Cosq
D2
and tangent g
=
a
h
y = arc
tangent
a
h
y = 30


The illumination then is:
When many point calculations must be done by hand a variation of the basic
formula is somewhat more useful.
This version of the formula lets us deal with only the net mounting height of the
fixtures and candlepower angles and eliminates the necessity to calculate each
separate distance "D".Point calculations using the isofootcandle chart The
isofootcandle chart can also be used to find the illumination at a specific point. It is
found by defining the horizontal distance from the fixture to that point in terms of a
ratio of distance to mounting height, then looking up that ratio on the chart. If the
actual mounting height of the fixture is different than the isofootcandle chart
mounting height, a correction factor must be applied using the following formula:
Example:
Using the same layout and fixtures as were used in example on page 14 determine
the illuminance level, between the two units, on the outside edge of the road using
Chart 1.
Solution:
From either fixture, point A is 60 feet to the street side (2.0 M.H.) and 143 feet down
the street (4.8 M.H.). Looking at the isofootcandle curve, we find that the footcandle
fc =
18936 x Cos 30
(30)2
= 18.2 fc
fc =
Candlepower x
cos30
(30)2

correction factor
=
chart MH2
actual MH2

line at hat point is the .30 fc curve. This is the contribution from one luminaire and
should be summed with other contributions for total footcandles. Since the
isofootcandle chart mounting height is the same as our mounting height, no further
correction is necessary.
Computer programs
Point by point calculations can be time consuming. Several computer programs are
available that perform such calculations for many analysis points and luminaires in
a fraction of the time necessary to do the same calculations by hand.
Lighting Quality

Achieving the required illuminance level does not necessarily ensure good lighting
quality. The quality as well as the quantity of illuminance is important to produce a
comfortable, productive, aesthetically pleasing lighting environment. The quality of
the lighting system refers, but is not limited to, aspects of lighting such as proper
color, good uniformity, proper room surface luminances, adequate brightness
control and minimal glare.
Research has suggested that the lighting system can effect user's impressions of

Prismatic Glass (left) Aluminum Reflector (right)


visual clarity, spaciousness and pleasantness. These feelings occur in spaces that are
uniformly lighted with emphasis on higher luminances on room surfaces.
The improved user satisfaction from such spaces may or may not have any effect on
worker performance. However, given two lighting systems with equal lifetime costs,
lighting systems which provide improved worker satisfaction should be considered.
User satisfaction is often considered in the design of offices and commercial spaces,
but ignored in industrial spaces. However, the industrial environment should be
designed to provide a high quality visual environment, yielding improved worker
satisfaction. This can be accomplished by using lighting systems which produce the
proper luminance on ceilings and walls.
The photo below illustrates two lighting systems in the same industrial
environment. Both lighting systems provide the same quantity of horizontal
illuminance on the work plane. The system on the right provides little uplight,
resulting in the typical "cavern" effect associated with industrial spaces. The system
at left provides uplight and improves the luminance of the ceiling and vertical
surfaces. This system can provide workers with a feeling of increased spaciousness.
The uplight component also tends to improve work plane illuminance uniformity,
possibly yielding improved feelings of visual clarity.
Any lighting design should consider the impressions of the user of the space. The
photograph below indicates that even an industrial environment can be improved
with the hope of providing better working conditions and improved satisfaction for
the worker.

Selection of level of
Illuminance

The following procedure is the currently accepted method of the Illuminating
Engineering Society of North America for determining the level of maintained
illuminance needed to perform a given task. This method takes into consideration
the factors which most commonly contribute to the "seeability" of the task. It
provides a range of illuminance levels for a given task, then defines a target
illuminance level from within that range by the use of weighting factors which have
been determined through research of lighting performance needs.

The following conditions are factored into this method:1. The task to be performed
2. The details of the object to be viewed 3. The age of the observer 4. The
importance of speed and/or accuracy for visual performance 5. The reflectance of
the background material
This method, then, allows the designer to use his own evaluation of the
environmental conditions to select the target illuminance level.
Step 1: Determine the type of activity for which the level of lighting is to be selected.
Step 2: Select the appropriate illuminance category by one of the following
methods:
A. When the visual task is defined by one of the typical task categories, choose the
appropriate illuminance category from Table E.
B. If a specific task cannot be established, the illuminance category may be
determined from the generic task descriptions listed in Table C.
Step 3: Establish illuminance target value. Once the illuminance category is chosen,
an exact illuminance level may be determined from within this range. These levels
are established on Table D by matching the appropriate user, room, and task
characteristics with the previously determined illuminance category.
Because the intention of this method is to factor in the previously listed five
conditions, it is not applicable to certain areas. Therefore, it will be noted that
specific footcandle levels, rather than ranges, are given for these environments.
These levels should be used as a guide for the designer. Absolute values cannot and
should not be assigned to cover all situations. It is recognized that other installation
circumstances may alter the necessary level to higher or lower figures; the final
discretion resting with the designer.


Illuminance


Illuminance


Illuminance


Illuminance


Illuminance


Illuminance


Holophane Corporation, 214 Oakwood Ave., Newark, OH 43055 / Holophane Canada, Inc. 294
Walker Drive, Unit #3, Brampton, ON Canada L6T 4Z2 / Holophane Europe Limited, Bond
Ave., Milton Keynes MK1 1JG, England./ Unique Lighting Solutions, 13/30 Heathcote Road,
Moorebank, NSW 2170 Australia/ Holophane, S.A. de C.V., Apartado Postal No. 986,

Naucalpan de Juarez, 53000 Edo. de Mexico
Contact your local Holophane sales representative for application assistance, and
computer-aided design and cost studies. For information on other Holophane products and
systems, call the Customer Service Center at 740-345-9631. In Canada call 905-793-3111 or fax
905-793-9597.
Limited Warranty and Limitation of Liability Refer to the Holophane limited material
warranty and limitation of liability on this product, which are published in the "Terms and
Conditions" section of the current price schedule, and is available from our local Holophane
sales representative.
HL-862 7/99
Copyright Holophane Corporation 1999
Visit our website at www.holophane.com
Printed in USA

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