Physics Review Sheet

AP Physics B Review Sheet
UNITS OF MEASUEMENT
distance / displacement m
mass kg
time s
speed / velocity m/ s
acceleration m/ s
2
force N=
kgm
s
2
pressure Pa=
N
m
2
=
kg
ms
2
impulse Ns=
kgm
s
momentum
kgm
s
work / energy J =Nm=
kgm
2
s
2
power W=
J
s
=
kgm
2
s
3
angular displacement rad
angular velocity rad / s
angular acceleration rad / s
2
torque Nm
moment of inertia kgm
2
angular momentum kgm
2
/ s
rotational work/energy J
frequency Hz = cycles / s
mass density kg / m
3
temperature K or C
heat J
entropy J / K
electric charge C
electric field N / C
electric flux Nm
2
/C
electric potential V = J / C
potential gradient V / m
capacitance F=C/ V
electric current A=C/ s
electrical resistance D=V / A
resistivity Dm
magnetic field T=Ns/Cm
magnetic flux Wb=Tm
2
inductance H=Vs/ A
To convert units, make sure you write down
units explicitly and treat them as algebraic
quantities. ou will multiply by conversion
factors in the form of fractions so units cancel.
TRIGONOMETRY
sin 0=
opp
hyp
0=sin
!
(
opp
hyp
)
cos0 =
ad
hyp
0=cos
!
(
ad
hyp
)
tan 0=
opp
ad
0=tan
!
(
opp
ad
)
sin
2
0 +cos
2
0=!
KINEMATICS IN ONE DIMENSION
!
a!g
=
A "
A #
!
$%s#a%#
=lim
# -"
A "
A #
a
a!g
=
A !
A #
a
$%s#a%#
=lim
# -"
A !
A #
Varia!es
"
"
"
!
"
!
a
#
E"#ati$%s
!=!
"
+a#
"="
"
+!
"
# +
!
2
a #
2
!
2
=!
"
2
+2 a A "
!. #ake a drawing to represent the situation
2. $ecide which directions are positive
relative to a conveniently chosen coordinate
system
3. %rite down the values of the kinematic
variables. &f there are multiple ob'ects,
remember that they may share come
common variables.
(. )hoose the equation which contains the
given values and the unknown value.
*. %hen the motion is divided into segments,
remember that the final velocity of one
segment is the initial velocity for the next
segment.
+. ,emember that there may be two possible
mathematical solutions, and you need to
select the appropriate answer or answers
when this occurs.
Free Fa!!
The acceleration due to gravity at sea-level at
the .arth/s equator is called one 0gee1 and is
approximately 2.3" m/s
2
.
KINEMATICS IN T&O DIMENSIONS
4eparate vectors into components parallel to the
axes of the chosen coordinate system.
opp=hypsin0 ad=hypcos 0
#otion in the x-direction is independent of
motion in the y-direction.
Pr$'ecti!e M$ti$%
a
"
="m/ s
2
a
y
=2.3" m/ s
2
down
!
"
=!
"x
5t the apex of the flight 6vertex of parabola7
!
y
="m/ s
5t original height on way back down
y=y
"
!
y
=!
"y
Re!ative Ve!$city
!
A& is the velocity of 5 as seen by 8
!
A&
=!
AC
+!
C&
!
A&
=!
&A
DYNAMICS (FORCES)
'%er#$a is the natural tendency of an ob'ect to
remain at rest or in motion at a constant
velocity. (ass is the quantitative measurement
of inertia.
5n $%er#$al re)ere%ce )rame is one in which
9ewton/s :irst ;aw of #otion is valid. The
acceleration of any inertial reference frame is
always <ero.
5n ob'ect is in e*+$l$br$+m when it has <ero
acceleration.
Newt$%*s First +aw $, M$ti$%
5n ob'ect continues in a state of rest or a state
of motion at a constant velocity 6speed and
direction7 unless compelled to change that state
by a net external force.
Newt$%*s Sec$%- +aw $, M$ti$%
F=ma
The direction of the acceleration is the same as
the direction of the net force.
Newt$%*s Thir- +aw $, M$ti$%
%henever a body exerts a force on a second
body, the second body will exert an oppositely
directed force of equal magnitude on the first
body.
This force pair doesn/t cancel because they are
acting on different ob'ects.
&ei.ht
The force of gravity, Fg, acting on an ob'ect is
often called the ob'ect/s ,e$gh#. &f the local
value of the acceleration due to gravity is
known, this is
F
g
=mg
N$r/a! F$rce
%hen an ob'ect is in contact with a surface, the
%ormal )orce, FN, is the component of the force
that the surface exerts that is perpendicular to
the surface= it is the force that prevents the
ob'ect from passing through the surface.
A00are%t &ei.ht
The appare%# ,e$gh# of an ob'ect is the force
that a scale exerts on the ob'ect resting on it,
FN. &f the reference frame has an acceleration a
where up is positive, then
F
N
=

F
g
+ma
Te%si$%
Te%s$o% is a force applied to one end of a rope
or cable that is transmitted to an ob'ect attached
to the other end of the rope or cable.
&f the rope is massless, the force applied to one
end would be completely transmitted to the
ob'ect at the other end. >owever, ropes do
have mass, so some of the force applied is
needed to accelerate the rope, which results is a
reduced force acting on the attached ob'ect.
Fricti$%
%hen an ob'ect is in contact with a surface, the
)r$c#$o%, ), is the component of the force that the
surface exerts that is parallel to the surface= it is
present only when the ob'ect is moving or
attempting to move along the surface due to
some other force acting on the ob'ect.
%hen the ob'ect is stationary, the magnitude of
the s#a#$c )r$c#$o%al )orce is )s, which is only
large enough to prevent motion up to some
maximum amount )
s
ma"
=
s
F
N

s is
the coe))$c$e%# o) s#a#$c )r$c#$o%, and measures
the roughness of the surface and ob'ect.
%hen the ob'ect is moving, the magnitude of
the k$%e#$c )r$c#$o%al )orce is )k, which is given
by )
k
=
k
F
N

k is the coe))$c$e%# o)
k$%e#$c )r$c#$o%, and measures the roughness of
the surface and ob'ect.
k
s but either
may be larger than ! 6normally not7
Press#re
Press+re, P, is the force exerted per unit area.
P=
F
A
IMPU+SE AND MOMENTUM
The $mp+lse of a force is given by
FA #
5n ob'ect/s l$%ear mome%#+m is p=m!
#omentum is thought of as $%er#$a $% mo#$o%-
I/0#!se1M$/e%t#/ The$re/
%hen a net force acts on an ob'ect, the impulse
of the net force is equal to the change in the
momentum of the ob'ect.
FA #=A p
&f the mass remains constant while the net force
is acting, this becomes
F# =m !
)
m !
$
C$%servati$% $, +i%ear M$/e%t#/
The total linear momentum of an isolated
system remains constant. 5n $sola#ed sys#em is
a system for which the vector sum of the
external forces acting on it is <ero.
Ce%ter $, Gravity 2 Ce%ter $, Mass
The ce%#er o) gra!$#y is the point that represents
the average location for the total weight of the
system= it is the balance point for the ob'ect.
The center of gravity of a thrown, rotating
ob'ect is the point that moves along the
parabola.
The ce%#er o) mass is the point that represents
the average location for the total mass of the
system. The center of mass is generally the
same point as the center of gravity, unless the
ob'ect is tall enough that g is smaller at its top
than at its base, in which case the center of
mass is slightly higher than the center of
gravity.
&ORK AND ENERGY
The ,ork done on an ob'ect of mass m by a
constant force F is W=( F cos0 )s where .
is the angle between the force and the
displacement. %ork is a scalar.
Po,er is the rate at which work is done.
P=
W
#
=F!
The k$%e#$c e%ergy of an ob'ect with mass m
and speed ! is K/=
!
2
m!
2
The gra!$#a#$o%al po#e%#$al e%ergy of an ob'ect
with mass m at a height h above a conveniently
chosen <ero point is P/=mgh
The mecha%$cal e%ergy is /=K/+P/
5 co%ser!a#$!e )orce is a force where the work
done to move an ob'ect is independent of the
path taken between the starting and ending
point. 5lternatively, a force is conservative
when the work done in moving an ob'ect
around a closed path is <ero.
&$r31E%er.y The$re/
%hen a net external force does work on an
ob'ect, the work done is equal to the change in
the kinetic energy of the ob'ect.
W=A K/
The net work done by all nonconservative
forces is equal to the change in the mechanical
energy of the ob'ect.
W
%c
=A /=A K/+A P/
C$%servati$% $, Mecha%ica! E%er.y
The total mechanical energy of an ob'ect
remains constant as the ob'ect moves, provided
that the net work done by any external
nonconservative forces is <ero.
C$%servati$% $, E%er.y
.nergy can neither be created nor destroyed,
but can only be converted from one form to
another.
UNIFORM CIRCU+AR MOTION
5n ob'ect is in +%$)orm c$rc+lar mo#$o% when it
is traveling at a constant speed on a circular
path.
5n ob'ect spinning around an internal axis is
ro#a#$%g. 5n ob'ect spinning around an external
axis is re!ol!$%g.
The per$od0 T0 is the time it takes to travel once
around the circle.
The linear speed, !, around the circular path is
!=
2 r
T
Ce%tri0eta! Acce!erati$%
4ince an acceleration is the rate of change in
the velocity, which includes direction, an ob'ect
in ?.).#. is accelerating. This is called its
ce%#r$pe#al accelera#$o%.
a
c
=
!
2
r
)entripetal acceleration always points toward
the center of the circle, since that is the
direction the centripetal force points.
Ce%tri0eta! F$rce
The force that keeps the ob'ect moving along
the circular path is called the ce%#r$pe#al )orce.
F
c
=ma
c
=
m!
2
r
The centripetal force must point toward the
center of the circle in order to force the ob'ect
along the circular path. &t is always
perpendicular to the direction of motion.
5 very common trick to solving ?.).#.
@roblems is to equate the force providing the
centripetal force with the centripetal force
formula.
Ma4i/#/ s0ee- ar$#%- a% #%a%3e- c#rve
!=.
s
g r
S0ee- ar$#%- a ,ricti$%!ess a%3e- c#rve
tan 0=
!
2
r g
Orita! s0ee- $, sate!!ites i% circ#!ar $rits
!=
.
1(
/
r
9ote that r=r
/
+h is the orbital radius.
Arti,icia! Gravity
!=.r g
e))ec#$!e
ROTATIONA+ KINEMATICS
,otational kinematics problems are solved like
linear motion problems, with angular variables
substituted for linear variables.
;inear 6m7 5ngular 6radians7
$istance d 0=
arcle%g#h
rad$+s
4peed
!=
2 r
T
u=
A 0
A #
=
!
T
5cceleration a o=
A u
A #
Varia!es
0
"
.
u
"
2
3
#
Ki%e/atics E"#ati$%s
u=u
"
+o#
0=0
"
+u
"
# +
!
2
o #
2
u
2
=u
"
2
+2o A 0
5s long as the angular variables are expressed
using radian measure, the following
conversions can be madeA
s=r0 !
T
=r u a
T
=r o
where the linear measure is tangential to the
circular path. 6s is the arc length7
Ce%tri0eta! Acce!erati$% with A%.#!ar S0ee-
a
c
=
!
T
2
r
=r u
2
ROTATIONA+ DYNAMICS
T$r"#e
%hen a force

F acts at a point a
displacement r from the axis of rotation, it
produces a #or*+e
f =r
F=Frsin0 =F
perpe%d$c+lar
r=Fl
F
perpe%d$c+lar
=F sin0
l=r sin 0
The le!er arm0 l0 is the distance between the
line of action for the force and the axis of
rotation for the ob'ect.
&f the ob'ect does not have an axis of rotation
fixed by an external ob'ect, the axis of rotation
will be through the ob'ect/s center of gravity.
E"#i!iri#/
:or an ob'ect to be in equilibrium, the net force
and the net torque acting on it must both be
<ero.
M$/e%t $, I%ertia
The equivalent of mass for a rotating ob'ect is
the mome%# o) $%er#$a0 '. &t is calculated by
' =
$
m
$
r
$
2
=
"
(
r
2
dm
C$//$% M$/e%ts $, I%ertia
#any more can be found on the &nternet
@oint mass ' =mr
2
>ollow cylinder, hoop ' =mr
2
4olid cylinder, disk ' =
!
2
mr
2
Thin rod around center ' =
!
!2
mr
2
Thin rod around end ' =
!
3
mr
2
>ollow sphere around center ' =
2
3
mr
2
4olid sphere around center ' =
2
*
mr
2
Newt$%*s Sec$%- +aw ,$r R$tati$%
f =' o
A%.#!ar M$/e%t#/
4=' u
Total angular momentum is conserved if the net
external torque acting on the system is <ero.
)onservation of angular momentum is why an
ice skater rotates faster when she pulls her arms
and legs in during a spin.
R$tati$%a! Ki%etic E%er.y
K/
ro#
=
!
2
' u
2
,otational kinetic energy is part of mechanical
energy, and so must be part of the conservation
of the total mechanical energy, though not
conserved itself.
&$r31E%er.y The$re/ ,$r R$tati$%
f
%e#
0=A
(
!
2
' u
2
)
P$wer ,$r R$tati$%a! &$r3
P=f u
UNIVERSA+ GRAVITATION
Ke0!er*s First +aw $, P!a%etary M$ti$%
The paths of the planets are ellipses with the
4un at one focus.
Ke0!er*s Sec$%- +aw $, P!a%etary M$ti$%
5n imaginary line from the sun to a planet
sweeps out equal areas in equal time intervals.
This implies that the planet moves faster when
close to the sun 6near per$hel$o%7 and slower
when further from the sun 6near aphel$o%7.
%e often use the conservation of mechanical
energy instead of this law to determine speeds
at different points in an elliptical orbit.
Ke0!er*s Thir- +aw $, P!a%etary M$ti$%
:or two ob'ects orbiting the same body.
(
T
A
T
&
)
2
=
(
r
A
r
&
)
3
:or one ob'ect orbiting a body with known
mass (
T
2
=
(
2
1(
r
3
Newt$%*s +aw $, U%iversa! Gravitati$%
F
g
=
1m
!
m
2
r
2
1=+.+B(23!"
!! m
3
kgs
2
%hen using 1, you must use meters for
distance, kilograms for mass, and seconds for
time.
Orita! s0ee- $, sate!!ites i% circ#!ar $rits
!=
.
1(
r
9ote that r=r
/
Esca0e s0ee- at -ista%ce d
!=
.
21(
d
+$ca! Acce!erati$% D#e t$ Gravity a%-
Gravitati$%a! Fie!- Stre%.th
Cutside a planet g is given by
g=
1(
r
2
where r=r
pla%e#
&nside a planet with uniform density it is
g=
(
r
c+rre%#
r
pla%e#
)
g
s+r)ace
Ocea% Ti-es
Denerally there are two high tides and two low
tides each day, caused by the difference in the
gravitational pull by the #oon on opposite
sides of the .arth.
F
#$de
=
(1(
ca+se
5
e"per$e%c$%g
d
center to center
3
The 4un also causes tides, about half that of the
#oon. %hen the 4un/s tides and #oon/s tides
align 6at the full moon and new moon7 it is a
spr$%g #$de- %hen they are 2"E out of
alignment 6at the quarter moons7 it is a %eap
#$de-
SIMP+E 5ARMONIC MOTION
5 !$bra#$o% is a wiggle in time.
5 ,a!e is a wiggle in space and time and
carries energy.
The e*+$l$br$+m pos$#$o% is where the net force
on the ob'ect is <ero.
&n order for an ob'ect to be in s$mple harmo%$c
mo#$o%, the restoring force 6the force that tries
to return the ob'ect to its equilibrium position7
must be proportional to the displacement from
equilibrium.
The ampl$#+de, A, of the motion is the
maximum distance that the ob'ect moves away
from equilibrium.
The per$od, T, is the time needed for an ob'ect
to repeat one complete cycle of the motion.
The )re*+e%cy of vibration, ), which is the
number of cycles that repeat in one time period.
) =
!
T
S0ri%.s 1 5$$3e*s +aw
The restoring force provided by a spring with
spr$%g co%s#a%# k is
F
spr$%g
=k"
when " is the displacement from the
equilibrium position.
The spring constant is referred to as the
stiffness of the spring, and is inversely
proportional to the number of coils in the spring
The per$od of the spring is given by
T=2
.
m
k
P$te%tia! E%er.y $, S0ri%.s
P/
spring
=
!
2
k "
2
Pe%-#!#/s
The per$od of a pendulum is given by
T=2
.
4
g
Res$%a%ce
5 %a#+ral )re*+e%cy of an ob'ect is one at
which minimum energy is required to produce
forced vibrations. &t is also the frequency that
requires the least amount of energy to continue
the vibration.
5n ob'ect/s natural frequencies depend on
factors such as its elasticity and the shape of the
ob'ect.
%hen the frequency of the application of a
force to an ob'ect matches the ob'ect/s natural
frequency, a dramatic increase in amplitude
occurs. This increased amplitude of the
vibrations is called reso%a%ce-
&AVE MOTION
Ty0es $, &aves
5 #ra%s!erse ,a!e is created when the vibration
that creates the wave is perpendicular to the
direction of the wave. 6light7
5 lo%g$#+d$%al ,a!e is created when the
vibration that creates the wave is parallel to the
direction of the wave. 6sound7

Wa#er ,a!es are an example of waves that
involve a combination of both longitudinal and
transverse motions. 5s a wave travels through
the water, the particles travel in circles. The
radius of the circles decreases as the depth into
the water increases.
Parts $, &aves
The high points are called cres#s.
The low points are called #ro+ghs.
The solid dark center line represents the
m$dpo$%# of the vibration, where there is no
restoring force acting on the ob'ect.
The ampl$#+de0 A0 is the displacement from the
midpoint vibration.
The ,a!ele%g#h0 60 of the wave is the distance
between successive identical parts of the wave.
The per$od0 T0 of the wave is how long it takes
for one wavelength to pass a fixed location.
The )re*+e%cy0 )0 of the wave is how many
waves pass occur in a given time.
&ave S0ee-
!=\ )
Cn a stringA !=
.
F
#e%s$o%
m/ 4
REF+ECTION
&ave Re,!ecti$% i% 61Di/e%si$%
%aves encountering a hard boundary will flip
6crest becomes trough7. %aves encountering a
soft boundary will reflect the way they come in
6crest stays crest7.
%aves moving from a less dense to a more
dense medium reflect as if encountering a hard
boundary 6less amplitude7 and transmit a wave
with less amplitude and speed.
%aves moving from a more dense to a less
dense medium reflect as if encountering a soft
boundary 6less amplitude7 and transmit a wave
with greater amplitude and speed.
&ave Re,!ecti$% i% 71Di/e%si$%s
5 ,a!e )ro%# is a line that represents the crest of
a wave in two dimensions, and can be used to
show waves of any shape.
5ays are lines that are perpendicular to the
wave fronts and point in the direction of the
velocity of the wave.
%hen parallel wave fronts strike a solid
boundary, they reflect.

0
r
=0
$
7pec+lar re)lec#$o% occurs if all of the reflected
rays are parallel to each other which creates a
sharp image.
8$))+se re)lec#$o% occurs if the reflected rays
are not parallel to each other which creates a
fu<<y image or no image at all.
I/a.es
5 real $mage is formed when the rays of light
actually emanate from the image. 5 !$r#+al
$mage is formed when the rays of light appear
to come from the image, but do not.
5n image is +pr$gh# if it is in the same
orientation as the ob'ect that formed it. 5n
image is $%!er#ed if it is in the opposite
orientation.
P!a%e Mirr$rs
5 plane mirror forms an upright, virtual image
the same si<e as the ob'ect that is located as far
behind the mirror as the ob'ect is in front of it.
C$%cave Mirr$rs
5 concave mirror will have a focal point in
front of the mirror. The mirror curves away
from the ob'ect.
)oncave mirrors form an upright, enlarged,
virtual image if the ob'ect is closer than the
focal point.
They will form an inverted, enlarged, real
image if the ob'ect is between the focal point
and the center of curvature.
They will form an upright, reduced, real image
if the ob'ect is further than the center of
curvature.
C$%ve4 Mirr$rs
)onvex mirrors curve toward the ob'ect, and
have their focal point behind the mirror.
They will always form an upright, reduced,
virtual image.
Ray Traci%.
,ay ! is initially parallel to the principal axis to
the mirror, then through the focal point.
,ay 2 is through the focal point to mirror, then
parallel to the principal axis.
,ay 3 can be drawn to confirm the point of
intersection, it is though the center of curvature.
Mirr$r E"#ati$%s
) is the focal length
F for a concave mirror
G for a concave mirror
do is the ob'ect distance, d$ is the image distance
F in front of mirror 6real7
G behind mirror 6virtual7
m is the magnification
F for upright
G for inverted
!
d
o
+
!
d
$
=
!
)
m=
h
$
h
o
=
d
$
d
o
REFRACTION
%hen parallel wave fronts strike a soft
boundary 6like that caused by changing the
depth of water7, the waves refract or change
direction.

5e)rac#$o% is the bending of a wave resulting
from a change in its velocity as its moves from
one medium to another. 4ince the frequency of
a wave cannot change, independent of the
source changing its frequency when it
originally emits a wave, this change in wave
velocity must result from a change in its
wavelength in the second medium.
S%e!!*s +aw
The $%de" o) re)rac#$o% of a material is the ratio
of the speed of light in a vacuum to the speed
of light in the material. &t must be at least !.
T$ta! I%ter%a! Re,!ecti$%
%hen light encounters a boundary where
%! H %2 then it is possible that all light reflects
and none refracts through the boundary. This
will happen at angles of incidence greater than
the cr$#$cal a%gle given by
sin 0
c
=
%
2
%
!
C$%ver.i%. +e%ses
)onvex lenses are co%!erg$%g le%ses in that
they focus light rays closer together.
Cutside )
&nside )
5t ) no image if formed because the rays are
parallel.
Diver.i%. +e%ses
)oncave lenses are d$!erg$%g le%ses in that they
spread the light rays further apart.
O'ect1I/a.e Re!ati$%s ,$r +e%ses
Ray Traci%.
,ay ! is initially parallel to the principal axis to
the lens, then through the focal point for the
first lens surface.
,ay 2 is through the focal point to second
surface of the lens, then parallel to the principal
axis.
,ay 3 can be drawn to confirm the point of
intersection, it is though the center of the lens.
+e%s E"#ati$%s
) is the focal length
F for a converging lens
G for a diverging lens
do is the ob'ect distance
F in front of lens 6real7
G behind lens 6virtual7
d$ is the image distance
F behind lens 6real7
G in front of lens 6virtual7
m is the magnification
F for upright
G for inverted
!
d
o
+
!
d
$
=
!
)
m=
h
$
h
o
=
d
$
d
o
%
!
sin 0
!
=%
2
sin 0
2
%=
c
!
INTERFERENCE AND DIFFRACTION
&ave I%ter,ere%ce
Cverlapping waves add together by adding the
amplitudes of the waves at every point.
Co%s#r+c#$!e $%#er)ere%ce occurs where the
amplitude of the combined wave is greater than
the amplitudes of the component waves.
8es#r+c#$!e $%#er)ere%ce occurs where the
amplitude of the combined wave is less than the
amplitude of the component wave 6because one
is above the midpoint and one is below the
midpoint7.
:or two wave sources vibrating in phase, a
difference in path length of <ero, or an integral
number of wavelengths leads to constructive
interference. 5 difference in path length that is
a half-integer number 6".*, !.*, 2.*, etc.7 leads
to destructive interference.
Y$#%.*s D$#!e S!it E40eri/e%t
%hen a parallel wave with wavelength 6 passes
through two small slits separated by a distance
d then there are regions of maximum intensity
found at angles given by
sin 0=
% \
d
and regions of minimum intensity at angles
given by
sin 0=
(
%+
!
2
)
\
d
Di,,racti$%
The bending of a wave around an obstacle or
the edges of an opening is called d$))rac#$o%.
%hen a wave with wavelength 6 passes through
a slit of width d then there are regions of
maximum intensity found at angles given by
sin 0=
(
%+
!
2
)
\
d
and regions of minimum intensity at angles
given by
sin 0=
% \
d
Res$!vi%. P$wer
Two point ob'ects are 'ust resolved as separate
when the first dark fringe in the diffraction
pattern of one falls directly on the central bright
fringe in the diffraction pattern of the other.
0
m$%
!.22
\
d
Beats
%hen two overlapping waves have frequencies
that are only slightly different, they create a
combined wave with a bea# )re*+e%cy equal to
the difference in the original frequencies.
Sta%-i%. &aves
5 #ra!el$%g ,a!e obviously advances, and
moves forward.
5 s#a%d$%g ,a!e appears to vibrate in place.
The parts of the standing wave that appear
stationary are called %odes. The positions of the
standing wave with the greatest amplitude are
known as a%#$%odes. 5ntinodes appear halfway
between nodes.
4tanding waves are the result of interference.
%hen two waves with equal amplitude pass
through each other in opposite directions, the
waves are always out-of-phase at the nodes,
and in-phase at the anti-nodes.
5 variety of standing waves can be produced by
varying the frequency of vibration. $ifferent
standing waves are called modes. &n musical
instruments, the different vibrational modes
result in different harmo%$cs and o!er#o%es.
Nat#ra! Fre"#e%cy
The %a#+ral )re*+e%c$es of an ob'ect are the
frequencies at which standing waves may be
created in the ob'ect.
:or a string of mass m and length 4 fixed at
both ends with tension FT, the natural
frequencies are given by
)
%
=%
!
s#r$%g
2 4
where !
s#r$%g
=
.
F
T
m/ 4
:or a tube of length 4 open at both ends,
)
%
=%
!
so+%d
2 4
:or a tube of length 4 open at only one end,
)
%
=( 2n!)
!
so+%d
( 4
)! is the 9
s#
harmo%$c or the )+%dame%#al )re*.
): is the :
s#
harmo%$c or the 9
s#
o!er#o%e.
)3 is the ;
rd
harmo%$c or the :
%d
o!er#o%e.
Res$%a%ce
%hen an ob'ect vibrates near by or in contact
with a second ob'ect, and the frequency of
vibration is near one of the natural frequencies
of the second ob'ect, the second ob'ect will
start to vibrate at its natural frequency. This is
called reso%a%ce.
%aves 6including sound intensity or light
intensity7 are amplified via resonance.
SOUND
P$#ch is related to the frequency of the sound
wave. Vol+me is related to the amplitude 6half
of the pressure difference7.
S0ee- $, S$#%-
&n a gas !
so+%d
=.y k T /mwhere y =
c
P
c
V
k is 8olt<mann/s constant I !.33"+*3J!"
-23
K/L
&n a liquid !
so+%d
=.&
ad$aba#$c
/p where 8 is
the adiabatic bulk modulus.
&n a solid !
so+%d
=.< / p where is oung/s
modulus.
S$#%- I%te%sity
'=
Po,er
Area
=!" d8log
(
'
'
"
)
9ote that an intensity level of " decibels is not
" %/m
2
, it is the threshold of human hearing
which is !."J!"
-!2
%/m
2
.
&f the intensity level increases by !" d8, the
new sound seems approximately twice as loud.
The D$00!er E,,ect
The 8oppler e))ec# is the change in frequency
or pitch of a sound detected by an observer due
to the relative motion of the source and the
observer relative to the medium of sound
propogation.
4ource moving toward stationary observerA
)
o
=)
s
(
!
!
!
s
!
)
4ource moving away from stationary observerA
)
o
=)
s
(
!
!+
!
s
!
)
Cbserver moving toward stationary sourceA
)
o
=)
s
(
!+
!
o
!
)
Cbserver moving away from stationary sourceA
)
o
=)
s
(
!
!
o
!
)
DeneralA
)
o
=)
s
(
!!
!
o
!
!
!
s
!
)
+IG5T
/lec#romag%e#$c rad$a#$o%, including !$s$ble
l$gh#, is produced by vibrating electric charges.
This creates an oscillating electric field
perpendicular to the direction of propagation.
The current formed by the moving electric
charges also creates an oscillating magnetic
field perpendicular to both the direction of
propagation and the electric field.
4cientists now agree that light has a dual
nature, part particle and part wave. 5ccording
to this theory, light also consists of massless
bundles of concentrated electromagnetic energy
called pho#o%s.
%hether light appears to be a particle or a wave
depends on what is being measured and/or how
the experiment is designed.
The E!ectr$/a.%etic S0ectr#/
,adio %aves - low frequency, long wavelength
#icrowaves
&nfrared
Misible ;ight 6,CD8&M7
?ltraviolet
N-rays
Damma ,ays G high frequency, short 6
The S0ee- $, +i.ht
c=
!
.
c
"
"
=222,B22,(*3m/ s
P$!ari8ati$%
&n polar$zed l$gh#, all of the oscillations of the
electric field are in the same plane. This plane
is called the d$rec#$o% o) polar$za#$o%.
&n +%polar$zed l$gh#, the direction of
polari<ation is not fixed, but fluctuates
randomly in time. The direction of oscillation
of the electric field is different for different
photons.
Polar$z$%g ma#er$als allow only the component
of the wave/s electric field along one direction
to pass through. This preferred transmission
direction for the electric field is called the
#ra%sm$ss$o% a"$s.
%hen unpolari<ed light is incident on a piece of
polari<ing material, the transmitted polari<ed
light has an intensity that is one-half that of the
incident light.
%hen two pieces of polari<ing material are
used one after the other, the first is called the
polar$zer and the second is called the a%alyzer.
&f the average intensity of polari<ed light hitting
the analy<er is 7", then the average intensity of
light leaving the analy<er is
7 =7
"
cos
2
0
where . is the angle between the transmission
axes of the polari<er and analy<er.
The angle of incidence at which the reflected
light is completely polari<ed is parallel to the
surface is called &re,s#er=s a%gle.
tan 0
&
=
%
2
%
!
5t this angle, the reflected and refracted rays
are perpendicular to each other.
Sha-$ws
5 thin beam of light is often called a ray. 5ny
beam of light, no matter how wide, can be
thought of as made of a bundle of light rays.
5 shado, forms where light rays cannot reach.
4harp shadows are produced by a small light
source nearby or by a large light source further
away.:u<<y-edged shadows are formed by
larger light sources close to an ob'ect, because
light rays from one part of the light source may
be blocked while others reach that part of the
shadow.
The darkest part of the shadow, where no light
reaches, is called the +mbra. The lighter area
of partial shadow is called the pe%+mbra.
O0acity a%- Tra%s0are%cy
%hen an electromagnetic wave hits an atom,
the electrons in the atom are forced into
vibration. The natural frequency of an electron
depends on how strongly it is held by a nearby
nucleus.
%hen an electromagnetic wave encounters an
electron the electron may absorb the light as it
'umps up energy levels.
&f the frequency of the light was the same as the
electron/s natural frequency, the electron holds
on to this energy for a longer time 6about !""
millionths of a second7. $uring this time the
atom collides with its neighbors many times
and the gives up this energy as heat.
&f the frequency of the light is not similar to the
electron/s natural frequency, it emits the energy
quickly as light. The frequency of the light may
change depending on what energy level the
electron drops into.
&f the light is emitted in the same direction it
was originally traveling in, the material is
#ra%spare%#- &f the light is emitted randomly in
a forward direction, but not exactly the same
direction, the material is #ra%sl+ce%#. &f the
light is emitted backwards, the material is
opa*+e-
CO+OR
Color is provoked by the frequencies of visible
light emitted or reflected by things, but it is also
in the eye of the beholder as whether or not
these frequencies of light are actually perceived
as colors depend on the eye-brain system. :or
instance, many organisms, including people
with red-green color blindness, will see no red
in a rose.
Wh$#e l$gh# is the combination of all
frequencies of visible light. &lack is the
absence of light.
C$!$r y Re,!ecti$%
%hen light hits an ob'ect light of some
frequencies is absorbed by the cells in the
ob'ect and some light is reflected. The
reflected frequencies create the color of the
ob'ect. #ost ob'ects do not have pure single-
frequency colors, but are composed of a spread
of frequencies.
9ote that only colors present is the original
light source could be reflected this way, which
is why ob'ects look different colors under
different light sources.
C$!$r y Tra%s/issi$%
The color of a transparent ob'ect depends on
the frequencies of the light it transmits. The
material in the ob'ect that selectively absorbs
colored light is known as a p$gme%#, and the
frequencies absorbed by the pigment are not
transmitted.
:rom an atomic point of view, electrons in the
pigment selectively absorb light of certain
frequencies, while other frequencies are
transmitted through the glass. The energy in the
absorbed light increases the kinetic energy of
the atoms, and the ob'ect is warmed.
A--itive C$!$r (+i.hts)
5ll frequencies in the mix are seen.
The primary colors are red, green, and blue.
%hen mixing equal amounts of light,
red F green I yellow
red F blue I magenta
green F blue I cyan
red F green F blue I white
S#tractive C$!$r (Pi./e%ts)
Cnly those frequencies not absorbed by any of
the pigments are seen.
The primary colors are magenta, yellow, and
cyan.
%hen mixing equal amounts of pigment,
magenta F yellow I red
magenta F cyan I blue
yellow F cyan I green
magenta F yellow F cyan I grey/black
F+UID MEC5ANICS
Static F!#i-s
Fl+$ds are materials that can flow, and include
both gases and liquids 6and sometimes
amorphous solids7.
The mass de%s$#y is the mass per unit volume.
&t is denoted by the Dreek letter rho, >.
The spec$)$c gra!$#y of a substance is the ratio
of its density compared to the density of a
common reference material. 4pecific gravity
has no units.
?sually the common reference material is
chosen to be water at (O) with a density of
!."""J!"
3
kg/m
3
.
&n a static fluid, pressure is exerted
perpendicularly to the surface of any ob'ect in
contact with the fluid.
@ressure depends only on depth and density of
the fluidA P
bo##om
=P
#op
+p g h
5verage atmospheric pressure at sea level is
!."!3J!"
*
@a.
The actual pressure P is known as the absol+#e
press+re. The difference P ? Pa#m= >gh is
known as the ga+ge press+re.
Pasca!*s Pri%ci0!e
5ny change in the pressure applied to a
completely enclosed fluid is transmitted
undiminished to all parts of the fluid and the
enclosing walls.
5y-ra#!ics
F
2
A
2
=
F
!
A
!
+p g h
B#$ya%t F$rce
The upward force provided to an ob'ect wholly
or partially immersed in a fluid is called the
b+oya%# )orce. The buoyant force exists
because fluid pressure is larger at greater
depths.
F
&
=p V g
9ote that > is the density of the liquid, not the
density of the ob'ect, and V is the volume of
displaced liquid 6which will equal the volume
of the ob'ect if it is totally submerged, or may
be a fraction of the volume of the ob'ect if it is
only partially submerged7.
Archi/e-es Pri%ci0!e
5ny fluid applies a buoyant force to an ob'ect
that is partially or completely immersed in it=
the magnitude of the buoyant force equals the
weight of the fluid that the ob'ect displaces.
F!$wi%. F!#i-s
&n s#eady )lo, or lam$%ar )lo, the velocity of
the fluid particles at any point is constant as
time passes. 9ote that the velocity at different
points may be different from one another, but at
each point the velocity is constant.
@%s#eady )lo, exists whenever the velocity at a
point in the fluid changes as time passes.
T+rb+le%# )lo, is an extreme kind of unsteady
flow and occurs when there are sharp obstacles
or bends in the path of a fast moving fluid. &n
turbulent flow the velocity at any particular
point changes erratically from moment to
moment, both in magnitude and direction.
5 !$sco+s )l+$d does not flow readily. The
viscosity hinders neighboring layers of fluid
from sliding freely past one another. The flow
of a viscous fluid is an energy-dissipating
process. 5 %o%!$sco+s )l+$d flows in an
unhindered manner with no dissipation of
energy. 9o real fluid has <ero viscosity at
normal temperatures, but some fluids have
negligibly small viscosities.
5n incompressible, nonviscous fluid is called
an $deal )l+$d.
F!$w Rates
The mass of fluid per second that flows through
a pipe is called the mass )lo, ra#e.
mass flow rate=
A m
A#
=p A!
The quantity A=A! is the volume of fluid
that passes through the pipe each second and is
called the !ol+me )lo, ra#e. This remains
constant as a pipe constricts or expands.
Ber%$#!!i*s E"#ati$%
P
!
+
!
2
p !
!
2
+pg y
!
=P
2
+
!
2
p!
2
2
+p g y
2
Ma.%#s E,,ect
%hen an ob'ect spins, air close to its surface is
dragged around with it by surface irregularities.
The air on the side rotating into its direction of
motion is slowed down while the air on the side
rotating away from the direction of motion is
sped up, resulting in pressure differences that
create a net force called the (ag%+s e))ec#.
T$rrice!!i*s +aw
4uppose you have a large tank, where the
surface is at atmospheric pressure, and there is
a small hole or open pipe near the bottom of the
tank. The speed at which the water exits the
tank is called the e))l+" speed.
!
e))l+"
2
=!
s+r)ace
2
+2gh
&f the tank is large, then the liquid level changes
very slowly and !
e))l+"
.2gh 9ote that this
is the speed the water would have had it freely
fallen that height difference.
T5ERMODYNAMICS
Te/0erat#re
Tempera#+re is a description of how hot or cold
something is. &t can be measured by observing
a change in some #hermome#r$c proper#y of an
ob'ect.
K= C+2B3.!*
F=
2
*
( C)+32
As$!#te 9er$
The phrase absol+#e zero means that
temperatures lower than -2B3.!* E) cannot be
reached by continually cooling a gas or any
other substance. &f lower temperatures could be
reached, then further extrapolation of the
straight line experimentally found on a @-T
graph created with a constant volume
thermometer would suggest that negative
absolute gas pressures could be reached, which
is impossible as it has no meaning.
Ther/a! E40a%si$%
P is the coe))$c$e%# o) l$%ear e"pa%s$o%.
A 4
4
"
=oA T
4tress=
F
A
=<
A 4
4
"
&f a heated plate has a hole in it, the hole
increases in si<e in each dimension.

A A
A
"
2 oA T
Q, is called the coe))$c$e%# o) !ol+me e"pa%s$o%
AV
V
"
=AT 3oAT
5eat
'%#er%al e%ergy is the sum of the molecular
kinetic energy 6due to the random motion of
molecules7, the molecular potential energy 6due
to forces that act between the atoms of a
molecule and forces that act between
molecules7, and other kinds of molecular
energy.
Hea#0 A0 is energy that flows from a higher-
temperature ob'ect to a lower-temperature
ob'ect because of the difference in
temperatures.
A=mcA T
A=m4
The proportionality constant, c, is the spec$)$c
hea# capac$#y of the material. The la#e%# hea#0
40 is the heat per kilogram associated with a
phase change.
>eat transfer will continue until a common
temperature, #hermal e*+$l$br$+m, is reached.
Mecha%ica! E"#iva!e%t $, 5eat
! cal I (.!3+ K
C$%vecti$%
%hen part of a fluid is warmed, the volume of
the fluid expands and its density decreases.
5ccording to 5rchimedes/ @rinciple, the
surrounding cooler and denser fluid exerts a
buoyant force on the warmer fluid and pushes it
upward. 5s the warmer fluid rises, the
surrounding cooler fluid replaces it. This
cooler fluid, in turn, is warmed and pushed
upward. This creates a continuous fluid flow,
called a co%!ec#$o% c+rre%#, which carries along
heat. The transfer of heat is done by
co%!ec#$o%.
C$%-#cti$%
Co%d+c#$o% is the process whereby heat is
transferred directly through a material, but any
bulk motion of the material plays no role in the
transfer.
A=
kAAT#
4
The proportionality constant, k, is called the
#hermal co%d+c#$!$#y of the material.
)onduction happens best in metals because the
free electrons in the metallic bonds transfer
heat rapidly through the substance.
Ra-iati$%
The process of transferring energy via
electromagnetic waves is called rad$a#$o%B it
does not require a material medium.
A=euT
(
A#
The proportionality constant, C, is called the
7#e)a%D&ol#zma%% co%s#a%#.
u =*.+BE!"3
J
sm
2
K
(
The factor e is the em$ss$!$#y, which is a number
between " and ! that represents the ratio of the
energy actually emitted by an ob'ect and what it
would emit if it were a perfect blackbody.
5ll bodies continuously radiate energy in the
form of electromagnetic waves, though it may
be in a form other than visible light.
%hen a body has the same temperature as its
surroundings, the amount of radiant energy
being emitted must balance the amount of
radiant energy being absorbed.
I-ea! Gas +aw
5n $deal gas is an ideali<ed model for real
gases that have sufficiently low densities. This
condition means that the molecules of the gas
are so far apart that they do not interact other
than via collisions that are effectively elastic.
PV=%5T
PV=NkT
The proportionality constant is the +%$!ersal
gas co%s#a%#, 5, which has been experimentally
determined to be 3.3! K/6mol L7. ,elated to
this is &ol#zma%%=s co%s#a%#, k I 5 / R which is
!.33J!"
-23
K/L.
Press#re $, a Gas (M$!ec#!ar Sca!e)
P=
(
N
3
)(
m!
rms
2
4
3
)
=
(
N
3
)(
m!
rms
2
V
)
Ki%etic E%er.y $, a Gas (M$!ec#!ar Sca!e)
K/=
!
2
m!
rms
2
=
3
2
k T
I%ter%a! E%er.y $, a Gas
@=N
(
!
2
m!
rms
2
)
=N
(
3
2
k T
)
=
3
2
% 5T
Ther/$-y%a/ics
The sys#em is the collection of ob'ects upon
which attention is being focused. .verything
else in the environment is called the
s+rro+%d$%gs.
The physical condition of the system is called
the s#a#e of the system. &t includes pressure,
volume, temperature, and mass of the system.
The system and its surroundings must be
separated by walls of some kind. %alls that
permit the transfer of heat are called d$a#hermal
,alls. @erfectly insulating walls that do not
permit the flow of heat from the system to the
surroundings are called ad$aba#$c ,alls.
The 9er$th +aw $, Ther/$-y%a/ics
Two systems individually in thermal
equilibrium with a third system are in thermal
equilibrium with each other. Cb'ects in thermal
equilibrium will have the same temperature.
The First +aw $, Ther/$-y%a/ics
A@=@
)
@
$
=AW
A is positive when the system gains heat
A is negative when the system loses heat
W is positive when work is done by the system
W is negative when work is done on the system
8ecause internal energy depends only on
temperature, F@ is determined once the initial
and final temperatures are known.
&nternal energy depends only on the state of a
system, not on the method by which the system
arrives at a given state.
Press#re1V$!#/e Gra0hs
The area under the curve on a pressure-volume
graph is the work for any kind of process.
Is$aric Pr$cess
5n $sobar$c process is one that occurs at
constant pressure.
W=PAV
Is$ch$ric Pr$cess
5n $sochor$c process is one that occurs at
constant volume.
W="
Is$ther/a! Pr$cess
5n $so#hermal process is one that occurs at
constant temperature.
W=%5T ln
(
V
)
V
$
)
=A
A-iaatic Pr$cess
5n ad$aba#$c process is one that occurs without
any heat flow between the system and the
surroundings.
A="
W=
3
2
%5(T
$
T
)
)
P
$
V
$
y
=P
)
V
)
y
y=
c
P
c
V
monotomic ideal gasA y =*/ 3
diatomic ideal gasA y =B/*
The Sec$%- +aw $, Ther/$-y%a/ics
>eat flows spontaneously from a substance at a
higher temperature to a substance at a lower
temperature, and does not flow spontaneously
in the reverse direction.
5eat E%.i%es
5 hea# e%g$%e is any device that uses heat to
perform work.
The e))$c$e%cy, e, of a heat engine is defined as
the ratio of the work done by the engine to the
input heat.
e=
W
A
in
=!
A
o+#
A
in
5 re!ers$ble process is one in which both the
system and its environment can be returned to
exactly the states they were in before the
process occurred.
5 process that involves an energy-dissipating
mechanism or a spontaneous process cannot be
reversible because the energy wasted would
alter the system, the environment, or both.
Car%$t*s Pri%ci0!e
9o irreversible engine operating between two
reservoirs at constant temperatures can have a
greater efficiency than a reversible engine
operating between the same temperatures.
:urthermore, all reversible engines operating
between the same temperatures have the same
efficiency.
5n important feature of a reversible engine,
called a Car%o# e%g$%e, is that all of the input
heat originates in a hot reservoir at a uniform
temperture of TH and all the waste heat goes
into a cold reservoir at a uniform temperature
of TC .
A
C
A
H
=
T
C
T
H
e=!
T
C
T
H
Re,ri.erati$%
&f work is used, heat can be made to flow from
cold to hot, against its natural tendency. The
process of removing heat from the cold
reservoir and adding it to the hot reservoir is
called a re)r$gera#$o% process.
)oefficient of performance=
A
C
W
&f the process occurs reversibly, we have an
ideal device called a )arnot refrigerator or
)arnot air conditioner.
A
C
A
H
=
T
C
T
H

)oefficient
of performance
=
T
C
T
H
T
C

5eat P#/0s
The term hea# p+mp is reserved for a home
heating device which used work W to make
heat AC from the wintry outdoors flow up the
temperature hill into a warm house.
)oefficient of performance=
A
H
W
&f the process occurs reversibly, we have an
ideal device called a )arnot heat pump.
A
C
A
H
=
T
C
T
H

)oefficient
of performance
=
T
H
T
H
T
C
E%tr$0y
&rreversible processes lose some ability to
perform work. This partial loss can be
expressed in terms of e%#ropy.
The quantity A / T is called the cha%ge $%
e%#ropy and applies to any process in which
heat A enters or leaves a system reversibly at a
constant temperature T.
A 7=
(
A
T
)
5
.ntropy, like internal energy, is a function of
the state or condition of they system. Cnly the
state of a system determines the entropy 4 that
a system has. Therefore, the change in entropy
F7 is equal to the entropy of the final state
minus the entropy of the initial state.
The Sec$%- +aw a%- E%tr$0y
The 4econd ;aw of Thermodynamics states
that if the physical process is irreversible, the
combined entropy of the system and the
environment must increase. The final entropy
must be greater than the initial entropy for an
irreversible processA
7) H 7$ 6irreversible process7
%hen a reversible process occurs, the
combined entropy of the system and the
environment does not change.
7) I 7$ 6reversible process7
%hen an irreversible process occurs, and the
entropy of the universe increases, the energy
for doing work decreases.
W
+%a!a$lable
=T
C
A 7
+%$!erse
%e associate an increase in entropy with an
increase in disorder, and a decrease in entropy
with a decrease in disorder 6or a greater degree
of order7.
The Thir- +aw $, Ther/$-y%a/ics
&t is not possible to lower the temperature of
any system to absolute <ero in a finite number
of steps.
E+ECTROSTATICS
C$%servati$% $, E!ectric Char.e
$uring any process, the net electric charge of
an isolated system remains constant.
?sually electrons are transferred rather than
protons, because they take less energy to move
as they are on the outside of the atom.
%henever two different materials rub against
each other it is likely that one will leave with
more electrons than it started with...the other
will leave with less. This is called
#r$boelec#r$c$#y.
%hen a rubber rod is rubbed with animal
fur, some of the electrons in the fur transfer
to the rubber rod.
&f a glass rod is rubbed with silk cloth,
some of the electrons in the glass transfer to
the silk.
&tems that allow the easy flow of electrons are
called elec#r$cal co%d+c#ors. #ost metals are
conductors because of the nature of metallic
bonds.
&tems that inhibit the flow of electrons are
called elec#r$cal $%s+la#ors. #ost nonmetals
are insulators because of the nature of covalent
bonds and ionic bonds in solids.
,ubbing two ob'ects together to make an
electrical imbalance is called charg$%g by
)r$c#$o%.
Transferring electrons from one material to
another by simply touching is called charg$%g
by co%#ac#.
&f we bring a charged ob'ect near a conducting
surface, even without physical contact,
electrons will move in the conducting surface.
This can be used to charge the ob'ect by
$%d+c#$o%, if the ob'ect is grounded.
Charge polar$za#$o% occurs when a charged rod
is brought near an insulator. There is a
rearrangement of the position of charges within
the atoms and molecules themselves.
C$#!$/*s +aw
The electrical force between any two point-
charges with charges *! and *2, separated by a
distance r obeys an inverse-square lawA
F
e
=k
*
!
*
2
r
2
The constant k is often expressed in terms of a
more fundamental constant called the
perm$##$!$#y o) )ree space,
c
"
=3.3*(!3B3!B!"
!2 )
2
9m
2
k =
!
( c
"
=3.23B**!B33!"
2 9m
2
)
2
E!ectric Fie!-s
The electric field at the location of a point
charge *" is
/=

F
e
*
"
The electric field due to a point charge * is
/=
k *
r
2
=
*
(c
"
r
2
&f * is positive, then / is directed away from *
&f * is negative, then / is directed toward *
E!ectric Fie!- I%si-e C$%-#ct$rs
5t equilibrium under electrostatic conditions,
any excess charge will reside on the surface of
a conductor, and the electric field is <ero at any
point within a conducting material.
Ga#ss* +aw ,$r a P$i%t Char.e
The product of the magnitude of the electric
field at any point on the Daussian surface and
the area of the surface is called the electric flux,
4
/
=/ A=
*
c
"
Ga#ss* +aw
4uppose we have a charge distribution whose
net charge is A. The charge distribution is
surrounded by a 1a+ss$a% s+r)ace with any
arbitrary closed shape. The direction of the
electric field need not be perpendicular to the
surface, and the magnitude of the electric field
may vary on the surface.
4
/
=2 / cos() A A=
A
c
"
Cr, using calculus
4
/
=|
/d

A=
A
c
"
E!ectric P$te%tia!
The elec#r$c po#e%#$al0 V0 at a given point is the
electric potential energy .@. of a small test
charge *" at that point divided by the charge.
V=
/P/
*
"
The elec#r$c po#e%#$al d$))ere%ce between two
points is related to the work per unit charge
involved in moving a charge between those two
points.
AV =
A /P/
*
"
=
W
A&
*
"
P$te%tia! Di,,ere%ce ,r$/ a P$i%t Char.e
V=
k *
r
relative to a potential of " M at infinity.
%hen two or more charges are present, the
potential due to all the charges is obtained by
adding together the individual potentials.
E"#i0$te%tia! S#r,aces
5n e*+$po#e%#$al s+r)ace is a surface on which
the electric potential is the same everywhere.
The net electric force does no work as a charge
moves on an equipotential surface.
Para!!e! P!ate Ca0acit$rs
5 parallel pla#e capac$#or consists of two metal
plates, each with area A. 5 charge F* is spread
uniformly over one plate, while a charge -* is
spread uniformly over the other plate.
The electric field between the plates is
/=
k *
r
2
=
*
c
"
A
=
u
c
"
where C is the charge per unit area 6also called
the charge de%s$#y7. .xcept near the edges, the
field has the same strength at all places between
the plates, and the field does not depend on the
distance from the edges.
The potential difference between the capacitor
places is
AV =/A s
Fs is the displacement along a line
perpendicular to the plates
/=
AV
A s
FV/Fs is called the po#e%#$al grad$e%#-
The amount of charge on the plates is
proportional to the potential difference between
the platesA *=CV The constant C is the
capac$#a%ce of the capacitor.
&t is common practice to fill the region between
the conductors or plates with an electrically
insulating material called a d$elec#r$c. 5
dielectric reduces the electric field strength
between the plates, allowing for more charge to
be stored on them at the same potential.
x=
/
"
/
/" is the field magnitude without the dielectric
/ is the field magnitude with the dielectric
5 dielectric will increase the capacitance of a
capacitorA C=xC
"
C" is the capacitance without the dielectric
C is the capacitance with the dielectric
The energy stored is /=
!
2
CV
2
E%er.y De%sity $, a% E!ectric Fie!-
.nergy $ensity=
/P/
V
=
!
2
xc
"
/
2
E+ECTRIC CURRENT
M$ti$% $, Char.e- Partic!es i% a P$te%tia!
@ositive charges will accelerate from a region
of high potential to a region or lower potential.
9egative charges will accelerate from a region
of low potential to a region of higher potential.
E!ectr$/$tive F$rce
8ecause of the positive and negative charges on
the battery terminals, and electric potential
difference exists between them. The maximum
potential difference is called the elec#romo#$!e
)orce, em), of the battery, for which the symbol
E is used.
9ote that generally the potential difference
between the terminals of a battery is a bit less
than the maximum value indicated by the emf.
C$%ve%ti$%a! C#rre%t vs: E!ectr$% F!$w
@ositive charges are repelled from the positive
terminal and travel through the wire toward the
negative terminal. This is co%!e%#$o%al c+rre%#.
%e are now aware that it is electrons that move,
not positive charges, but we continue to use
conventional current.
C#rre%t
&n a circuit the battery creates an electric field
within and parallel to the wire, directed from
the positive to the negative terminal. This field
exerts a force on the free electrons in the wire,
and they respond by moving from the negative
terminal to the positive terminal. This flow of
charge is known as an elec#r$c c+rre%#.
' =
A*
A#
&f the charges move around the circuit in the
same direction at all times, the current is said to
be d$rec# c+rre%#.
&f the charges move first one way, and then the
opposite way, changing direction from moment
to moment, the current is said to be al#er%a#$%g
c+rre%#.
Resista%ce
The res$s#a%ce, 5, is the ratio of the voltage, V,
applied across a piece of material to the current,
', through the material.
5=
V
'
Oh/*s +aw 6does not apply universally7
V='5
E!ectrica! P$wer
P='V='
2
5=
V
2
5
E+ECTRIC CIRCUITS
Sy/$!s
8attery 6$)7 Denerator 65)7

,esistor )apacitor
&nductor 65ir )ore7 &nductor 6&ron )ore7
Transformer 65ir )ore7Transformer 6&ron )ore7

Moltmeter 5mmeter

Resist$rs
To the extent that a wire or electrical device
offers resistance to the flow of charges, it is
called a res$s#or.
,esistors play an important role in electric
circuits, where they are used to limit the
amount of current and establish proper voltage
levels.
The electrical resistance of a piece of material
of length 4 and cross-sectional area A, is
5=p
(
4
A
)
The proportionality constant, >, is the res$s#$!$#y
of the material.
The resistivity of a material depends on
temperature. &n metals the resistivity increases
with increasing temperature, while in
semiconductors, the resistivity increases with
decreasing temperature.
p=p
"
!+o
(
TT
" )|
The term P has the unit of reciprocal
temperature and is the #empera#+re coe))$c$e%#
o) res$s#$!$#y.
I%ter%a! Resista%ce
&n a battery, the $%#er%al res$s#a%ce comes from
the chemicals within the battery. &n a generator,
the internal resistance comes from the
resistance of the wires and other components
within the generator.
The internal resistance causes the voltage
between the terminals to drop below the
maximum value specified by the battery/s emf.
This actual voltage is known as the #erm$%al
!ol#age.
Series &iri%.
7er$es wiring means that the devices have been
connected so that all the current flows through
each device.
The current through each device in a series
circuit is the same.
The voltage will drop through each device, to
be built up again by the battery or other emf
source.
4eries resistorsA 5
7
=5
!
+5
2
+5
3
+
4eries capacitorsA
!
C
7
=
!
C
!
+
!
C
2
+
!
C
3
+

Para!!e! &iri%.
Parallel wiring means that the devices have
been connected so that the same voltage is
applied across each device.
The current into a parallel circuit is split
between each device.
The voltage applied to each device in the
parallel circuit is the same.
@arallel resistorsA
!
5
P
=
!
5
!
+
!
5
2
+
!
5
3
+
@arallel capacitorsA C
P
=C
!
+C
2
+C
3
+

Circ#its &ire- Partia!!y i% Series a%-
Partia!!y i% Para!!e!
!. $raw a schematic diagram.
2. 4tart with the most embedded portion of
the circuit and calculate a single equivalent
resistance for those resistors. $raw a new
schematic.
3. ,epeat until you can reduce the circuit to a
single resistor. :ind the total circuit current
and then go back through the circuits to
find the currents and voltages across
individual resistors.

Kirchh$,,*s R#!es
There are many circuits in which no two
resistors are in series or in parallel. &n that
case, we need to use Lirchhoff/s ,ules.
K$rchho))=s C+rre%# 4a, GJ+%c#$o% 5+leH
The sum of the magnitudes of the currents
directed into a 'unction equals the sum of the
magnitudes of the currents directed out of the
'unction.
K$rchho))=s Vol#age 4a, G4oop 5+leH
5round any closed circuit loop, the sum of the
potential drops equals the sum of the potential
gains.
@s$%g K$rchho))=s 5+les
!. 5ssume all voltage sources and resistances
are given. 6&f not label them M!, M2, ..., ,!,
,2, etc7
2. ;abel each branch with a branch current.
6&!, &2, &3, etc7
3. :ind Lirchoffs first law equations for each
node.
(. :ind Lirchoffs second law equations for
each of the independent loops of the circuit.
*. 4olve the simultaneous equations as
required to find the unknown currents.
RC Circ#its
#any electric circuits contain both resistors and
capacitors.
%hen the switch is closed, the battery begins to
deposit charge on the capacitor plates. The
resistor slows down this process.
5ssuming that the capacitor is uncharged at
time # I " s when the switch is closed, and it is
connected to a potential difference V", it can be
shown that the magnitude * of the charge on the
plates at time # is
*=*
"
(!e
# / 5C
) 0 where *
"
=CV
"
The voltage across the capacitor at time # is
V=V
"
( !e
# / 5C
)
%hen a circuit containing a capacitor is
disconnected from the voltage source, the
capacitor will send charge through the circuit
and power it, until the capacitor is fully
discharged.
*=*
"
e
# / 5C
V=V
"
e
# / 5C
The term 5C in the exponent is called the #$me
co%s#a%#0 I0 of the circuit.
MAGNETISM
;ike poles on different magnets repel each
other= unlike poles attract.
Ma.%etic Fie!-
4urrounding a magnet is a three-dimensional
magnetic field. The direction of the magnetic
field at any point in space is the direction
indicated by the north pole of a small compass
needle placed at that point.

The magnitude & of the magnetic field at a
point in space is defined as
&=
F
*
"
(! sin0)
where F is the magnitude of the magnetic force
on a positive test charge *" and ! is the velocity
of the charge and makes an angle . with the
direction of the magnetic field.
The strength of the magnetic field near the
.arth/s surface is about !J!"
-(
T, also known as
a gauss, D.
Ma.%etic F$rce
%hen an electric charge is placed in a magnetic
field, it experiences a force provided certain
conditions are metA
!. The charge must be moving relative to the
magnetic field
2. The velocity of the moving charge must
have a component that is perpendicular to
the direction of the magnetic field
F
&
=*!
&
F
&
=* !&sin 0

Drawi%. Ma.%etic Fie!-s
Cut of @age &nto @age
+$re%t8 F$rce 6.lectric and #agnetic7
F=*
/+*!
&
F=* /+* ! &sin 0
%hen an electric force is applied to a positively
charged particle, the path of the particle bends
in the direction of the force. 8ecause there is a
component of the particle/s displacement in the
direction of the electric force, the force does
work on the particle.
%hen a magnetic force is applied to a
positively or negatively charged particle, it
always acts in a direction that is perpendicular
to the motion of the charge. )onsequently, the
magnetic force cannot do work on the particle
and change its kinetic energy, although it does
alter the direction of the motion by providing a
centripetal force.
* ! &sin( 2")=
m!
2
r
r=
m!
* &
Ma.%etic F$rce $% a +$%.; Strai.ht &ire
F=
' 4
&
F=' 4 &sin0
T$r"#e $% a C#rre%t Carryi%. +$$0
&f the wire is wrapped to form a coil
containing N loops, each of area A, the
net torque is
2f=N ' A&sin 0
The quantity N ' A is known as the mag%e#$c
mome%# of the coil, and its units are 5Sm
2
.
Ma.%etic Fie!- Pr$-#ce- y a &ire
&=

"
'
2 r
"
=( !"
B
Tm/ 5
The constant J" is known as the permeab$l$#y o)
)ree space.
+$$0 $, &ire
&f a current-carrying wire is bent into a circular
loop with N turns, the magnetic field lines
around the loop are concentrated in the center
and loop radially around the loop.
5t the center &=N

"
'
2 5
5long axis &=N

"
2 5
2
'
((r
2
+5
2
)
3/ 2
S$!e%$i-s
5 sole%o$d is a long coil of wire in the shape of
a helix.
&f the wire is wound so that the turns are packed
close to each other and the solenoid is long
compared to the diameter, the magnetic field
lines inside are are nearly constant in
magnitude and directed parallel to the axis.
&=
"
% '
The magnitude of the magnetic field outside the
solenoid is not constant and is much weaker
than the interior field. &n fact, the magnetic
field outside is nearly <ero if the length of the
solenoid is much greater than its diameter.
A/0<re*s +aw
The general law known as 5mpTre/s ;aw gives
the magnetic field at any point around a wire of
any geometrical shape.
)onsider any arbitrary closed path around a
current, and imagine it as being made up of
short segments of length Fl. %e take the
product of the length of each segment times the
component of the magnetic field parallel to that
segment. &f we sum all these terms, the result is
the product of J" and the net enclosed current
'enc.
2 &
//
Al =
"
'
e%c
&f you let the length Fl go to <ero, then this
becomes
|
&d

l =
"
'
e%c
At$/ic E40!a%ati$% ,$r Ma.%etis/
.lectrons orbiting the nucleus behave like
atomic si<ed loops of current. .ach electron
has a spin that also gives rise to a magnetic
field.
&n most substances the magnetism produced at
the atomic level tend to cancel out, with the
result that the substance is nonmagnetic overall.
Ferromag%e#$c ma#er$als are materials where
cancellation of the atomic magnetic fields does
not occur for groups of approximately !"
!+
to
!"
!2
neighboring atoms, because they have
electrons spins that are naturally aligned
parallel to each other.
This alignment results in a special type of
quantum mechanical interaction between spins.
The result is a small but highly magneti<ed
region of about "."! to ".! mm in si<e, called a
mag%e#$c doma$%.
The magnetic domains can be forced to align
by placing the ob'ect in an external magnetic
field. The domains who magnetism is parallel
or nearly parallel to the external field grow in
si<e by absorbing unaligned domains, while the
magnetic alignment of other domains may
rotate and become more oriented in the
direction of the external field.
E+ECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
I%-#ce- EMF a%- I%-#ce- C#rre%t
%hen a magnet moves relative to a coil of wire,
an ammeter connected to the coil will read a
positive or negative current, depending on the
direction of motion of the magnetic field.
4ince a source of electromotive force, emf, is
always needed to produce a current, the coil
itself behaves as if it were a source of emf.
This emf is known as an $%d+ced em). The
current caused by the induced emf in the coil is
called an $%d+ced c+rre%#.
M$ti$%a! EMF
%hen a conducting rod moves through a
constant magnetic field, an emf is induced in
the rod. The charged particles in the conductor
are carried along with the moving conductor, so
they experience a force from the magnetic field
that causes positive charges to pile up on one
end of the conductor and negative charges to
pile up on the other end. This separation of
charge creates an electric field inside the
conductor. The charges that pile up create a
voltage or emf across the length of the rod that
is constant. This induced emf is also called a
mo#$o%al em).
*/=*!&sin 2"
*
(
E
4
)
=*!&
E =!&4
Ma.%etic F!#4
The mag%e#$c )l+" K8 for a uniform magnetic
field through a loop of area A is defined as
4
&
=
&
A=&
L
A=& Acos
&f the area is not a flat surface, or if the
magnetic field is not uniform, then the
magnetic flux is defined as
4
&
=
&d

A
Fara-ay*s +aw $, E!ectr$/a.%etic I%-#cti$%
%henever there is a change in flux 6over time7
through a loop of wire, an emf is induced in the
loop.
E =A4
&
/A#
The minus sign reminds us that the induced emf
will oppose the change in the magnetic flux.
:aradayUs law states that an emf is generated if
the magnetic flux changes for any reason. 4ince
K I 85 cos ., any change of 8, 5, or . will
induce an emf.
&f the circuit contains N closely wrapped loops,
the emfs induced in each loop add together, so
E =N
A4
&
A#
I%-#ce- Ma.%etic Fie!-s
5 changing magnetic field produces an induced
emf which drives a current around a circuit.
This induced current produces an induced
magnetic field which opposes the change in the
original magnetic field.
+e%8*s +aw
5 current produced by an induced emf moves
in a direction so that its magnetic field opposes
the original change in flux.
8e#erm$%$%g #he Polar$#y o) #he '%d+ced /(F
!. $etermine whether the magnetic flux that
penetrates a coil is increasing or
decreasing.
2. :ind what the direction of the induced
magnetic field must be so that it can
oppose the change in flux by adding to or
subtracting from the original field.
3. ?se the ,>,-2 to determine the direction
of the induced current. The polarity of the
induced emf can be assigned because
conventional current is directed out of the
positive terminal, through the external
circuit, and into the negative terminal.
M#t#a! I%-#cata%ce
%hen an ac current is passed through a primary
coil, it generates a magnetic field. &f this
changing magnetic field penetrates nearby
secondary coil, the secondary coil experiences
a changing magnetic flux and an induced emf
and induced current appears.
The effect in which a changing current in one
circuit induces an emf in another circuit is
called m+#+al $%d+c#$o%.
The induced emf in the secondary coil is
proportional to the magnetic flux in the
secondary coil, which is proportional in turn to
the change in current in the primary coil. %e
introduce a proportionality constant, (, called
the m+#+al $%d+c#a%ce, which is usually
measured experimentally.
N
7
4
7
=( '
P
.
7
=N
7
A4
7
A #
=(
A '
P
A #
Se!, I%-#cta%ce
5n emf can be induced in a current-carrying
coil by a change in the magnetic field that the
current itself produces. This is referred to as
sel)D$%d+c#$o%.
4uppose a coil is attached to an ac generator.
The alternating current creates an alternating
magnetic field that creates a changing flux
through the coil. The change in flux induces an
emf in the coil in accord with :araday/s ;aw.&f
K is the magnetic flux through one turn of the
coil, then N K is the net flux through the coil
with N turns. 4ince K is proportional to the
magnetic field, and the magnetic field is
proportional to the current ', we can state
N 4=4 ' where 4 is the constant of
proportionality and is called the sel) $%d+c#a%ce
of the coil.
E =N
A4
A #
=4
A '
A #
I%-#ct$rs
8ecause of their self-inductance, coils are
known as $%d+c#ors. ;ike capacitors, inductors
can store energy in a circuit. This stored energy
arises because a generator does work to
establish a current in the inductor.
/=
!
2
4 '
2
where ' is the final current through the indcutor.
:or the special case of a long solenoid, the self
inductance is 4=
"
%
2
Al where % is the
number of turns per unit length, A is the cross-
sectional area, and l is the length of the
solenoid. Thus the energy stored is
/=
!
2
"
&
2
Al
E%er.y De%sity $, a Ma.%etic Fie!-
.nergy $ensity=
.nergy
Molume
=
!
2
"
&
2
Tra%s,$r/ers
5 #ra%s)ormer is a device for increasing or
decreasing an ac voltage. &t consists of a
ferromagnetic core on which two coils are
wound. The primary coil is on the generator
side with Np turns, and a secondary coil on the
appliance side with Ns turns.
V
s
V
p
=
N
s
N
p
=
'
p
'
s
&n a s#epD+p #ra%s)ormer, the number of
secondary coils is larger than the number of
primary coils, so the secondary voltage is
higher than the primary voltage.
&n a s#epDdo,% #ra%s)ormer, the number of
secondary coils is smaller than the number of
primary coils, so the secondary voltage is lower
than the primary voltage.
The ratio NsANp is known as the #+r%s ra#$o of
the transformer.
=UANTUM MEC5ANICS
B!ac3 B$-y Ra-iati$%
5 blackDbody is an ob'ect that completely
absorbs all of the electromagnetic radiation
falling on it. Thus it also emits perfectly too.
%hen an ob'ect is heated it emits radiation
consisting of electromagnetic waves
6microwaves, infrared, visible light, etc.7 with a
wide range of frequencies. This explains why
heated ob'ects appear to glow dull red, cherry
red, orange, yellow, or white as they get hotter.
The .nglish physicists ;ord ,ayleigh and 4ir
Kames Keans derived an equation that agreed
well with experiments, but only at the low-
frequency, long-wavelength 6infrared7 end of
the spectrum. The classical theory predicted an
infinite intensity for the ultraviolet region and
beyond. This was dubbed the +l#ra!$ole#
ca#as#rophe.
The Derman physicist #axwell @lanck
assumed that there was some electric oscillator
in ob'ects that vibrated at higher and higher
frequencies as the ob'ect was heated. %ith this
assumption, he found a formula that matched
the experimental data, but lacked a physical
reality.
?sing a trick from calculus, he broke the
energies up into small discrete bits proportional
to the oscillator frequencies, namely / = h ).
>owever, if he allowed the energy chunks to go
to <ero as the procedure demanded, the
equation simplified to the incorrect ,ayleigh-
Keans formula. 8?T, if he did not require that
the energies e or the constant h go to <ero, but
remained finite, he obtained his own radiation
formula which matched experimental evidence
exactlyV
@lanck had stumbled across a theoretical basis
for his experimental radiation law, but only if
the energy is discontinuous. .ven though he
had no reason to accept this notion 6and he
hated its implications7, he accepted it
provisionally for he had nothing better.
The small, discrete bit of energy is called an
e%ergy *+a%#a. @lanck/s constant is
h I +.+2+ "+2 2!J!"
-3(
K
.
s
Ph$t$e!ectric E,,ect
The variable voltage source turns the collector
plate into a cathode with a surplus of electrons
and the emitter into an anode with a lack of
electrons, creating a retarding voltage in the
vacuum tube that tries to force electrons back
toward the emitter plate.
%hen a light source is turned on, some of the
remaining electrons in the anode are e'ected. &f
their kinetic energy is enough to overcome the
retarding voltage, they make it to the collector
plate, the circuit is completed, and the ammeter
measures a current.
The electrons that make the 'ourney and
complete the circuit must have had energy
greater than * V" where * is the charge of the
electron and V" is the voltage value where the
current stops entirely.
There is a well defined minimum voltage, V"
that stopped any electrons getting through= V"
does not depend at all on the intensity of the
lightV
$oubling the light intensity doubles the number
of electrons emitted, which doubles the current,
but did not affect the energies of the emitted
electrons.
>e found that the maximum energy of the
e'ected electrons did depend on the frequency
6color7= shorter-wavelength higher-frequency
light caused electrons to be e'ected with more
energy.
>e also discovered that there is a certain
threshold frequency )# that depends on the type
of metal, below which no photoelectrons were
e'ected, no matter how bright the light beam.
.instein showed that the pu<<ling features of
the photoelectric effect are easily explained
once the illuminating radiation is understood to
be a collection of particles, or pho#o%s.
The photons have energy quanta of magnitude
h ). These energy packets penetrate the surface
layer of the metal of the target electrode and hit
an electron.
The photon/s energy is transformed into the
kinetic energy of the electron, and some are
e'ected. 9ote that in order to be e'ected, each
electron must do an amount of work to climb
out of the atom to get into free space.
K/
pho#oelec#ro%
=/
pho#o%
W
* V
"
=h)
pho#o%
h)
#hreshold
Bri.ht1!i%e E/issi$% S0ectra
The spectrum of light from a hot gas when
passed through a prism was completely
different from the well-known rainbow-like
pattern from a heated solid, and different gases
have different patterns.
The br$gh#Dl$%e em$ss$o% spec#ra of each
element is different, a chemical fingerprint.
>eated 4olid
>eated 9a vapor
%hen light from a heated solid is passed
through a cool gas, the reverse pattern appears,
called a darkDl$ke absorp#$o% spec#ra.
The 4wiss mathematics teacher Kohann Kakob
8almer published the results of months of work
spent manipulating the numerical values of the
frequencies of the lines of the visible hydrogen
spectrum.
!
\
=5
(
!
%
)
2

!
%
$
2
)
% is an integer and 5 I !."2BJ!"
B
m
-!
is the
,ydberg constant.
4pectral 4eries predicted for >ydrogen

;yman series are
in the ultraviolet.
8almer series
start as visible
light, some ?M.
@aschen, 8rackett,
and @fund series
are in the infrared.
B$hr*s M$-e! (i%c$/0!ete)
.ach possible electron orbit in 8ohr/s model
has a fixed energy called its e%ergy le!el. The
fixed energy levels are like rungs in a ladder,
but the energy 0rungs1 are spaced closer
together the further you get from the nucleus.
The radii 0rungs1 are further apart as you get
further from the nucleus.
.lectrons can 'ump from one energy level to
another, but they must gain or lose 'ust the right
amount of energy= electrons can/t be between
energy levels. .lectrons can only 'ump to an
orbit where the its angular momentum will
increase or decrease by a multiple of
h=h/2 because angular momentum is
quanti<ed.
4
%
=m!
%
r
%
=%
(
h
2
)
% is the pr$%c$ple *+a%#+m %+mber of the
electron.
5 sudden transition of the electron between two
stationary states will produce an emission 6%
decreases7 or absorption 6% increases7 of
radiation with a frequency given by the
@lanck/.instein relation
h ) =/
$
/
)
where /$ and /) are the energies of the atom in
the initial and final stationary states. This
emission or absorption occurs in a single abrupt
step called an elec#ro% #ra%s$#$o%.
&f the angular momentum of an orbiting body is
known, it is a simple matter to compute the
radius and the energy of the orbit.
r
%
=
(
h
2
(
2
m
e
k e
2
)
%
2
M
%hen % I ! and M I !, the value is *.3 nm. 5t
this value, called the &ohr rad$+s, the energy of
the hydrogen atom is a minimum and the atom
is said to be in its gro+%d s#a#e.
/
%
=
(
2
2
mk
2
e
(
h
2
)
M
2
%
2
/
%
=( 2.!3!"
!3
K)
M
2
%
2
/
%
=(!3.+eM)
M
2
%
2
=#a%t#/ Mecha%ica! M$-e!
5s in the 8ohr model, the pr$%c$ple *+a%#+m
%+mber, %, determines the total energy of the
atom and determines the si<e of the orb$#al.
&t can have only integer values, % I !, 2, 3, (,W
The orb$#al *+a%#+m %+mber, also called the
a%g+lar *+a%#+m %+mber, l, determines the
angular momentum of the electron due to its
orbital motion. &t determines the different
shapes of the orbits. &t can only have integer
values l I ", !, 2, W , % G !.
s-shellA l I " d-shellA l I 2
p-shellA l I ! )-shellA l I 3
The mag%e#$c *+a%#+m %+mber, ml, determines
the angular momentum of the electron due to its
orbital motion. &t determines the orientation of
the orbital. &t can only have integer values,
ml I -l, ..., -2, -!, ", !, 2, W, l
p-shellA p"0 py0 pz
The sp$% *+a%#+m %+mber describes the spin of
the electron itself.
sp$% +p ms I FX, clockwise rotation
spin down ms I -X, counterclockwise
Pa#!i E4c!#si$% Pri%ci0!e
.ach quantum state, characteri<ed by the four
quantum numbers %, l, ml, and ms, in the atom is
limited to one electron. &f a state is occupied,
the next electron must to to an empty higher
energy state, filling up the empty states from
the lowest energy to higher energy.
This is what keeps the atom from always
collapsing to its lowest or ground state and
gives each element its characteristic structure,
and that gives the @eriodic Table its form.
&ave1Partic!e D#a!ity
oung/s double-slit experiment proved light
behaved as a wave. .instein/s solution to the
photoelectric effect proved light behaves as a
particle. ;ight can behave as either, depending
on how you measure it.
@rince ;ouis de 8roglie explained this as pilot
waves which accompany particles through
space and time. >e called these waves p$lo#
De Br$.!ie &ave!e%.th
\=
h
p
=
h
m!
This applies not only to light, but to particles as
well.
The C$/0t$% E,,ect
5rthur )ompton used the photon model to
explain his research on the scattering of x-rays
by the electrons in graphite. The x-ray photon
will recoil from the collision in one direction
while the electron recoils from the collision in
another.
)ompton observed
that the frequency of
the scattered photon
is less than the
frequency of the
incident photon,
indicating that the
photon loses energy.
>e also found that that the difference between
the two frequencies depends on the angle at
which the scattered photon leaves the collision.
The difference between the wavelength Y/ of the
scattered photon and the wavelength Y of the
incident photon is related to the scattering angle
by \= \=
h
mc
( !cos0)
5eise%er.*s U%certai%ty Pri%ci0!e
>eisenberg reali<ed that quantum theory
implied a fundamental limitation on how
accurately certain pairs of physical variables
can be measured simultaneously.
>e showed from this that there is no way of
accurately pinpointing the exact position of a
subatomic particle unless you are willing to be
quite uncertain about the particle/s momentum.
)onversely, there is no way of pinpointing the
exact momentum of a subatomic particle unless
you are willing to be quite uncertain about the
particle/s position.
A "A p>
h
2
, where h=
h
2
A /A# >
h
2
, where h=
h
2
Ma4 B$r%*s Matri4 Mecha%ics
The basic idea is that the frequencies of the
optical spectrum can be represented as an
infinite square matrix, as can the momentum p
and displacement q of the oscillators. Then
>eisenberg/s formula becomes the matrix
equation
pqqp=
h
2$
I
where I is the identity matrix.

This leads to a system of equations which could
produce the values of the frequencies and
relative intensities of spectral lines of atoms.
>eisenberg was able to use this matrix
formulation to derive all the classical results
with his new theory, showing 9ewtonian
mechanics and #axwell/s electromagnetism to
be special cases, and deduce the spectra of
hydrogen and the additional lines in the
presence of magnetic fields.
Erwi% Schr>-i%.er*s &ave Mecha%ics
.rwin 4chrZdinger developed another version
based on de 8roglie/s concept of matter waves.
>e found an equation which can be applied to
any physics system in which the mathematical
form of the potential energy V is known.
h$
2
c
2
1
c#
2
=
h
2
3
2
m
\
2
1+V 1
N is the wave itself, and is a function of both
position and time.

The solution to 4chrZdinger/s equation was a
wave that described the quantum aspects of the
system. The quantum transitions are now
viewed as energy passing continuously from
one vibration pattern to another rather than
from 'umping electrons.
The wave N determines the likelihood that the
electron will be in a particular position, but the
wave has no physical reality of its own 6unlike
a sound wave, electromagnetic wave, or water
wave7. .ach point in space around the nucleus
has a probability that the electron might be
there. The region where the electron is found
2"[ of the time, according to the wave
function solution to the 4chrZdinger equation,
is often called an elec#ro% clo+d.
Pa#! Dirac*s Tra%s,$r/ati$% Mecha%ics
5t first pu<<led by the non-commuting
quantities in 4chrZdinger/s wave mechanics,
$irac reali<ed that this was the essence of the
new approach. >e quickly found a link to
classical physics and used the new fundamental
idea of non-commutability to develop his own
version of quantum mechanics.
$irac showed that both of the other
formulations of quantum mechanics could be
viewed as special cases of his own, more
general, formulation. &n other words, all three,
though appearing quite different, are all
equivalent.
$irac also showed that quantum theory had the
answer to the apparent paradox of light being
both a particle and a wave. The concept of a
continuous field was now broken up into bits in
order to interact with matter, transforming it
into a quantum field. This new approach could
treat light as waves or particles, and give the
right answers either way. 4ince this work of
$irac, the dual nature of light as wave and
particle has been free of paradox for those who
can follow the mathematics.
=#a%t#/ E!ectr$-y%a/ics (=ED)
5fter %orld %ar &&, $irac/s pioneering work
was carried forward by ,ichard :eynman,
:reeman $yson, Kulian 4chwinger, and 4in-
&tiro Tomonaga. Their quantum
electrodynamics theory describes the
interaction of light and matter with remarkable
accuracy.
NUC+EAR P5YSICS
The %+cle+s of an atom consists of protons and
neutrons, collectively known as %+cleo%s.
proton p
F
H
!
!
neutron %
"
%
"
!
electron e
G
e
!
"
The proton charge is F!.+"2 !BB 22J!"
-!2
)
The electron charge is G!.+"2 !BB 22J!"
-!2
)
The number of protons, M, in the nucleus
determines the type of element and is called the
a#om$c %+mber of the element.
The number of neutrons, N, in the nucleus of an
atom can differ between atoms of the same
element. The total number of protons and
neutrons is called the a#om$c mass %+mber or
the %+cleo% %+mber, of that atom, A. 5toms of
the same element with different atomic mass
numbers are called $so#opes.
O
co+%#
charge
M
A
The a#om$c mass of an element is the weighted
average of the atomic mass numbers of the
different isotopes of that element.
5n a#om$c mass +%$#, amu or u, is defined as
exactly one-twelth the mass of a carbon-!2
atom.
! amu I !.++"*J!"
-2B
kg I 23!.* #eM
6 9oteA ! eM I !.+"22J!"
-!2
K 7
5 proton has a mass of !.""B 2B+ u
or !.+B2 +23 !J!"
-2B
kg
5 neutron has a mass of !.""3 ++* u
or !.+B( 223 +J!"
-2B
kg
5n electron has a mass of ".""" *(3 *B2 2 u
or 2.!"2 332 BJ!"
-3!
kg
N#c!ear Si8e
r( !.2!"
!*
m) A
!/ 3
Str$%. N#c!ear F$rce
The force that holds the nucleus together is
called the s#ro%g %+clear )orce. &t is about !""
times stronger than the electrostatic force, but
its range of action is very short, being very
strong at distances less than a femtometer
6!"
-!*
m7 but essentially <ero at larger distances.
:or comparison, the !s energy level for
hydrogen is about *2,2!3 fm.
The strong nuclear force is almost independent
of electric charge= at a given separation
distance, nearly the same strong force exists
between two protons, between two neutrons, or
between a proton and a neutron.
N#c!ear Stai!ity
5s the number M of protons in the nucleus
increases, the number N of neutrons must
increase even more in order to keep the nucleus
stable.
5s more protons are present in a nucleus, there
comes a point where adding neutrons still can/t
hold the nucleus together. 8ismuth-2"2 is the
largest stable atom, anything larger is unstable
and must break down into smaller atoms via
rad$oac#$!$#y.
Bi%-i%. E%er.y a%- Mass De,ect
.nergy is required to separate a stable nucleus
into its constituent protons and neutrons. This
energy is called the b$%d$%g e%ergy of the
nucleus.
&n .instein/s theory of special relativity, mass
and energy are equivalent by the famous
equation / I m c
2
, where c is the speed of light
in a vacuum. Thus the binding energy used to
disassemble the nucleus appears as extra mass
in the separated nucleons.
The difference in mass between the separated
nucleons and the stable nucleus is called the
mass de)ec# of the nucleus.
N#c!ear Stai!ity A.ai%
Ra-i$activity
Alpha rays, P rays, are the least penetrating,
being blocked by sheets of lead approximately
"."! mm thick. They consist of positively
charged P particles which are He
2
(
nuclei.
&e#a rays, Q rays, penetrate a lead sheet ten
times as far, approximately ".! mm. They
consist of negatively charged Q
G
particles which
are electrons or positively charged Q
F
particles
which are positrons. These come from the
nucleus, not the electron cloud.
1amma rays, \ rays, can pass through a great
amount of lead sheeting, approximately !""
mm. They are photons with short wavelengths,
high frequencies, and high energies.
Ra-i$active Decay
The original nucleus is called the pare%#
%+cle+s. The new nucleus, after the removal
of the P particle or Q particle, is called the
da+gh#er %+cle+s.
)onservation of mass/energy, conservation of
linear momentum, conservation of angular
momentum, conservation of electric charge,
and conservation of nucleon number must be
obeyed during radioactive decay.
A!0ha Decay
%hen the nucleus is too big, or has too many
protons, it disintegrates via P decay.
P
M
A
- 8
M2
A(
+ He
2
(
%hen a nucleus releases an P particle, energy is
also released, due to the change in mass. The
energy released appears as the kinetic energy of
the daughter nucleus, the kinetic energy of the
P particle, and a \ ray.
!
d
=
m
o
m
d
!
o
Beta Decay
%hen the nucleus contains too many
neutrons, it disintegrates via Q
G
decay.
P
M
A
- 8
M+!
A
+ e
!
"
+ v
e
&n Q] decay, the weak interaction converts a
neutron % into a proton p while emitting an
electron e
?
and an elec#ro% a%#$%e+#r$%o.
%hen the nucleus has too many protons to be
stable, but not enough nucleons to throw out an
P particle, it disintegrates via Q
F
decay.
P
M
A
- 8
M!
A
+ e
!
"
+v
e
&n QF decay, the weak interaction converts a
proton p into a neutron % while emitting an
positron e
P
and an elec#ro% %e+#r$%o.
5 third kind of Q decay sometimes occurs when
the nucleus pulls in or captures one of the
orbital electrons from outside the nucleus. The
process is called elec#ro% cap#+re, or K cap#+re,
since the electron normally comes from the
innermost or L shell 6n I !7.
P
M
A
+ e
!
"
- 8
M!
A
+v
e
Ga//a Decay
The nucleus, like the orbital electrons, exists
only in discrete energy states or levels. %hen
a nucleus changes from an excited energy state
6denoted by an asterisk ^7 to a lower energy
state, a photon is emitted, like with electrons.
P
^
M
A
- P
M
A
+y
&ea3 N#c!ear F$rce
The emission of neutrinos and Q particles
involves a force called the ,eak %+clear )orce.
The weak force/s field strength is !"
_!!
times
the strength of the electromagnetic force and
some !"
_!3
times that of the strong force, when
forces are compared between particles
interacting in more than one way.
Ra-i$active Decay
5n individual radioactive nucleus will decay
randomly. >owever, given a large sample of a
radioactive isotope, the statistical analysis of
how many of the radioactive isotopes have
decayed follows the mathematical formulaA
N=N
"
e
\ #
The ac#$!$#y0 A0 of a radioactive sample
is the number of disintegrations per
second that occur. The constant Y is
called the decay constant.
A=
A N
A#
=\ N
The 4& unit for activity is the bec*+erel, 8q. &t
can also be measured in c+r$e, )i.
! 8q I ! disintegration/second
! )i I 3.B"J!"
!"
8q
The hal)Dl$)e T!/2 of a radioactive isotope is the
time required for one half of the parent nuclei
to disintegrate into daughter nuclei.
T
!/ 2
=
ln2
\
Ra-i$active Dati%.
The activity of the sample and the original
activity can be measured without harming the
ob'ect, so comparing these is usually the
method chosen to date an ob'ect.
A=A
"
e
\#
5 more accurate means is to obtain a count of
the number of radioactive nuclei present using
a mass spectrometer, but this requires removing
a portion of the ob'ect in most cases.
The best isotope to use is for radioactive dating
is one where the half-life of the isotope is
neither too short nor too long relative to the age
of the sample to be dated.
2!"
@b G 22.2 years
!(
) G *B3" years
233
? G (.(BJ!"2 years

("
L G !.2*!J!"2 years

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