CATHODE RAY AND DEVELOPMENT OF TELEVISION

The Discovery of Cathode Rays

It was thought gases were electric insulators. Heinrich Geissler refned
a vacuum pump so it could be made to evacuate a glass tube to within
0.01 of normal air pressure. Julius Plucker his friend! took tubes and
sealed a metal plate called an electrode" to each end of the tube. #he
electrodes made electrical connections through the galss and were
sealed to maintain the partial vacuum in the tbe. #hese were then
connected to high voltage sourge.
#he evacuated tubes actuall$ conducted an electric current. #he glass
at the positive end or anode! of tube glowed with a pale green light.
%hat t$pe of invisible ra$ caused this &uorescence. &ourescence is
emission of light from a material when it is e'posed to streams of
particles or e'ternal radiation.
%hatever this ra$ was" it was thought to have originated at the
negative electrode or cathode. (ugene Goldstein" stud$ing these same
e)ects" names the ra$s that caused the glow *cathode ra$s* and the
tubes were known as cathode ra$ tubes of discharge tubes.
(arl$ e'perimentors used these tubes to investigate all of the
properties of cathode ra$s and +ra$s.
,athode ra$s are now used in tv" computer
#here are now known to be streams of electrons emitted within an
evacuated tube from a cathode negative lectrode !to an anode
positive electrode!.
- ,.# is a sealed glass tube from which most of the air is removed b$ a
vacuum pump. - beam of electrons travles from the cathode to anode
and can be de&ected b$ electrical and or magnetic felds.
/ischarge #ubes
/ischarge tubes evacuated to di)erent ait pressures were found to
produce di)erent e)ects.

-t low pressures" electrons can accelerate to faster speeds before

colliding with gas particles. Initiall$" a current will &ow even though
nothing can be seen. #he frst e)fect seen is a stead$ luminous
discharge knows as *glow discharge.
-s pressure is lowered further" a number of colourful e)ects seen
-s frst" most of tube is occupied b$ birght region called positive
column which apperas to start from the anode and is broken into series
of bands or striations. 0triations are separated b$ dark spaces.
,olour of discharge depends on gas used. In low pressure air1 positive
colum is a brilliant pink and negative glow is deep blue.
2or ever$da$ use the$ are in neon light signs.3 #he$ are long tubes
with most air removed. - small amound of gas is introduces" which"
when e'cited b$ a high potential glows. (g when added gas is neon"
the kinetic energ$ of electrons is enough to inoise the gas around the
cathode causing the emission of a reddish light.
2lourescent tubes in the home have mercur$ vapour at low temps. #He
light produced is in the 45 region of the electromagnetic spectrum. #6
produce visible light" a thin coating of apowder is spread on the inside
surface of the tube. #He 45 radiation causing this coating to &uoresce
with the familiar white light.
Eect of e!ectric "e!ds o# cathode rays
7 felds we know8 electric" magnetic" gravitational. (lectric feld e'ists
in region where electric charge e'pereiences force. /irection of electric
feld is direction in which positive charge e'perienes force when placed
in electric feld.
9ines radiate from centre. .adiate in all directions for positive. .adiall$
centred fore negative.
2irst8 postive" second8
negative" third" opposite" fourth like negative" ffth like positive.
4niform electric felds
- uniform electric feld can be made b$ placing charges on two parallel
plates which are separated b$ a small distance compared with their
lengths.
(lectric feld (! bw : parallel plates.
(lectric feld is uniform e'cept at edges where it bulges slightl$
Protection against lightning8 Pointed conductors
9ighting strikes have massive electrical discharge over short period of
time. -s cloud moves over the ground" negative charge in the cloud
repels electrons in the ground producing potential di)erence between
cloud and ground.
%hen P.d 9arge enough to overcome the resistance or air" there is
discharge seen as lightning.
;en<amin 2ranklin" came up with *lightning rod* to act as a conductor
and protect building from damage.
/evice based on fact8 the electric feld around a conducting ob<ect
depends both on its shape and its charge. 2ield is strongest near sharp
points on the ob<ect. 2ield can become considerabl$ strong so that air
molecules lose electrons" molecules are ionised and the air
surrounding the charged bod$ becomes a conductor. #He charge can
leak awa$ in air.
- 5an der Graaf generator is round to allow a large electric charge to
build up. %hen the charge is great enough" an electric spark can <ump
across a small gap. If we attach a wire with sharp point to the dome of
generator" no spark can be obtained. #his is because the charge leaks
awa$ into the surrounding air before it builds to a high enough level for
the spark to form.
2or building" a lightning protection s$stem involves attaching a pointed
metal ob<ect at the highest part of the rood and running a s$stem of
metal straps from ti to carr$ the charge safel$ to the ground where the
strap is buried a metre into the earth. #he chrage from the lighting
strike can drain =uickl$ through the conductor and prevent fre.
#he Photocopier >achine 8 ,harged particles
Photocopiers which scan image and produce dr$ image i.e one htat
doesn?t use speacial photosensitive paper!" were developed b$ ,hester
,arlson in a process called 'erograph$.
0emiconductors@ selenium" arsenic" and tellurium @ act as
photoconductors. #hat is the$ act as insulators in the dark and electric
conductors in the light.
- thin la$er of semiconductor material deposited on drum. -t start of
cop$ c$cle" drum given a unifrom electrostatic charge. Page to be
copied is illuminated with strong light and an image of page is formed
b$ lens on the charged photoconductor. %hite areas light up
photoconductor and it becomes a conductos to its chrage leaks awa$
to matal backing. ;lack areas remain. #his latent image is then
developed.
- fne powder of small glass beads" covered with a black toner" is
gentl$ brushed over drum. #oner sticks onl$ where there is remaining
charge" that is the black areas of original image.
Ae't a blank sheetr of paper is rolled over drum" and toner is
transferred to the paper givign an e'act image of the original. #he
image" is * f'ed* b$ heating page. /rum is cleared for ne't cop$ c$cle.
J.J #hompson
%ork on cathode ra$s
incorporated charged plates inside 0.# to verif$ h$pothesis b$ ,rookes
that cathode ra$s would be de&ected b$ electric felds.
IA thompson?s e'p" cathode ra$s passed between parallel plates
connected to batter$.
6bserved direction of ra$s moved towards positivel$ charged plate"
showing that ra$s behaved as negative charges.

>illikan?s oil drop e'periment

.obert -. >illikan" used uniform electric feld bw : parallel plates to
investigate properties of charge.
0pra$ed oil drops into appartatus.
0ome drops drifted into region ; and came under in&uence of electric
feld (. -s enetered" the$ were momentaril$ e'posed to + ra$s"
resulting in some drops become chraged.
(arth?s gravitation feld e'erts force down weight! which can be
counteracted b$ an electric feld produced bw parallel plates b$ a
source of variable voltage. 0paces bw plates can be viewed through
microscope. ;$ careful ad<ustment of voltage it was possible for one
drop to be held stationar$" or made to travel with uniform velocit$. I.e
2orce action of drop was balanced.

>illikan needed to determine mass of drop. He measured terminal

velocit$ of dop when the electric feld was turned o)" and it fell under
in&uence of gravit$ alone. ;$ using e=uations from &uid mechanics" he
could calculate radius of drop. ;$ using an oil with a known densit$" he
determined it?s mass.
His fnding showed charge on drop wasn?t arbitar$. ;ut that charge
alwa$s occured in packets or multiples of some smallest value. #his
value was calculated to be
B elementar$ charge" charge found on electron
If =uestion ask what is the charge e'isting of oil drop8 If suspended8
mgB(= therefor =BmgC(
/irection of electric feld is alwa$s positive to negative
Eects of Ma$#etic Fie!ds o# Cathode Rays
>agnetic felds e'ert forces of electric currents" that is" on moving
charged particles.

#he direction of the force is given b$ the .HP. If positive particle"

direction of conventional current is that of velocit$1 if negative"
opposite to velocit$! -D- .HP. for positive 9HP. for negative!
In .HP.8 thumb B 5elocit$for positive@use 9HP. for negative" aka
velocit$ is opposite! fngers B magnetic feld palmBforce. ;4# #%I0#8
#humb can change angle if the velocit$ is at an angle theta to
magnetic feld

Aow the particle with charge = and velocit$ v ma$ or ma$ not move
perpendicularl$ to magntic feld of strength ;. #herefore formula is new
in picture!.
#herefore if velocit$ and >agnetic feld perpendicular sinE0!B1
therefore 2B=5;. If parallel" sin0!B0 therefore 2B0
If something is towards $ou" then downwards" awa$ from $ou"
upwards" right" left" normal.
Path of electron in a magnetic fled + + + + is circular" as magnetic
force is acting
+ + + +
perpendicular to the velocit$ of the
+ + + + electron
Deter%i#i#$ the char$e&to&%ass ratio of cathode rays
2ollowing from his e'periment cathode ra$s de&ected b$ electric
felds! he measured charge@to@mass ratio of cathode ra$ particles
called electrons.
He built a ,.# with charged parallel plates called capacitor plates! to
provide a uniform electric feld and source of uniform magnetic feld.
%Ith apparatus he investigated e)ect of cathode ra$s passing through
both felds oriented at right angles to each other and this had e)ect of
producing forces on cathode ra$s that directl$ opposed each other.
('p has two stages8
1. 5ar$ing the magnetic feld and electric felds until their opposing forces
cancelled" leaving the cathode ra$s unde&ected. #his e)ect is
;$ e=uating magnetic and electric force e=uations" #hompson
determined velocit$ of cathode ra$ particles.
2. -ppl$ing the same strength magnetic feld alone! and determining the
radius of the circle path travelled b$ the charged particles in the
magnetic feld.
#hompson combined results and obtained the magnitude of the charge@to@
mass ratio for the charged particles that constituted cathode ra$s.
Ph$sics 2act
%hen charged particles eneter electric feld the$ follow a tra<ector$
under in&uence of electric force
%hen charged particles enters magnetic feld" it e'periences a
magnetic force. #he direction of this force is given b$ .HP.
%e can combine these two e)ects b$ arranging the electric feld and
the velocit$ of the particle at right angles to each other
(g. ;$ ad<usting strengths of electric and magnetic felds" their e)ects
on motion of a charged particle can cancel each toher out. #he
particles can then travel alond a straight path.
In fgure of JJ e'periment old one! there are two sets of electric felds.
2irst accelerates the electrons through a set of collimatros rtot produe
a narrow beanm. #his beam then passes through a combination of
electric and magnetic felds that can be ad<usted.
Cathode Rays & 'aves or Partic!es(
,rooke?s found cathode ra$s did not penetrate metals and travelled in
straight lines.
Initiall$ thought the$ were electromagnetic waves as similar bahviour
to light but discounted" as crookes found ra$s were de&ected b$
magnetic felds 8 an e)ect not seen in light.
#his debate continued with scientists b$ observing e'periments and
h$pothesising if its like light with short wavelengths" or matter with
negativel$ charged and moving with great velocit$ until JJ #hompson
showed ra$s were streams of negativel$ charged particles 8 we call
electrons now.
(arlier inconsistent behaviour of ra$s was problem.
6bserations that ftted the wave model8
3. 0traight line travel
4. If opa=ue ob<ect placed in path" shadow of ob<ect appeared
5. Pass through thin foils without damaging them
6bservation that ftted the particle model 8
6. .a$s left cathode at right angles to the surface
7. /e&ected b$ magnetic felds
8. /id not appear to be de&ected b$ electric felds
9. Paddlewheels turned when placed in path of ra$s
10. 0lower than light
>ain restirction for particle theor$ was abscence of de&ection in
electric felds" but JJ showed this was due to ra$s themselves. It?s due
to conductivit$ conferred on the rarefed gas b$ cathode ra$s.
>easuring conductivit$" it decreased rapidl$ with e'haustion of gas. -t
high e'hausions there might be a chance of detecting de&ection of
cathode ra$s b$ and electtrostatic force.
%ithin tube" cathode ra$s ionised gas. Ions were attracted to plate with
opposite charge and the line@up of ions neutralised the charge on
plate" allowing ra$s to pass una)ected.
-fter evacuating chamber" #hompson observed de&ection towards
positive plates" confrming them as negativel$ charged particles.
-bilit$ of cathode ra$s to penetrate thin metal foilds still not e'plained.
-nswer not in properties of cathode ra$" but model of atom. If atom not
solid" possible for small particles to pass through foil. (rnest .utherford
changed the model of atom.

+@.a$s8 /iscover$ and -pplication

%ilhelm .ontgen e'perimented with cathode ra$s. 2ound in dark room"
a screen covered with sensitive &ourescent material barium platino@
c$anide! glowed when placed near the end of cathode ra$ tube.
0ince cathode ra$s couldn?t pass through glass at end of tube" he
deduced that this &uorescence must be due to new form of radiation.
,alled radiation +ra$s.
9ater research shows + ra$s wre produced when high speed electrons
interacted with matter" like glass in ,.#.
+@ra$s later found to be electromagnetic waves" similar to light" smaller
wavelenght.
Properties8 Penetrate man$ substances" e'pose photographic flm"
cause certian substances to &uoresce" be re&ected and refracted.
,ommon use8 /iagnosing illness or in<ur$" treating cancer" check
luggage at airport" anal$se welding of metal parts in an aircraft wing.
A))!icatio#s of Cathode Rays
Parts of ,athode .a$ #ubes
(lectron gun8 Heating flament heats cathode" releasing electrons b$
thermionic emission. - number of electrodes are used to control
brightness of beam" focus beam" accelerate electrons along tube.
Positivel$ charged anode develops a strong electric feld that e'erts a
force on the negative electrons" accelerating them along the tube.
#wo sets of parallel de&ecting plates8 ,harged to produce electric feld
that de&ects beam of electrons separatel$ up or down" right or left.
#hese felds are used to move beam so the electrons can be directed
to all points on the &uorescent screen. (lectric curretn passion through
coild around the cathode ra$ tube produces magnetic felds that
control the movement of the electrom beam. #his ?trace? on the screen
produces the visible output" such as the picture on a television.
#he glass creen8 is coated with la$ers of &uorescent material. (mits
light when high energ$ electrons strike it.
#elevision
4ses ,.# as output device.
,olour television camera records images through .G; flters.
Information transmitted to reciever which directs signal to 7 electron
guns .G;!.
Pic reconstituted on screen b$ an additive process involving 7 coloured
phospphors. (ach electron gun stimulated its phosphor.
0creen made of F:G horiHontal lines of dots. ,urrent in each coil
energises the de&ection coils and is varied to scan screen twice for
each image
(lectrons sweep across the screen" building up picture. (ach pic
formed from : passes of the electron beam. the odd@numbered lines
are drawn frst" then the beam ?&ies?back to start adn ?draws in? even
numbered lines. (ach scan takes1CG0 seconds" less than retina retains
image so screen doesn?t &icker.
/ots of phosphorescent pain on screen convert energ$ of electron
beam into light. -fter beign e'cited" phosphorescent continues to emit
light for a longer time" which helps to minimise screen &icker. In colour
tv" phosphoresecnt fots come in the .G;" and colour formed b$
combining the 7.
: electron beams scan screen the$ come from slighting di)rerent
directions throught holes in a shadow mask to control brightness of 7
sets of phosphores.
,athode .a$ 6scilloscopes
,.6 makes voltage *visible.*
4ses ,.# to displa$ a variet$ of electrical signals. HoriHontal de&ection
is usuall$ provided b$ a time bases or sweep generator! which allows
the voltage o vertical a'is! to be pltted as a function of time on
horiHontal a'ists!
#imebase control allows technician to select a variet$ of sweep rates.
#his sets the time per division for the fguere drawn on screen. ;otton
otar$ switches control the amplitude of displa$ed waveform. (ach
centimetre of grid can be used to measure voltage of input waveform.

Input waveform enters from left on diagram. 6ne part of signal is

amplifed" and the voltage produced goes to vertical de&ecting plates.
6#her part passes to the trigger and time base and is then passed t
ohoriHontal de&ection plates.
,ombination of both signals produce waveform.
@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@@
@@@@@@@@@@@
THE PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT AND *LAC+ *ODY RADIATION
Ma,-e!!.s Theory of E!ectro%a$#etic 'aves
;ased on observations" that changing magnetic feld induces an
electric feld in the region around a magner" and that a magnetic feld
is induced in the region around a current carr$ing conduction" James
,lerk >a'well concluded that mutual induction of time and space
changing electric and magnetic felds should allow the following
unending se=uence of events8
11. - time@var$ing feld in one region produces a time@ and space@var$ing
magnetic feld at all points around it.
12. #his var$ing magnetic feld then similiarl$ produces a var$ing electric
feld
13. In an electromagnetic distubance is started at one loaction eg.
vibrating charges in radio antenna! the disturbance can travel out to
distant point through the mutual generation of electric and magnetic
felds.
14. #he eletric and magnetic felds propogate through space in the form of
an electromagnetic wave
4pshot was electromagnetic waves are self@propogating.
6nce started it can continue forever.
>a'well?s theor$ gave defnite connection bw light and electricit$.
His e=uations predicted light and all electromagnetic waves must be
transverse waves and travel at light speed estimated 7.11I10JKmCs.
Implied that full range of fre=uencies of electromagnetic waves should
e'ist -D- electromagnetic spectrum.
Hei#rich Hert/ a#d E,)eri%e#ts -ith Radio 'aves
>a'wells two important predictions were8
15. (lectromagnetic waves could e'ist with man$ di)erent fre=uencies
16. -ll such waves should propogate through space at light speed
HertH verifed these
He thought he could produce some of electromagnetic waves with
fre=uencies other than that of visible light b$ creating rapidl$
oscillating electric feld with an induction coil that caused a rapid
sparking across a gap in a conducting cicuit.
4sed an induction coil to produce sparks between the spherical
electrodes of the transmitter. He observed that when a small length of
wire was bent into a loop so that there was a small gap and held near
the sparking induction coil" a spark would <ump across the gap in the
loop. #his occured evn though loop was not connected to source of
electical current.
HertH concluded this loop was a detector of the electromagnetic waves
generator b$ transmitter. 2irst evidence of electromagnetic waves.

HertH showed that waves originating form electrodes connected to

induction coil behaved as it the$ awere polarised b$ rotating the
receiever loop. %hen detector loop was perpendicular to transmitter
gap" radio waves from the gap produced no spark. 0park in reciever
was caused b$ the electric current set up in the conducting wire. %hen
the detector loop was parallel to hte sphereical electrodes attached to
the induction coil" the spark in the receiver was at ma'imum. -t
intermediate angles it was prooportionall$ elss. It showed newl$ made
waves were polarised.

If hetH was correct" and (> waves travel through space from the coil to
the loop. he reasoned" there must be a small dela$ bw appearance of
1st and :nd spark. #he spark in detector cant occur at e'actl$ the
same time as the spark in induction coil as even travelling at light
speed takes some time.
#o measure wavelenght he ocnnected both transmitter and deterctor
loop with a length of wire. He?d alread$ shown b$ roating second loop"
that waves produced b$ sparking behaved as if the$ were polarised.
#he spaek in reciever was caused b$ electric current set up in
conducting wire. -t intermediate angles" interference of currents
provided a measure of the wavelength of radio waves through air.