Rome: The Augustan Age 44BC AD14

Background on some of the development that led to the downfall of the Republc:
Before Julius Caesars dictatorship, the Senate was an extremely corrupt body
During Romes wars of conquest in the
rd
and !
nd
centuries BC, the Senate was
the dominant body within Rome but put its own personal interests before the
welfare of the Republic
"he Senates corruption prompted the tribunes of the people to challenge their
pri#ileges
"he Senate responded to this outcry through brutal #iolence
"he urban mob became increasingly dependent on the state for support throughout
the $
st
century, which resulted in unscrupulous magistrates exploiting and using
these mobs for their own ends
"here was no professional, standing army% Rather, legions were recruited from
#olunteers who relied on their generals to reward and pay them at the conclusion
of their ser#ice% "his meant that the armies loyalty was directed to the generals,
rather than the state
Consequently, ambitious generals such as &arius, Sulla, 'ompey and Julius
Caesar, culti#ated their own (pri#ate armies and became a threat to the existence
of the senate% "hese generals partnered up with powerful indi#iduals and factions
also attempting to gain control and the clash between the senate and military
leaders resulted in a number of disastrous ci#il wars
Julius Caesar emerged triumphant from the Ci#il )ar of *+,*- with 'ompey% "his
#ictory was important because it mar.ed the waning power of the Senate and
allowed Caesar to set up a more permanent form of autocracy
Caesar held successi#e consulships and in *+ accepted the dictatorship for $$
days, in */ for one year and in *- for $0 years% 1n **, he finally accepted the
dictatorship for life
2Caesar had had a relationship with Cleopatra and the two had concei#ed a son
together3
4owe#er, most Romans were not yet prepared to accept a one,man rule and the
nobility became increasingly frustrated with Caesars apparent intentions to retain
absolute, singular control
"his discontent culminated in Caesars assassination in **BC
4is death threw the Roman world into another Ci#il )ar
1! "stablshment of the prncpate
#mpact of death of Caesar$ earl% career of &ctavan$ 'econd Trumvrate and Cvl (ar
5ugustus established his power in ways6
$% 1nitial Caesarian
propaganda and
monetary bribes
helped him create
army from Cs
#eterans
!% 7sed (Second
"rium#irate to
eliminate political
ri#als and further his
influence
% Battle of 5ctium
eliminated
5ntonius ri#alry
and won him
8gyptian treasure
5ugustus then maintained his through three steps
#mpact of death of Caesar
1n **BC, -0 senatorial conspirators assassinated Caesar% "he murder was orchestrated by Brutus and
Cassius
7nder Caesar, the Roman republic had stooped into degradation% "he Senate was dominant and
corrupt and Caesar had assumed dictatorial status
7pon Cs assassination, 5ntonius became leader of Rome and carried a position of immense power
9epidus was another contender
)hen :aius ;cta#ius learned of his new status as heir, he changed his named to (:aius Julius Cesar
;cta#ianus, swore to a#enge his adopted fathers death and became determined to excel Caesars
achie#ements
5grippa was the one who encouraged ;cta#ian to immediately return to Rome in order to secure his
inheritance% ;cta#ians mother and step,father tried to persuade him not to accept the inheritance
Syme: <5ugustus refused to be deterred by letters from his mother and step,father% 1n fact, this
encouraged the independent and ad#enturous ;cta#ian=%
5ntonius had support from 9epidus and the Roman army, howe#er, the army refused to compromise
with the assassins
By staging a funeral oration for Caesar, 5ugustus lost popularity with the Senate, whom JC had
treated with little respect and who had organised his assassination% 5ccording to Jones, <Balancing
the popularity of the army and the senate became too difficult and thus he lost support of both=
5ntonius attempted to bloc. ;cta#ian adoption rights, so in reaction this, ;cta#ian raised a huge
army 2and seduced some of 5ntonius3 and marched on Rome demanding consulship and arranged
for consular election
Southern 6 emphasises that ;cta#ian had no need to enforce his own will upon the people of Rome,
as they worshipped him already as the heir of Caesar
1n *BC, he was elected as consul
"arl% career of &ctavan
>uture 5ugustus was born :aius ;cta#ius in -BC from a wealthy and respected family% 4is
grandmother Julia was the aunt of Julius Caesar, hence ;cta#ius mother was Caesars niece
Caesar was impressed when he saw ;cta#ius present a speech at his grandmothers funeral aged $$
and had him elected to the college of pontiffs 2priests3 and later when he was $-, allowed him to part
in his 5frican "riumph
1n *-, ;cta#ius impressed Caesar further when he accompanied him to Spain% Soon after, Caesar
made ;cta#ius the heir to his extremely #aluable estate, though the will made no mention of
;cta#ius as his successor
)hen ;cta#ius was $?, Caesar appointed him to his staff as (magister equitum 2assistant to the
Dictator3 and sent him to &acedonia with his school friend, &arcus @ipsanius 5grippa to recei#e
military training for the dictators planned campaign against the 'arthinians
'econd Trumvrate and cvl war:
$% >irst
Settlement
established
5ugustus as
the (princeps
!% Second
Settlement
consolidated
his power
% 'olitical, social
and legal reforms
ensured his
popularity across
Roman classes
"here had been an unofficial (>irst "rium#irate between Caesar, 'ompey and Crassus 2-0,A3 but
it had been a co#ert arrangement between the three who were ne#er officially recognised as
trium#irs
"he Second "rium#irate had an official title Triumviri Republica Constituendae and a tenure of
fi#e years% 1t was between 5ugustus, 5ntonius and 9epidus
1ts purpose was to set the state in order and to attac. the Republican armies of Brutus and Cassius
in the 8ast% Brutus and Cassius were Caesars murderers
"he trium#irs had absolute powers and the right to nominate all magistrates in ad#ance
1n *BC, the formation of the (Second "rium#irate empowered 5ugustus to a#enge Caesars
assassination and gain further territorial spheres of interest
Dio Cassius remar.ed that the "rium#irates purpose was to6 <order the state and attac. the forces
of Brutus and Cassius=
David Shotter realistically suggested6 <despite its high sounding purpose B to heal the Republics
afflictions B its real aim was the ser#ice of personal and factional ambition%=
"he trium#irs first motion was (proscription in which !000 equites and 00 senators 2including
Cicero, who had pre#iously attempted to utilise 5ugustus as a political pawn3 were depri#ed of
both their property and li#es% "hose who escaped this campaign Coined Sextus 'ompeius% Julius
Caesar was officially deified and 5ntonius and ;cta#ian made preparations to face Brutus and
Cassius in &acedonia
"urning their wrath eastward, the trium#irate defeated Brutus and Cassius in two battles on the !
rd
;ctober and the $*
th
Do#ember *!BC in &acedonia, resulting in the suicide of Caesars assassins%
"he Battle of Philippi mar.ed the end of Republican opposition and restored wealth and
economic stability to the Roman state, through royal treasures, war booty and land income from
8gypt
Holland: <"he defeat of Brutus and Cassius at 'hilippi is traditionally regarded as mar.ing the end
of the Roman empire=%
"erritory was di#ided between the three trium#irs, with 5ugustus recei#ing 1taly, which had the
diplomatic ad#antage of being the <heart of the Roman 8mpire%= ;cta#ian returned to 1taly to
settle large numbers of #eterans and to deal with Sextus 'ompeius who had seiEed Sicily
9epidus became a minor member whilst 5ntonius was to ta.e the maCority of the legions to the
8ast, to settle pro#inces and raise money% 1t was during his soCourn in the 8ast that 5ntonius
accepted an in#itation from Cleopatra to #isit 8gypt
"hese arrangements after 'hilippi had great significance as it resulted in the acquisition of clients
for ;cta#ian through settling the #eterans in 1taly
5nthony was distanced from Rome and his subsequent relationship with Cleopatra pro#o.ed
animosity from the Romans
"ensions were thus created between the two most powerful generals in total control of the empire%
"hus, the Battle of 5ctium was ine#itable
The triumvirate from 40-33:
"ensions between 5ntonius and ;cta#ian were briefly alle#iated through the marriage of
;cta#ians sister ;cta#ia, though co#ert de#elopments were still ta.ing place, which would
ine#itably end in ci#il war
Sextus 'ompeius was granted a share of control in the empire in return for his promise not to
interfere with Romes corn supply% 4owe#er, war bro.e out between him and ;cta#ian% 5ntonius
accused ;cta#ian of brea.ing the arrangement with Sextus 'ompeius
9ater, in -BC, a triple attac. launched at Daulochus by 5ugustus, 5grippa and 9epidus on the
hostile Sextus 'ompeius, resulted in a great na#al #ictory% 5fter the battle, ;cta#ian sent 9epidus
to 5frica to get him out of the way, too. o#er 'ompeius troops 2he now had control of *0 legions3
and returned to Rome where he was granted a number of honours
5ntonius married Cleopatra at 5ntioch and by an arrangement called the (Donations of
5lexandria declared Cleopatra and her son by Caesar as (Fueen and Ging of Gings controlling
8gypt and Cyprus% 4er three children were to share 5rmenia, &edia, Syria% 'hoenicia, Cilicia and
Cyrenaica
"he trium#irate was due to end in and a war of propaganda began% ;cta#ian had the ad#antage
of being situated in Rome and the inhabitants of the 1talian towns and cities swore an oath of
allegiance to him
5ntonius supporters made a speech in his fa#our but ;cta#ian entered the Senate with an armed
guard and all 5ntonius supports fled to Coin their leader in the 8ast% 5ntonius di#orced ;cta#ia,
further exacerbating tensions between ;cta#ian and 5ntonius
"he trium#irate had ended and now the Battle of 5ctium was to begin
"hrough effecti#ely exploiting the trium#irate, 5ugustus succeeded in a#enging Caesars
assassination, legitimising his expanding army, eliminating political opposition and furthering his
economic strength
Conse)uences and sgnfcance of the Battle of Actum
David Shotter: <"he Battle of 5ctium was both a physical battle and a propaganda battle for hearts
and minds=
)hilst 5ntonius was conducting a romantic affair 2onald Syme remar.ed that the relations of
5ntonius and Cleopatra <were not merely those of proconsul and #assal,ruler=3 5ugustus conducted
a networ. of allies in Rome, securing his (authoritas whilst spreading propaganda against 5ntonius
'oets and pamphleteers financed by 5ugustus 2such as @irgil, 4orace and ;#id3 extolled their
patrons apparent modesty and moral strictness, contrasting it strongly with 5ntonius life as an
oriental monarch at the la#ish 8gyptian court
Cleopatra was the point in which 5ntonius was most #ulnerable and Roman sentiment most easily
exploited and swayed% Realising this, 5ugustus continually #ilified the 8gyptian ruler, declaring war
on the (>oreign Fueen in !BC
;n the !
nd
September $BC, 5ugustus outnumbered and defeated 5ntonius armada of A00 ships on
the west coast of :reece
5ntonius men were already wea.ened by hunger and malaria, a result of 5ugustus bloc.ade and the
marshy surroundings
1n an uncharacteristic gesture, 5ntonius abandoned his men, later committing suicide before
5ugustus entry into 8gypt%
Bo!erso"#6 <5ctium was a shabby affair, the worthy climax to the ignoble propaganda against
Cleopatra, to the sworn and sacred union of all 1taly%=
4owe#er, 5ugustus metamorphosed the anticlimactic affair into a great na#al battle, a national
crusade in which 5ugustus had fought for Romes integrity against ;riental corruption and emerged
#ictorious
7pon his return, 5ugustus publicly indicated that (peace was restored, through the symbolic closure
of the ("emple of Janus and the more practical action of settling $!0,000 #eterans, reducing his
legions from -0 to !/
1n an empire where political uphea#al, ci#il wars and proscriptions had pre#ented peace for !00
years, 5ugustus (restoration of unity and harmony won him e#en greater loyalty and support
David Shotter6 <"he #ictory at 5ctium mar.ed a turning point in the history of Rome B the end of
the Republic and the beginning of a new monarchy%=
5ugustus was left as the complete master of the Roman world B without any opposition
Shotter6 <@iewed as a turning point in history of Rome=
4e turned the .ingdom of 8gypt into a Roman pro#ince B increased its fertility and its yield of grain
for the Roman mar.et by ma.ing troops clean out irrigation canals of the Dile
Suetonius: "o glorify his #ictory at 5ctium, he found a city close to the scene of the battle and
named it Nicopolis B (City of @ictory B and made arrangements for the celebration of :ames there
e#ery A years%
4e suppressed a series of sporadic riots and re#olts B foreign wars and conspiracies
"he Temple of Janus 2which had not been closed no more than twice since the foundation of Rome3
was closed as a sign that the 8mpire was at peace on land and at sea
Conse$uen"es:
;cta#ian was now hailed as imperator
5grippa was sent to 1taly to settle #eterans
5ntonius supporters were treated leniently
;cta#ian in#aded 8gypt and Cleopatra and 5ntonius committed suicide% 8gypt was annexed to Rome
'tolemy Caesar 2son of Julius Caesar3 and eldest son of 5ntonius and >ul#ia were .illed
;cta#ian now established authority o#er the eastern pro#inces
Si%nifi"an"e:
4e had control of all the Roman legions 2pro"onsular imperium3
4e recei#ed tribucian sacrosanctity
4e needed to return confidence, peace and stability to the state and consolidate his power he
de#eloped a new central go#ernment and political system .nown as the principate% H1t could not be
seen as a dictatorship or tyrannyI
"here was no more political uphea#al, ci#il wars and proscriptions
'eace in the empire for the first time in !00 years
Do more economic de#astation, oppressi#e taxation and exactions in eastern pro#inces
Cleopatras death mar.ed the end of the 00,year old 'tolemaic .ingdom of 8gypt
"he #ast treasures of the 'tolemies was used to pay for campaigns, triumph and the adornment of
Rome
8gypt remained the personal dominion of ;cta#ian and of later Roman emperors
"he senate #oted ;cta#ian honours as the sa#iour of the state
o es &esate: <1t transferred the Republic from my power to the control of the senate and the people of
Rome=
o 4e ended all proscriptions and declared an amnesty
o 'ublic wor.s program 2building B restoration of temples3
o :ladiatorial contests and other shows pro#ided for people to enCoy%
o 'ublic finances restored and unpaid taxes were cancelled
o DemobiliEed half the army and ga#e them pensions and offered settlement%
o Senatorial roll was reduced from $000 to -00%
&any of them secured their position through influence of bribery
8ach member was allowed to nominate one anotherJ 5ugustus and 5grippa announced
their own choice%
"he meetings were not held more than twice a month B at the beginning and the middle%
During meetings, he shel#ed the custom on members in order of seniority and instead,
singled out spea.ers arbitrarily B ma.e them alert with interest and feel responsibly for
constructi#e thought%
'e(er: <5ugustus helped de#ise the illusion that his go#ernment ser#ed the interests of the
populations ci#il liberties and ser#ed as a ci#il go#ernment% 1n actuality, an autocracy had
been created% "hough in actuality a despot, 5ugustus appealed to the desires of the
populace to li#e under the Republic=%
Development of the prncpate: settlements of *+ and *, BC
Development of the prncpate:
"he old system had failed and was in need of reform
5fter the #ictory at 5ctium, ;cta#ian saw to the organisation of the 8ast before returning to Rome
)hen he returned in !+BC, he was <in complete control of affairs= 2Res :estae3
"he process of affirming his position was not instantaneous, rather it e#ol#ed o#er time
;cta#ian had to a#oid the gruesome fate of Caesar, a fate that had come with the precarious title of
(Ging
;cta#ian had to establish a position simultaneously within and abo#e established con#ention, hence
the principate
Shotter: <Dot only did 5ugustus institute his own form of permanent super#ision of go#ernment but
he li#ed to de#elop it o#er a reign of *A years and to die in his bed at the ad#anced age of ??=%
Syme: <"he rule of 5ugustus brought manifold blessings to Rome, 1taly and the pro#inces% Ket the
new dispensations, or (norm status was the wor. of fraud, bloodshed, based upon the seiEure of
power and redistribution of property=%
-rst 'ettlement:
Shotter: <"he first settlement represented a fairly direct way of exercising control=
5fter eradicating 5ntonius as a potential ri#al, ;cta#ian had finally managed to establish his sole
dominance within Rome, ensuing in the (>irst Settlement of !?BC
"o the shoc. of Rome, ;cta#ian renounced all his constitutional powers and pro#inces to the senate and
Roman people% 4owe#er, this was merely a symbolic gesture
5t a meeting in the Senate on the )3
th
January, 5ugustus announced that the Republic was (restored
and that he would relinquish his authority and supremacy o#er Rome and 8gypt, entering an early
retirement
1n reality, this declaration was merely another calculati#e gesture in order to publicly secure 5ugustus
power
*"#: <Dothing was left to chance or accident in preparing these exemplary manifestations% "he ruler had
ta.en counsel with his friends and allies B and perhaps with neutral politicians%=
Dio6 <"he power of both the people and senate was transferred in the hands of ;cta#ian=
5ugustus announcement was successful in spar.ing plebeian riots and public outcry, resulting in the
Romans fierce proclamation that they needed his leadership
Subsequently, three days later the Senate bestowed additional honours upon 5ugustus, insisting he ta.e
on the role of proconsul o#er the Senate, as well as the pro#incial areas of Spain, Syria and :aul
"hese new honours ensured 5ugustus singular control o#er ?0L of the Roman legions
;n the $?
th
January !?BC, ;cta#ian was conferred the names of +,u%ustus- which had religious
significance
>urthermore, 5ugustus was conferred the title of ('ontifex &aximus, mar.ing him as the re#ered leader
of Roman religion% 5ugustus was now firmly established as the ('rinceps 2meaning (first citiEen3 and
gi#en his high profile between !+,!/BC the timing was ideal%
Consular .mperium: 5ugustus was automatically elected consul each year
Pro"onsular .mperium: 5ugustus was granted wide power o#er pro#inces of Spain, :aul, Syria,
Cyprus and 8gypt
Shotter: <"hese powers ga#e ;cta#ian most of the control that he needed, since Rome could be
go#erned through consulships, whilst the 8mpire would be protected by the armed forces which were
stationed in his extended pro#inces=
5grippa and &aecenas also benefited from 5ugustus new powers
)hilst years of ci#il war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, the Republic was not yet prepared
to accept the role of 5ugustus as despot% By implying that he had laid down all the powers he had
accumulated during the trium#irate and ci#il war period, new powers were granted to 5ugustus by the
Senate, effecti#ely <increasing his powers two,fold= 2/0 &rant3
'econd 'ettlement:
9ater, in !BC, 5ugustus maintained and consolidated his powers through the (Second Settlement
'rompted by the conspiracies of Caepio and &urena, as well as 5ugustus ill health, the Roman
population demanded a tighter formula of go#ernment in order to guarantee security and stability for the
empire
5ugustus became ill and ga#e his signet ring and powers to 5grippa, instead of his nephew &arcellus
4owe#er, 5ugustus reco#ered and relinquished the consulship to quench dissatisfaction and growing
resentment
5dditionally, the Roman senate also pushed for administrati#e change, ensuing from resentment o#er
5ugustus o#erbearing political influence
1n response, 5ugustus (relinquished his powers, officially renouncing his consulship in order to quench
dissatisfaction
Subsequently, the Senate compensated for 5ugustus loss of consular power in two ways% "he first was
to grant him (&aius 'roconsular 1mperium, which bestowed 5ugustus with unlimited control o#er the
army and pro#inces for life% "he second was the power of ("ribunicia 'otestas, which empowered
5ugustus to legislate in the assembly, summon the Senate, #eto proposals and spea. first at meetings
5ugustus tribunician authority pro#ided the basis of his legal power and was described by Ta"itus as
<the most important feature of the power of the 'rinceps=
;nce again, 5ugustus had manipulated public feeling through the symbolic (surrender of his powers,
only to further consolidate his authority
S"ullard remar.ed, <"hus the authority of 5ugustus was re,established on two foundations6 tribunicia
potestas which ga#e him ci#il authority in Rome itself, and proconsular imperium maius which ga#e him
control of the armies and pro#inces%=
Ttles$ honours and mages of the .prnceps/
4is lifelong tribucian power allowed the Senate to #ote him the tas. of super#ising public
morals and scrutinising the laws B a lifelong appointment
5lthough he did not adopt the title of Censor, he was pri#ileged to hold a public census,
and did so three times
5ugustus shared the name with Jupiter
'alla"e Hadrill: (5ugust was a word used of temples and scared things% "he choice of a
word with superhuman connotations was an essential element of the political response% "he Senate and the
people were unable to describe his power any more in ordinary legal terms therefore too. refuge in the
metaphor of di#inity
4e was gi#en the corona civica, the ci#ic crown of oa. lea#es standard award for sa#ing
the life of a citiEen in battle 2he sa#ed the li#es of all of them3% 9aurels meant #ictory for e#er and the
golden shield 2placed in the Senate house3, proclaimed his #irtues B a celebration by the Romans of the
qualities in which 5ugustus more than human power was re#ealed
'alla"e Hadrill: "he profusion and in#enti#eness of the honours loaded upon 5ugustus is
staggering6 statues, columns, triumphal arcs, alters, names and titles, rituals and ceremonials
Pontifex maximus $! BC6 @acated by 9epidus death% Conferred dignity greater than
power and was useful in restoring state religion% 7seful propaganda
Imperator 2successful general proclaimed as such by his troops36 military term used !0
times during his career% 8xplained his military nature
Pater Patriae ! BC6 an honorific title awarded to someone who performed important
ser#ice to the state% 5 Republican term meaning <>ather of ;ur Country=
Right of Commendatio6 5ugustus designated whom he wanted elected to magistracies%
"his was a right of appro#al which was less formal than what it later became% 1t was a form of political
can#assing, or later on, a statement of preferred candidates%
*! The Augustan prncpate
Augustus and the 'enate: roles and responsbltes
5ugustus was determined to reform the Senate as he .new the importance of ensuring cooperation
within this body in order to successful run his #ast empire
5ugustus had also obser#ed the way in which Julius Caesar bloc.ed the ambitions of prominent men
and showed them a lac. of respect% 5ugustus was determined to ta.e a different approach
"his approach was influenced by 5ugustus personal conser#ati#e inclinations as he preferred to
retain republican forms where#er possible
5ugustus re#ised the senatorial rolls se#eral times, reducing its numbers from $000 to -00% 4e
remo#ed corrupt members who had ensured their positions through bribes and exertion of influence
"he members of the Senate had a responsibility to listen and pay attention% 5ugustus ensured this
through calling spea.ers at random, instead of by seniority, in order to ensure that they were acti#ely
participating and contributing to the debates
"o enhance the dignity of sessions, 5ugustus ruled that all senators must ma.e an offering of wine
and incense on the altar of the temple
4owe#er, meetings were not always (dignified% 5ccording to Suetonius, 5ugustus was often
hec.led with cries% 5 repeated cry was, <1 would contradict you if 1 had the opportunity of
spea.ingM=
Ta"itus: <5ugustus did not want poor men in his senate=% 5ugustus changed the monetary
qualifications to $ million sesterces and allowed worthy equestrians to Coin
;ld nobility too. a leading part in the 5ugustan Senate, though room was also made for newcomers
as the older families tended to decline and pater out
5ugustus reduced the numbers of sessions of the senate to two a month and created a senate
committee of himself, the two consuls, one of each of the boards of magistrates and fifteen senators,
to prepare the agenda for the senate
"he senates (self,respect was to be increased through appointing senators to newly created positions
of ci#il administration within Rome6 control of aqueducts, public wor.s, the prefecture of the city%
5ugustus retained the prestige of the consuls by opening the way for the more outstanding to go#ern
in imperial pro#inces and by directing boards of senators in these specific administrati#e areas
Senate and Consuls also formed one of the two new criminal courts6 their court tried senators and
prominent citiEens% "he senators were more independent here than in other areas
Senate had control of the state treasury and the right to mint copper and bronEe whilst 5ugustus
controlled the gold and sil#er
"he senate gradually became a legislati#e body B Senatus Consulta became law
Ta"itus: <5ugustus absorbed the functions of the senate, the officials and e#en the law=
Jones: 5ugustus tribunician powers reduced the senate to a <rubber stamp= as he was free to do as
he pleased, regardless of their consent or disappro#al
1irth: <5ugustus supreme feat was undoubtedly to put real political power out of reach of
competition=
1n doing so, 5ugustus transformed the senate into a body that would wor. superficially underneath
him and thus centralise and stabilise administration
5ugustus seems to ha#e rarely consulted the house on significant issues% "he senate seemed only to
deal with pre,discussed and decided issues, which ma.es it unsurprising that attendance was poor%
5ugustus had to increase the fines for absentees in $?BC and +BC
"he senate and magistrates mo#ed from being chief organs of the state to being subordinate entities
at 5ugustus disposal

Roles of magstrates and offcals
- 1ssuesN 1nfluences6
o "here was a lac. of continuity between magistrates who go#erned pro#inces, largely
pursuing their own ends% 5ugustus integrated the ruling class into the scheme of things
during the 0s%
o "he experiences of Julius Caesar who bloc.ed the ambitions of prominent men and
showed a lac. of respect%
o 4is own conser#ati#e inclinations he preferred to retain republican forms where#er
possible%
o 4e needed co,operation in running the #ast empire%
- 4e allowed the magistrates to remain as undisturbed as possible%
- 1t gradually became a legislati#e body in charge of many public ser#ice
- "he consuls2* of them3, praetors 2$!3 and quaestors2!03 were elected as they
had been before%
- 2uaestors were financial officials in senatorial pro#inces and officials of the
public treasury and public records%
- 2uaestorship was a prerequisite for entry into the senate% 1t pro#ided an
opportunity for younger members of the senatorial order to gain experience in the
administration%
- "he "onsulship was reduced to - months to increase the number of consulars
a#ailable for public ser#ice% "he e3-"onsuls became curators of the water supply, highways
and public wor.s 2and heard appeals from pro#inces3% "hey are in charge of public duties in
Rome and military commands% 5ugustus retained the prestige of the consuls by opening the
way for the (more outstanding to go#ern in imperial pro#inces 2those that are in direct
control of 5ugustus3 and also by directing boards of senators in specific administrati#e areas
e%g% grain and water supply%
- "he e3-praetors were appointed go#ernors of senatorial pro#inces and were in
charge of the military treasury% 1DCR85S8D R8S';DS1B191"K for the praetors "he
praetors role was to preside o#er law courts, manage the treasury, organiEe games and
festi#als, assist the consuls and 5ugustus and participate in military commands%
- "he aediles lost their traditional functions as o#erseers of the corn supply and
games in !!BC, the water supply in $$BC and fire control in 5D-% 5ugustus had problems
filling their positions as they lost their traditional function% 5ll they had left was the repair of
the streets and a petty Curisdiction in commercial cases% Dio suggests that its surprising that
later on their aedileship was compulsorily filled by lot from ex,quaestors and ex,tribunes%
- ;fficials appointed by 5ugustus came to o#ershadow the quaestors in the
pro#inces%
- 7nder the new regime the tribunes of the plebs could not in practice propose
popular legislation or bring the go#ernment to a stand still with their #eto%
- &agistrates had the right to sit on a special chair as symbol of their office B
i#ory folding stool%
- "he main ad#antage of these new quasi,magistracies was that their duties were
more specifically defined than those of the old magistrates, and were much more limited%
'gnfcance of e)uestrans and freedmen
1n the past, the senatorial and equestrian class frequently clashed, as there was strong
hostility between the two classes
5ugustus attempted to eradicate tensions and pre#ent further conflict through creating
positions for the e$uites, which did not threaten the positions of the senators
5ugustus also aimed to raise the equestrian class as a sector of talented and wealthy men,
thus raising their status
Augustan reforms: poltcal$ socal$ legal$ relgous and admnstratve
5ugustus maintained his power was through his widespread military, political and social reforms
,0H0/ Jones: emphasises the need for 5ugustus to restore the Roman religion bac. to its
pristine condition, as the people felt that the :ods were punishing Rome for not paying them full
respect and dues
J0B0 1irth: <5fter the settlement in !BC, 5ugustus immediately began his <patient
reorganisation of the empire%=
>irst, he disbanded half his legions, totalling 00,000 men and established a professional army
with an annual income of !!A denarii and a retirement pension of ,A00 denarii% 5ugustus also
established the 'raetorian :uard of + cohorts of A,000 men and the (aerarium militaire, funded
by citiEens taxes and State inheritance taxes
"hese acts reaffirmed the public perception of 5ugustus as the (restorer of peace and ensured
military morale and loyalty
1n the political sphere, 5ugustus reduced the number of senates from $000 to -00, in order to
eliminate corruption and inefficiency% "his mo#e assured public support and rapport, especially
with the freedmen and middle class, whom 5ugustus diplomatically recruited to administrati#e
roles
>urther, 5ugustus began an expansi#e building program by erecting a temple to Caesar in the
>orum and completing Caesarian proCects
"hrough the funding of aqueducts, sewerage systems and a new fire department, 5ugustus
ensured that most Roman homes had access to water and that the insulaes prone to fire outbrea.
were protected
5ugustus legislation of (de maritandis and (de adulteris appealed to the Romans, who regarded
themsel#es as conser#ati#e people de#oted to the worship of law and power
5ugustus o#erall focus on establishing strength within the empire, rather than pushing for power
to larger borders, saw the establishment of the ('ax Romana, which guaranteed him public
de#otion and admiration
"his support was also encouraged by the spectacular festi#als and games 5ugustus financed,
such as those described in Res :estae, </ gladiatorial shows in#ol#ing $0,000 men, 0 athletic
games and !- beast shows where ,A00 animals were slaughtered%=
7nder the reforms, e#ery sector of the empire had reason to be grateful for increased security, a
crucial factor that ensured support for 5ugustus%
Politi"al:
- "o gi#e more men experience in go#ernmental duties he created new offices dealing with the
up.eep of public buildings, roads and aqueductsJ the clearing of the "iber channelJ and the
distribution of grain to the people%
- "he Senates sons were encouraged to familiariEe themsel#es with the administration B wear a
purple,striped gown immediately upon coming of age and attend meetings of the 4ouse%
So"ial:
- 4e encouraged marriage in the Senatorial and 8questrian orders%
- 4is marriage law was more rigorously framed than the others B penalties exacted for failure
to marryJ increased rewards offered for large familiesJ allowed a widow, or widower, years grace
before marrying again%
- "his did not satisfy Gnights, but a display of 5ugustus grandchildren sitting on his .nee B
made it clear by his affectionate loo.s and gestures that it would not be at all bad thing if the .nights
imitated that young mans example% B Suetonius%
- 5ugustus also limited the number of lawful di#orces%
- 4e did not want the <nati#e Roman stoc. to be tainted= as Suetonius explains B with ser#ile
or foreign blood% 5ugustus was #ery unwilling to create new Roman citiEens, or to permit the
manumission of more than a limited number of sla#es%
4e%al:
- 'ublic order required some police presence cohorts stationed under the city prefect, ?
under the prefect for fire watch and the praetorian guard%
- 4e burned the records of old debts to the 'ublic "reasury%
- 4e granted title,deeds to the occupantsof the city sites where#er the States claim to
ownership was disputable%
- Suetonius: 4e struc. off cases that were long waiting trial 2continuing to wear mourning in
the public3 and forbade for any such charge to be renewed unless the plaintiff agreed to suffer to the
same penalty, if he lost the case, as the defendant would ha#e done
- "o pre#ent actions for damages, or business claims, from either not being heard or
postponed he increased the legal term to 0 days%
- 4e added a *
th
inferior di#ision of Curors B in#ol#ed in small monetary claims 2financial
disputes3%
- "he Cury ser#ice age was reduced from A to 0 years% 5ll courts were closed throughout
the months of Do#ember and December%
- Suetonius: 5ugustus pro#ed assiduous in his administration of Custice B remaining in court
until nightfall, Cudged cases from his sic.,bed%
- Suetonius: 5s a Cudge he was both conscientious and lenient%
eli%ious:
- Roman religion consisted of cult ritual, whose regular and traditional performance had a cohesi#e
role in the state%
- Religions prestige was dampened by the outbrea. of ci#il wars religion was restored and
promoted by 5ugustus for stability and for his own position in the state%
- )hile assuming the role of Chief 'riest 2'ontifex maximus3 he increased the priesthood in
numbers and dignity 2and pri#ileges3%
- 5fter 5ctium, he was #enerated as a di#ine .ing in 8gypt and the pro#inces in the east were
allowed to erect temples to him in association with the goddess of Rome%
- 4e was included in annual prayers%
- 4e re#i#ed certain obsolescent rites and appointments such as the augury of the :oddess of Safety,
the office of >lamen Dialis, the 9upercalian >esti#al, the Saecular :ames, and the Cross,Roads
>esti#al%
- 'rocess of di#ination was begun B his name was included in ancient hymns%
- 1n !+ BC he dedicated the "emple of the Di#ine Julius in the Roman >orum%
- 1n !/BC he dedicated a temple to 5ctian 5pollo on Romes 'alatine 4ill B where 5ugustus himself
li#ed%
- 1n !? the cult of the :enius of 5ugustus was established B libations were poured% 4e was gi#en a
golden shield which commemorated his military #irtue, clemency, Custice and social and religious
responsibility%
- 1n !? in the Campus &artius 5grippa built the 'antheon B dedicated to the di#ine ancestry of
5ugustus through @enus, &ars and Julius%
- 4e honoured the memory of those citiEens who had raised the Rome from small beginnings to its
present glory B he restored many public buildings, complete with their original dedicatory
inscriptions, and raised statues to them, wearing triumphal dress%
- "emples of &ars 2"he 5#enger3 dedicated to the #engeance for his fathers murder at the battle of
'hilippi%
- 9aurel trees were set up on either side of his house%
- 4e recei#ed a crown ma.e of oa. lea#es corona civica B sacred to Jupiter%
- 5ugustus became a member of the Fratres Arvales elite fraternity which performed time,
honored, public sacrifices for the prosperity of the state%
- 4is defeat o#er 5ntony and Cleopatra was portrayed as a #ictory of Roman o#er 8gyptian :ods%
- 5ugustus undertoo. the restoration of existing temples in the city, and he claims in the Res Gestae
that he rebuilt /!
,dministrative:
- 5ugustus stationed armed police in bandit,ridden districts 2endangered order were a legacy of
lawlessness from the Ci#il )ars3
- 4e re#ised the roll of citiEens, ward by ward B tried to ob#iate the frequent interruptions of their
trades or businesses which the public grain,distribution entailed B handin% out ti"#ets5 3 times a
year5 valid for 4 months supply0 H5lthough monthly contributions also were arrangedI%
- 4e was generous to all classes B after the 8gyptian treasure was foundJ so much cash passed into
pri#ate hands that the interest rate on loans dropped sharply, while real estate #alues soared%
- 1n times of food shortage he often sold grain to e#ery man on the citiEens list at a #ery cheap rate B
occasionally free%
&pposton to Augustus
)hilst 5ugustus is considered as one of Romes finest leaders, opposition to his regime exists in
both ancient and modern historical circles
Suetonius and "acitus share different opinions in relation to opposition within the 5ugustus age
Suetonius: <7nder the trium#irate many of 5ugustus acts won him the hatred of the people=
Suetonius: <4e suppressed a series of sporadic riots and re#oltsJ besides certain conspiracies, all of
them detected before they become dangerous=
Ta"itus: <;pposition did not exist% )ar or Cudicial murder had disposed of all men of spirit% 7pper,
class sur#i#ors found that sla#ish obedience was the way to succeed both politically and financially=%
4owe#er, there must ha#e existed underlying resentment from the families of the 00 senators and
!000 equites who were .illed during the proscriptions of *BC and those members of the senatorial
and equestrian orders who were purged by 5ugustus to ma.e both classes more dignified and
efficient
"hough, due to the (peace 5ugustus fostered, there seems to be minimal opposition as the Roman
people welcomed the change from constant conflict and ci#il war
5ugustus was shrewd in that he disguised his dictatorial powers with (constitutional positions,
which granted him acceptance with the upper classes, whilst the reforms ensured support from the
lower classes
4e dealt with opposition through propaganda, emphasising the ('ax Romana and through allowed
his trusted friends and family into maCor positions, thus ensuring he possessed absolute control o#er
all aspects of the empire
4e did face opposition by the senatorial elite and nobility on the subCect of his moral reforms
Stein(renner: suggests that the complete lac. of historical publications during 5ugustus time is
e#idence that 5ugustus suppressed the literary freedom of those who opposed him
Augustus/ buldng programs: the .-orum Augustum/$ the .Ara 0acs/$ .0antheon/$
.Campus 1artus/
- 5ugustus building programs aimed at6
'ro#iding for the needs of the people
'romoting the prestige of the empire
:lorifying his name, as well as his familys
&a.ing a statement about his leadership
- 5ugustus was aware that the city was architecturally unworthy of her position as capital of the
Roman 8mpire, besides being #ulnerable to fire and ri#er floods B 5ugustus so impro#ed her
appearance that he could Custifiably boast6 (1 >ound Rome built of bric.sJ 1 lea#e her clothed in
marble%=
- 4e urged leading citiEens to embellish the city with new public monuments or to restore and
impro#e ancient ones%
- 4e di#ided the city into districts and wards B placing them under control of magistrates annually
chosen by lot%
- 4e organised stations of night watchmen to guard against fires and floods% 4e repa#ed roads and
approached to the city at his own expense B also called for other men who had won triumphs to
spend their money on reconditioning the roads%
- 4e restored ruined and burned temples, beautifying these and others with la#ish gifts 2gold,
stones and pearls3%
- "here were three for a in Rome during the 5ugustan period
$% "he Roman >orum below the 'alatine 4ill6 the political, commercial, religious and social
centre of the Roma republic since earliest times and later of the empire% 5ugustus repa#ed it
in tra#ertine, completed the basilica 1ulia and Curia 1ulia, added a courtyard to the Senate
4ouse, restored the basilica 5emilia, built a temple to Caesar on the spot where he had been
cremated, erected a stute to deify Caesar and built a "emple to Jaturna
!% "he >orum of Caesar began in */BC but was completed by 5ugustus
% The 1orum of ,u%ustus6 inaugurated in 5D!, the year he was awarded the title of pater
patriae. 1t was larger than that of his adopted (father and was a wonderful piece of
propaganda, depicting 5ugustus as a #ictorious general, bringer of peace and the Dew
:olden 5ge and re#i#er of the traditional way of life% >eatures in the >orum of 5ugustus
included the temple of &ars 7ltor 2the 5#enger3 built as a #engeance against Caesars
assassins% Besides the statute of &ars in the temple are two of @enus and the Di#ine Julius%
Diches surrounding the main square with statutes of 5ugustus and his family, illustrious
Romans of the past and the legendary founders of the city% 1n the centre of the forum was a
statue of 5ugustus rising in a chariot bearing the title of (>ather of his country%
- 'alla"e Hadrill: 4is treatment of the >orum made it a museum of the past as well as at the
same time con#erting it into a massi#e dynastic monument to his own family%
- 1t was littered with emoti#e antiques and old little shrines 2quaint and obscure3 e%g% 7mbilicus
7rbis B the magical boundary made my Romulus and the a statue dedicated to @enus Cloacina
2:oddess of the sewers3%
- 5ugustus decided to preser#e them B the sur#i#als and re#i#als had to be selecti#e%
- 4is forum was a new creation, carefully (antiqued%
- 'alla"e Hadrill6 <4e was adept to fa.ing tradition=
- 1t had more to do with competition e#ident by its chaotic layout and lac. of o#erall organic
planning 2e#en today its a mess3%
- 4e made the forum a monument of a single man and a family%
- ;n the two sides of the >orum stretch the two largest public administrati#e buildings6 Basilica
Julia and Basilica 5emilia%
- "he forum was transformed B not only from had marble replaced bric. and limestone, but
where#er you loo.ed, you were confronted with the presence of Caesars family and also, the glory
and positi#e feelings of the past%
The 1orum ,u%ustum:
- 4e built it because the existing two could not deal with the recent great increase in the number of
law,suits caused by the in"rease of population0 'ublic prosecutions and the casting of lots for Cury
ser#ice too. place only in this >orum% Suetonius
- 4e built an additional forum alongside the old, effecti#ely an extension of the traditional area B
formula is the same6 identify his own glory with the past glories of Rome%
- ;ld >orum B he and his family formed a ring of protection 2so to spea.3 around the memory core
of the Roman people, in the Dew >orum B it was the figures of the past who formed a ring around him%
- Suetonius: 1t had a slightly irregular plan because the emperor was unwilling to force sales of
properties 2cramped sites and winding streets of the city centre3
- "he statue of 5ugustus, >ather of his Country, stood in the centre in a chariot, while the great
Romans of the past formed two respecti#e files in the porticoes on either side%
- >igures of legend 2statues3 2Romulus and the .inds3 loo.ed down with pride towards their
descendant 5ugustus%
- "he gods and the heroes of the past all stood in silent witness to 5ugustus embodiment of the
#irtues and #alues of Rome%
- Hadrill: &assi#e curtain wall at the bac. B technical function was to act as a fire wall 2o#er !Am
tall3 5DD also, isolated the forum #isually, li.e the bac.drop of a theatre stage% @ision of 5ugustus in
history was cut off from where the pompous ceremonial of imperial war ma.ing could be celebrated%
- Hadrill6 5ugustus, in claiming the past as his own, had hiCac.ed it
,ra Pa"is:
- 5fter his returns from campaigns in :aul and :ermany in $BC, the senate #oted to put up an
altar and precinct to the 'eace of 5ugustus B 5ra 'acis%
- 5n altar used by magistrates and priests for annual sacrifices% Reliefs on the altar depict the
symbols and fruits of peace in Cuxtaposition with figures of war by which peace was gained B a sundial
and astrological cloc. was present%
- >igures of male and female stood at the doorway% &ale represent #irtue, piety towards the gods
while the female represent the (fruitful prosperity of the earth under the Roman rule%
- 'alla"e Hadrill says that he found the lac. of triumphal imagery (astonishing B 5ugustus
wanted to emphasiEe the peace of the 'ax 5ugusta, a (paradise,li.e peace with the example of
5ugustus family leading Rome to that peace%
- The s"ulptured mar(le !alls that surrounded the ,ltar of Pea"e sho!ed5 more than any
other monument ho! ,u%ustus !anted his prin"ipate to (e seen and remem(ered: the traditional
past5 a promisin% future and the Julian family
- "he walls of the rectangular enclosure show6
5ugustus, members of his family, priests and magistrates in a procession to dedicate the 5ltar
of 'eace
5 procession of dignified senators and other Romans
"he legendary founding of Rome6 5eneas and the twins Romulus and Remus
"he goddess Roma with her weapons 2the #ictory of Rome3 and a young woman with two
infants and at her feet, animals and plants 2symbols of fertility and abundance3
Pantheon:
- ;riginal 'antheon built by 5grippa in !?BC%
Campus /artius:
- ;utside the city boundary, in the floodplain of the "iber, on a grassy meadow
- 1t was an open space to the north of the city, originally outside the walls% During the time of
5ugustus, it was adorned with public buildings
- ;n its southern side, 5ugustus dedicated a circular, three,storey theatre to the memory of his
nephewNson,in,law &arcellus6 the "heatre of &arcellus
- ;n the northern sides was 5ugustus circular family mausoleum, the 'ortico of ;cta#ia 2his
sister3, a library, the original 'antheon 2a temple to &ars and @enus built by 5grippa in !?BC3 and a
large thermae 2public baths3 also built by 5grippa
- "he Campus was used for pasturing horses and sheep, and for military training acti#ity of both
the army and of pri#ate people who could use the training equipment the army had left%
- 5s such, it was dedicated to &ars, the Roman god of war, with an ancient altar and became
closely lin.ed to soldiers and the army
- Campus &artius also held the 5ra 'acis 25ltar of 'eace3, built by the Senate to mar. the
establishment of peace by 5ugustus% 1t was intended to symboliEe the successful completion of
5ugustusOs efforts to stabiliEe the 8mpire%
- 1n this area, 5ugustus allowed the names of others to stand alongside those of members of his
family%
- 5ugustus paid for extensi#e repairs to the monument honoring his father Caesars foe, turning
down the opportunity to add his own name B as he remind people in the Res :estae%
- 5mphitheatres and theatres were constructed 2as well as one by 5ugustus B not to be outdone by
others3%
- Dew temples and porticoes grew up B 5pollo
- 5grippa imported a fresh water supply in the 5qua @irgo B ga#e Rome its first public baths%
- 5 par. was laid out alongside, with artificial la.es, streams, wal.s and woods and statuary%
- 5t the northern end of the Campus stood 5ugustus &ausoleum 2a grand tomb was the best way
of ad#ertising your name to #isitors as they entered a city3% 1t held the 5ra 'acis% ;utside the
&ausoleum on two bronEe pillars where inscribed the subtle rhetoric of his own account of his
achie#ements B the Res :estaeM
The Temple of /ars 6the ,ven%er7:
- 1t was built in #engeance of Julius Caesars assassins B the #ictory in the Battle of 'hilippi% 4e
decreed that the Senate should meet here whene#er declarations of war or claims for triumphs were
considered%
2terature and propaganda: 3rgl$ 4orace and 2v%5 role of 1aecenas
0ropaganda:
Coina%e:
5ugustus had the power to mint gold and sil#er coins
4e could print what he wished, usually opting for <father of my country=
Some coins show 5ugustus in triumphal procession returning home from war, promoting his image as
a general
eform pro%rams:
5ugustus had learnt from Caesars mista.es not to antagonise the nobility and senate
4is settlements were a means of achie#ing this as he renounced his powers on two separate occasions
4e distanced himself from the title of .ing by gi#ing the senate more (powers
4e ga#e the equestrian class more opportunities to gain on the +"ursus honorum-
"o please the plebs, he held many public displays and games which he sometimes financed from his
own funds
5ppeased the army through wages and booty
Dio: <Do Roman had e#er pro#ided so many different and splendid public shows=
Statues8Buildin%s:
5ugustus achie#ed popularity through his physical restoration of Rome
/! temples were restored
;ne example is the 5ltar of 5ugustan 'eace (5ra 'acis6
, 1t shows the #alues and beliefs of 5ugustus
, 1nscribed on it are 5ugustus family and magistrates in a religious procession
, >ounder of Rome B Romulus and Remus
, :oddess Roma
, Shows traditional past and a promising future
es &esate:
5 fa#ourable account of his personal achie#ements
Biased
2terature:
1aecenas:
:aius &aecenas was a wealthy 8truscan aristocrat
:aius &aecenas was a patron of the arts and also 5ugustus chief minister and intimate friend
&aecenas introduced 5ugustus to the great writers, 4orace and @irgil
&aecenas met 4orace in +BC and pro#ided him with a small property among the Sabine 4ills so he
could retire in peace and write
1n ?, &aecenas met @irgil
&aecenas ser#ice to 5ugustus was also diplomatic% 4e accompanied 5ugustus to 'hilippi and
negotiated his marriage to Scribonia
&% negotiated the "reaty of Brundisium between 5ugustus and 5ntonius and negotiated at "arentium
again between 5ugustus and 5ntonius
5pparently the relationship deteriorated after &urena 2&aecenas brother3 led a conspiracy against
5ugustus in !BC% 5ugustus belie#ed that &aecenas was connected
"he tension was exacerbated when &aecenas angered 5ugustus by confiding an important state secret
to his wife "erentia
1n /BC, &aecenas left his o#erwhelming fortune to 5ugustus
Shotter: <"hrough the agency of his friend &aecenas 5ugustus organised a group of writers who
between them symbolised in their wor.s the aspirations of the 5ugustan age=%
Shu"#(ur%: <&aecenas was in effect the emperors minister for propaganda=%
&arnsey and Saller: <)riters need patrons% 5n emperor interested in supporting literature was a
patron to outbid all ri#als% 9i.e any patron, he required praise%=
*stenser: <"hree outstanding writers B the poets @irgil and 4orace and the historian 9i#y B were
personally encouraged by 5ugustus and wrote in harmony with his ideals, but with sufficient freedom
to produce a splendid 9atin literature=%
Shotter: <5ugustus, through the agency of his friend, the dilettante :aius &aecenas, organised a
group of writers who between them seemed to symbolise in their wor.s the aspirations of the
5ugustan age B 9i#y, @irgil and 4orace% )hilst not the only patron of literature during this period,
5ugustus may be regarded 2by results3 as the most successful=%
Syme: <"he literature of the 5ugustan age can be seen as a product of an insurmountable 5ugustan
auctoritas, written for its ability to curry fa#our with the 'rinceps rather than for pure entertainment,
historical record or legitimate social commentary=%
2v%:
4istorian, wrote the (4istories
Shared 5ugustus preoccupation with traditional #irtues and his pageant of se#en stages of Roman
history expressed a purpose similar to that of 5ugustus program of national reconstruction
Captured the past greatness of Rome and drew parallels between it and 5ugustus Rome
9i#y contributed to 5ugustus policy of patriotic and religious re#i#al by aiming to show the past
greatness of Rome and the #irtues that great men, and the Roman people in general, exhibited during
their history
3rgl:
&et &aecenas in ?BC and under his insistence wrote the (:eorgics
1n the 5eneid, he represented 5eneas as the ideal Roman who exhibits #irtues of piety, duty and
loyalty B these qualities were a blatant allusion to 5ugustus
5eneid6 ut Caesar rose into t!e cit" in triple triump! and dedicated !is vo#ed offerin$ to t!e $ods
to stand forever%t!e streets #ere loud #it! $ladness& $ames and c!eerin$'.
"he 5eneid was published on 5ugustus orders
@irgils (:eorgics were popular in the simplistic rural areas of Rome as it encouraged the role of
agriculture
@irgil extolled 5ugustus #irtues and morals, and praised his attempt to re#i#e them in Roman society
@irgil represented 5ugustus as the absolute leader with a great sense of <duty, loyalty and piety=% 4e
predicted future greatness of Rome and alluded to 5ugustus and the Julian family
Shotter: <"he 5eneid represented the #ery spirit of the 5ugustan age=
"he effect of the 5ugustan auctoritas on the 5eneid is reflecti#e of the effect of the trend in the
5ugustan age of writing in fa#our of the princeps
4orace:
>amous poet and satirist
&aecenas ga#e him a home in the Sabine 4ills in BC
5ugustus commissioned (Carmen and Seculare ;des% "hey outline the achie#ements and welcome
the return of traditional #alues and #irtues
4orace supported 5ugustus reforms and made references in his wor. to the restoration of order
4orace glorified the empire and 5ugustus
;des6 (!ile Au$ustus stands $uard& peace is assured& t!e pace no po#er can brea) no civil
dissension or brute force or #rat!& t!at #eapon for$er& miser*ma)er for #arrin$ cities'.
4orace, also one of 5ugustus close friends, supported his moral reforms and made references to the
restoration of order, and glorified the empire, 5ugustus and his family, as outlined in his wor.s boo.
and * in ("he Roman ;des
T!" rei$n restores ric! fruits to t!e countr"side& Au$ustus+ brin$s bac) safe to our Capitol& Crassus
lon$*lost standards ripped from& Arro$ant ,art!ias temple pillars.'
#mperal faml% and problems of successon5 role of mperal women: 2va$ 6ula
- 5ugustus has no natural son 2only one daughter, Julia3% 4e therefore needed to
secure one through adoption if the prestige he had won was to be maintained in his family
2Julian3%
- 4e could not lea#e the decision up to the Senate because he was afraid it
would lea#e to Ci#il )ar%
9ame elationship :ut"ome
,%rippa ;ld friendJ son,in law from
!$ BC
When Augustus recovered from illness, he made
Agrippa his successor.
Loyal friend
Forced to marry the widowed Julia in 21!
"uita#le in #oth age and e$perience.
According to Maecenas %Agrippa had now raised so
high Augustus must either marry him to Julia or &ill
him'.
(e married him to Julia ) intended to supply Augustus
with heirs.
(e received proconsular imperium in 1*! and again
in 1+! ) meaning that if anything were to happen to
Augustus, Agrippa was ideally placed to ta&e over the
government.
!oins of that period ,1+-12!- depict Agrippa.s as
Augustus. %co-emperor'.
Shotter: %Agrippa could never #e a successor as his
ancestry was not impressive enough to allow him to
#e a future leader of the /epu#lic.'
He died in 12BC
/ar"ellus Dephew and son,in,law
(e was an aedile then sat in the "enate and went for
consulship well #efore the legal age. 012 when
Augustus #ecame seriously ill, he gave his ring to
Agrippa ,ma&ing it clear he would prefer e$perience-.
3arried to Julia in 24
He died in 23 BC
&aius Caesar
4u"ius
Caesar
:rand son
:rand son
Died in AD 4
Died in AD 2
2hey were named as princeps iuvenutis ,leaders of
the young- ) not a politically signi5cant honour #ut
did show to #e designated as successors.
Ti(erius Stepson and son,in,law
(e was adopted #y Augustus, along with Agrippa
6ostumas ,son of Agrippa-.
(e was actively involved in /oman politics and the
reshaping of the frontiers in northern 1urope.
(e would have preferred a Julian heir rather than to
the !laudian 2i#erius 72 he disli&ed Agrippa
6ostumas.s wild #ehaviour ,%obstinate
temperament - Wallace Hadrill- and e$iled him for
+ years after his adoption.
2i#erius was now adopted into the Julian line ) he
was employed in campaigns in the al&ans.
8n A91+ 2i#erius was granted proconsular imperium)
the armies were loyal to him and he held the
tri#ucian right of initiative in /ome.
- &odern source o%erson of ;niversity of Sydney: describes how 5ugustus
attempts of fostering a successor was constantly hampered by deaths, scandals and indi#idual
ambitions% "iberius was by no means his first choice of 4eir%
- "his hereditary system of succession was established by 5ugustus for
centuries%
Role of mperal women: 2va$ 6ula
4ivia:
- >irst lady of the imperial household B own family connections, confident personality and
pri#ate wealth%
- 9i#ia was married to her cousin Claudius Dero and ga#e birth to her first son, "iberius at
sixteen%
- )hen she was $+ and pregnant with her !
nd
son Drusus, 5ugustus fell in lo#e with her
and ordered Claudius to di#orce her%
- "heir union produced no children 25ugustus already had a daughter, Julia, from pre#ious
wife Scribonia3%
- She remained a de#oted wife to 5ugustus he relied on her intelligence and in public,
she was an example of the dignity her husband expected%
- She sur#i#ed A0 years with him and was gi#en the title of (5ugusta%
- "he marriage was ad#antageous to him B she was well connected and through her, he
began attracting leading men to his cause%
- She had an immense influence on 5ugustus B she tra#eled with him and acted as his
ad#isor%
- She succeeded in getting her son to the throne%
- Ta"itus6 portrays her as e#il and ruthless6 (a real catastrophe to the state=%
- Suetonius: )ealth, good loo.s, intelligence, combined with status of husband made her
role possible=%
- "here are two statues of her in Rome%
Julia:
- She was used as a political pawn B married first o her cousin &arcellus, then to 5grippa
and finally to "iberius to ensure Julian succession%
- She was married to 5grippa in !$, and bore two sons B :aius and 9ucius% 5ugustus
adopted them in$?, though their father was still ali#e B a standard way of creating heirs to ones name
and fortune%
- )hen 5grippa died in $!BC B prompt remarriage to "iberius P explicit ploy to unite the
two branches of the family%
- She was in#ol#ed in all .inds of immoralities 2adultery and debauchery3 and 5ugustus
exiled her from Rome for the remainder of her life% She ca#orted with a drun.en party of lo#ers through
the >orum%
- &oral reform stood at the heart of 5ugustus new Rome She was banned to the small
island of 'andateria, and her lo#ers were exiled or executed%
- 'alla"e Hadrill6 <"he scandal ga#e deep embarrassment and real damage to the regime=
Role and contrbuton of Agrppa
5grippa was a childhood friend of 5ugustus
5t the of Caesars death, the two youths were studying in 5pollonia in 1llyricum in preparation for
the dictators 'arthian campaign% 5grippa urged ;cta#ian to swiftly return to Rome in order to
secure his inheritance
5grippas second marriage was to &arcella, 5ugustus niece and then his third marriage was to Julia,
with whom he had fi#e children
5grippa was extremely loyal to 5ugustus and 5ugustus showed his appreciation by sharing his
power with 5grippa on numerous occasions6
, 5grippa was granted the consulship in ?BC as a mar. of pre#ious military success
, 5grippa became aedile in and went on to greatly impro#e and adorn Rome
, &ade consul for the second time in $ and in !? for a third time
, Recei#ed tribunician powers for fi#e years in $/
5grippa contributed through many military and na#el #ictories6
, 'layed a prominent role in the war against 9ucius 5ntonius and >ul#a in *0
, )as successful against the 5quitanians and trans,Rhine tribes
, 'lanned and secured the #ictory at Daulochus against Sextus 'ompeius in Sicily in -
, )as chiefly responsible for in#enting the strategy at 5ctium in $
, 1n !, was sent to the east with proconsular powers
5grippa was responsible for much of 5ugustus administrati#e and building programs6
, 4elped 5ugustus reduce senators
, ;rganised a fire brigade of ,A00 men and a police force
, Sur#eyed the whole, had a map engra#ed on marble and exhibited in the 'orticus @ipsanius
and wrote a geographical boo.
, Super#ised 5ugustus building program
, Constructed a new aqueduct and public bath
, Built the temple now represented by the 'antheon
, Completed Caesarian buildings
Death of Augustus
- 5ugustus died in 5ugust 5D $* B about a month short of his ?0
th
birthday%
- 4is death was no immediately yet .nown%
- "he body reached the neighborhood of Rome, the .nights recei#ed it into their charge and
carried it by night into the city% "he next day the Senate had a meeting B members came wearing
the dress which belonged to the .nights, while the magistrates wore the senatorial habit, except
for the toga which carried a purple border% "iberius and his son Drusus wore grey garments%
- 4e was gi#en two eulogies by "iberius and his son Drusus%
- 4is body was carried by a group of senators to a funeral pyre on the Campus &arius,
where it was burnedJ his ashes were placed in the family &ausoleum, built in !/BC%
- >our documents which had been entrusted to the @estal @irgins for safe.eeping were now
handed o#er and read in the senate%
- Cassius Dio: 5 freedman read the document B it was not fitting for a senator to deli#er
any announcement of this .ind
o 4e named "iberius 2!N
rd
s of the estate3 and 9i#ia 2$N
rd
of the estate3 as heirs to the maCor
part of his estate%
o 4e specified sums of money should be gi#en to many different people, both relati#es and
.nights and also foreign rulers%
o 4e left *0,000,000 sesterces to the Roman people, and in the case of the army $ 000
sesterces to each member of the 'raetorian :uard, half the amount to the urban cohorts
and to the rest of the citiEens enrolled in the legions 00 sesterces each%
o Cassius Dio: 4e ordered that his daughter in exile that she should not be buried in his
tomb
o Suetonius6 (5 record of his reign which he wished to ha#e engra#ed on bronEe and
posted to the entrance to the &ausoleum B the Res :estae%
o 5rrangements for his funeral were also in the documents%
o 5 document was de#oted to an account of military matters, of the re#enues and the public
expenditure, the amount of money in the treasuries and all other details of this .ind which
concerned the administration of the empire%
o "he fourth document contained instructions and commands for "iberius and for the
public at large% 4e as.ed them D;" to grant liberty to many sla#es, so as to a#oid filling
the city with a nondescript rabble, and another to limit the numbers admitted to
citiEenship B to preser#e a significant distinction between Roman citiEens and the peoples
of the subCect nations%
o His in<un"tions 4e urged them to entrust the conduct of affairs of state to 599 who
possessed the capacity to grasp the issues at sta.e and act B ne#er to allow this executi#e
power all to depend on ;D8 '8RS;DJ therefore no one would aspire to set up a tyranny
nor will the state brea. if the one man were remo#ed% 4e told them that they should be
satisfied with their possessions and they should not see. to enlarge the empire beyond its
present limits B it would be difficult to defend% Cassius Dio
- 5fter his funeral6 a couch was made of i#ory and gold and spread with a pall of purple
and gold% Beneath the co#ering his body was hidden in a coffinJ abo#e it a wax effigy, clad in
triumphal dress, was displayed%
- "iberius made a 9;D: speech about 5ugustus greatness%
- 5fter the speech, the bearers too. the couch and carried it to the pyre in the Campus
&artius B all priests, .nights, senators, praetorian guards etc were marching in procession%
- "he centurions too. the torches and set fire to the pyre% 5n eagle was released from it
flew aloft to bear the emperors spirit to hea#en%
- 5fter the ceremonies had been completed, all others departed, but 9i#ia remained on the
spot for fi#e days, attended by the most distinguished of the .nights, then she had his bones
gathered up and placed in his tomb%
,! Augustus and the empre
Augustus and the arm%
"he army was in need of reform as there was no real standing, professional army, the burden of
military ser#ice rested too greatly on the 1talians and there was no pro#ision for the regular pay of
the soldiers
"he 'rincipate, established after a decade of ci#il wars, showed itself to be a go#ernment dependant
on its ability to maintain its armed bac.ing, thus 5ugustus military reforms were integral to the
maintenance of security and internal politics
5ugustus introduced a fixed term of ser#ice6 !0 years for legionaries, !0,!A for auxiliaries and $-
for 'raetorians
Reduced army numbers from -0 legions at his disposal to !/
"he army became a lifetime, stable career with promotions, which encouraged enlistment and
rewarded loyal and hard,wor.ing soldiers
Jones: <&ilitary ser#ice became a career in itself=
5ugustus de#eloped a military treasure with funds from sales tax, inheritance tax and from his
income, which contributed to soldier payment
Soldiers were payed !!A denarii a year for legionaries and pro#ided with food, clothing and
weaponry
5ugustus settled #eterans in pro#inces such as 5frica, Sicily, &acedonia, Spain and Syria% >or those
that did not wish to recei#e land, cash rewards were gi#en
'rior to these reforms, the Roman go#ernment was unwilling to supply #eterans with economic
support and soldiers were dependent on whate#er land and money their generals could pro#ide, thus
generals became the autonomous centres of power
5ugustus used the manpower from the pro#inces 2auxiliaries3 to bolster the frontier legions% "hese
foreigners were granted citiEenship and gi#en go#ernment employment, which fostered loyalty for
5ugustus
5ugustus also set up the 'raetorian :uards, an elite guard with the tas. to protect 5ugustus and 1taly
personally% "here were + cohorts in Rome and - in the 1talian towns 2$,000 men in each cohort3
"o combat the endemic piracy that plagued the late Republic, 5ugustus created Romes first standing
na#y
0rovncal government: mperal and senatoral
- 1n !?BC 5ugustus was granted a ten,year commission to administer the pro#inces of
Spain, :aul and Syria with proconsular imperium%
- &aius imperium ga#e him control o#er the pro#inces which required huge standing
armies%
- 4e saw that the senate had failed in the past to curb ambitious commanders with large,
loyal armies% "o .eep such men in their place and a#oid a recurrence of ci#il wars 2and also maintain
his own pre,eminence3 B he would need to ma.e sure that most of Romes military power remained
in his own hands%
- 1t was therefore di#ided into two pro#incial groups6 senatorial Hthose that had been under
Roman rule for a long time and were relati#ely peacefulI and imperial Hthose that had been recently
subdued or were more unruly and barbaricI%
- Some senatorial pro#inces required military security as well B with his maius imperium,
he was able to interfere in their affairs if necessary%
- )hen an (armed pro#ince became more settled and troops were no longer needed,
5ugustus transferred it to the control of the senate% 5ll newly required territory came automatically
under the control of 5ugustus%
-ronter polc%
Pa3 omana: peace within the empire
"his was achie#ed through securing the frontiers
5ugustus achie#ed this by gaining natural and easily defensible boundaries, pacifying and organising
those areas that still needed it and following a policy of non,aggression in the 8ast
"he armys primary role transformed6 they were now directed towards protecting the borders and
frontiers from barbarism and pacifying conquered lands and pro#inces
5ugustus defensible boundaries6
, "he Rhine Ri#er B * legions
, "he Danube B ! legions
, >irst Cataract in 8gypt B ! legions
*3plain ho! ,u%ustus esta(lished and maintained his po!er0
<8xorbitant ambition mated with political maturity is not enough to explain the ascension of ;cta#ianus%
5 sceptic about all else, Caesar the Dictator had faith in his own star%=
$
7nexpectedly named as Caesars
heir at nineteen, 5ugustus immediately returned to Rome in order to generate public sympathy through
Caesarian propaganda and monetary bribes% ;nce he had established a loyal support base, 5ugustus used
the (Second "rium#irate and the Battle of 5ctium to eliminate political ri#als and further his influence%
"hroughout his career, 5ugustus maintained his power through the honours bestowed on him by both
the >irst and Second Settlement% >urthermore, the shrewd leader guaranteed the continuation of public
support through his widespread reforms, which appealed to all classes within Roman society% 5s a young
man, 5ugustus was <ruthless, ambitious and unscrupulous=
!
, qualities which would assist him in his rise
to supremacy and the subsequent strengthening of his (authoritas%
1nitially, 5ugustus embar.ed on establishing his power through the dissemination of propaganda,
promises and bribes, which enabled him to raise his own forces and ascertain public support% 5fter the
murder of Julius Caesar in **BC, 5ugustus, as adopted son and heir, was thrust into the subsequent
$
Syme, R% "he Roman Re#olution, ;xford 7ni#ersity 'ress, 9ondon, $++, p%$$*%
!
Jones, 5%4%&% 5ncient Culture and Society6 5ugustus, Chatto Q )indus, 9ondon, $+?0, p%$-%
political and military uphea#al% "hough, as 4olland commented, <>or the moment, Caesars heir was
merely a nuisance, not a factor of much influence upon the policy of 5ntonius and the Senate%=

1n order
to demonstrate that he undertoo. his inheritance seriously, 5ugustus obediently fulfilled Caesars legacy
by granting 00 sesterces 2?A denarii3 to each Roman citiEen, a generous act which required ?A million
sesterces 2$/,?A0,000 denarii3% 4owe#er, 5ntonius had rebuffed 5ugustus claims to inheritance,
<answering him with excuses and delays%=
*
5s a result, 5ugustus was forced to auction his inherited R
of Caesars estates, as well as his own property, an action which ensured 5ugustus greater popularity
and odium to be thrown towards 5ntonius% Fuic.ly realising the dominance Caesars memory retained
o#er the populace, 5ugustus de#oted himself to Caesarian propaganda through the finance of
monuments, games and festi#als, such as the (9udi @ictoriae Caesaris
A
which honoured the late
dictators memory% ;nce 5ugustus had guaranteed public support, he then turned to raising his own
forces, <5t my own expense, 1 raised an army, with which 1 successfully championed the liberty of the
republic%=
-
"hrough seducing them with promises of A00 denarii 2more than twice the annual pay of a
legionary3 and appealing to their Caesarian loyalties, 5ugustus succeeded in raising an army, although
illegal, from Caesars #eterans and two of 5ntonius &acedonian legions% Bac.ed by military support,
5ugustus was later able to exhort the role of consulship, twenty,three years before the minimum age%
8ffecti#ely, public support and military force #alidated 5ugustus claim to power and re#ealed to the
Senate and 5ntonius that they had underestimated the determination of Caesars heir% "hrough the
o#erall expenditure of -00 denarii
?
to plebeians and #eterans and the circulation of Caesarian
propaganda, 5ugustus guaranteed the support and loyalty of the public and the army, a preliminary step
on his climb to power%
9ater, in *BC, the formation of the (Second "rium#irate empowered 5ugustus to a#enge Caesars
assassination and gain further territorial spheres of interest% Dio Cassius remar.ed that the "rium#irates
purpose was to <order the state and attac. the forces of Brutus and Cassius=
/
whilst Shotter realistically
rebutted that <despite its high sounding purpose B to heal the Republics afflictions B its real aim was
the ser#ice of personal and factional ambition%=
+
"he trium#irs first motion was (proscription in which
!000 equites and 00 senators 2including Cicero, who had pre#iously attempted to utilise 5ugustus as a
political pawn3 were depri#ed of both their property and li#es% "urning their wrath eastward, the
trium#irate defeated Brutus and Cassius in two battles on the !
rd
;ctober and the $*
th
Do#ember BC in
&acedonia, resulting in the suicide of Caesars assassins% "he Battle of 'hilippi mar.ed the end of
Republican opposition and restored wealth and economic stability to the Roman state, through royal
treasures, war booty and land income from 8gypt%
$0
"erritory was di#ided between the three trium#irs,
with 5ugustus recei#ing 1taly, which had the diplomatic ad#antage of being the <heart of the Roman
8mpire%=
$$
9ater, in -BC, a triple attac. launched at Daulochus by 5ugustus, 5grippa and 9epidus on
the hostile Sextus 'ompeius, resulted in a great na#al #ictory% "hrough effecti#ely exploiting the
trium#irate, 5ugustus succeeded in a#enging Caesars assassination, legitimising his expanding army,
eliminating political opposition and furthering his economic strength% "hese accomplishments
effecti#ely raised 5ugustus profile, establishing his influence further%
"he next milestone in 5ugustus consolidation of power was the Battle of 5ctium, which was both a
physical battle and a <propaganda battle for hearts and minds%=
$!
)hilst 5ntonius was conducting a
romantic affair 2Syme remar.ed that the relations of 5ntonius and Cleopatra <were not merely those of
proconsul and #assal,ruler=3,
$
5ugustus conducted a networ. of allies in Rome, securing his (authoritas
whilst spreading propaganda against 5ntonius% 'oets and pamphleteers financed by 5ugustus 2such as
@irgil, 4orace and ;#id3 extolled their patrons apparent modesty and moral strictness, contrasting it

4olland, R% 5ugustus6 :odfather of 8urope, Sutton 'ublishing, 9ondon, !00*, p%$$A%

*
:rant, &% "he Roman 8mperors, )eidenfeld Q Dicolson, 9ondon, $++-, p%$AA%
A
Syme, R% p%$$*%
-
5ugustus, :% Res :estae Di#i 5ugusti6 "he 5chie#ements of the Di#ine 5ugustus, Brunt, '%5% and
&oore, J%&%, ;xford 7ni#ersity 'ress, 9ondon, $+-+, p%$%
?
Jones, 5%4%&% p%$$?%
/
Dio, C% "he Roman 4istory6 "he Reign of 5ugustus, 'enguin Boo.s, 9ondon, $+/?, p%?%
+
Shotter, D% 5ugustus Caesar, Routledge, 9ondon, $++$, p%!$%
$0
Robinson, C%8% 5 4istory of Rome, &ethuen 8ducational, 9ondon, $+A, p%+0%
$$
Shotter, D% p%!$%
$!
1bid% p%!!%
$
Syme, R% p%!-$%
strongly with 5ntonius life as an oriental monarch at the la#ish 8gyptian court% Cleopatra was the point
in which 5ntonius was most #ulnerable and Roman sentiment most easily exploited and swayed%
Realising this, 5ugustus continually #ilified the 8gyptian ruler, declaring war on the (>oreign Fueen in
!BC% ;n the !
nd
September $BC, 5ugustus outnumbered and defeated 5ntonius armada of A00 ships
on the west coast of :reece% 5ntonius men were already wea.ened by hunger and malaria, a result of
5ugustus bloc.ade and the marshy surroundings% 1n an uncharacteristic gesture, 5ntonius abandoned
his men, later committing suicide before 5ugustus entry into 8gypt% Bowersoc. commented <5ctium
was a shabby affair, the worthy climax to the ignoble propaganda against Cleopatra, to the sworn and
sacred union of all 1taly%=
$*
4owe#er, 5ugustus metamorphosed the anticlimactic affair into a great na#al
battle, a national crusade in which 5ugustus had fought for Romes integrity against ;riental corruption
and emerged #ictorious% 7pon his return, 5ugustus publicly indicated that (peace was restored, through
the symbolic closure of the ("emple of Janus and the more practical action of settling $!0,000 #eterans,
reducing his legions from -0 to !/% 1n an empire where political uphea#al, ci#il wars and proscriptions
had pre#ented peace for !00 years, 5ugustus (restoration of unity and harmony won him e#en greater
loyalty and support, mar.ing <a turning point in the history of Rome B the end of the Republic and the
beginning of a new monarchy%=
$A
5fter eradicating 5ntonius as a potential ri#al, 5ugustus had finally managed to establish his sole
dominance within Rome, ensuing in the (>irst Settlement of !?BC% 5t a meeting in the Senate on the
$
th
January, 5ugustus announced that the Republic was (restored and that he would relinquish his
authority and supremacy o#er Rome and 8gypt, entering an early retirement% 1n reality, this declaration
was merely another calculati#e gesture in order to publicly secure 5ugustus power% 8c. aptly
commented that <nothing was left to chance or accident in preparing these exemplary manifestations%
"he ruler had ta.en counsel with his friends and allies B and perhaps with neutral politicians%=
$-

5ugustus announcement was successful in spar.ing plebeian riots and public outcry, resulting in the
Romans fierce proclamation that they needed his leadership% Subsequently, three days later the Senate
bestowed additional honours upon 5ugustus, insisting he ta.e on the role of proconsul o#er the Senate,
as well as the pro#incial areas of Spain, Syria and :aul% "hese new honours ensured 5ugustus singular
control o#er ?0L of the Roman legions% >urthermore, 5ugustus was conferred the title of ('ontifex
&aximus, mar.ing him as the re#ered leader of Roman religion% 5ugustus was now firmly established
as the ('rinceps
$?
and gi#en his high profile between !+,!/BC,
$/
the timing was ideal% )hilst years of
ci#il war had left Rome in a state of near lawlessness, the Republic was not yet prepared to accept the
role of 5ugustus as despot% By implying that he had laid down all the powers he had accumulated during
the trium#irate and ci#il war period, new powers were granted to 5ugustus by the Senate, effecti#ely
<increasing his powers two,fold%=
$+
9ater, in !BC, 5ugustus maintained and consolidated his powers through the (Second Settlement%
'rompted by the conspiracies of Caepio and &urena, as well as 5ugustus ill health, the Roman
population demanded a tighter formula of go#ernment in order to guarantee security and stability for the
empire% 5dditionally, the Roman senate also pushed for administrati#e change, ensuing from resentment
o#er 5ugustus o#erbearing political influence% 1n response, 5ugustus (relinquished his powers,
officially renouncing his consulship in order to quench dissatisfaction% Subsequently, the Senate
compensated for 5ugustus loss of consular power in two ways% "he first was to grant him (&aius
'roconsular 1mperium, which bestowed 5ugustus with unlimited control o#er the army and pro#inces
for life% "he second was the power of ("ribunicia 'otestas, which empowered 5ugustus to legislate in
the assembly, summon the Senate, #eto proposals and spea. first at meetings% 5ugustus tribunician
authority pro#ided the basis of his legal power and was described by "acitus as <the most important
feature of the power of the 'rinceps=%
!0
;nce again, 5ugustus had manipulated public feeling through
the symbolic (surrender of his powers, only to further consolidate his authority% Scullard remar.ed,
$*
Bowersoc., :%G% 5ugustus and the :ree. )orld, Clarendon 'ress, 9ondon, $+-A, p%**%
$A
Shotter, D% p%!*%
$-
8c., )% "he 5ge of 5ugustus, Blac.well 'ublishing, Berlin, !00!, p%$*%
$?
"ranslated as the (>irst citiEen or (>irst 9eader%
$/
Shotter, D% p%!-%
$+
:rant, &% p%+0%
!0
5s cited in6 4olland, R% p%$+/%
<"hus the authority of 5ugustus was re,established on two foundations6 tribunicia potestas which ga#e
him ci#il authority in Rome itself, and proconsular imperium maius which ga#e him control of the
armies and pro#inces%=
!$

5 final way in which 5ugustus maintained his power was through his widespread military, political and
social reforms% 5fter the settlement in !BC, 5ugustus immediately began his <patient reorganisation of
the empire%=
!!
>irst, he disbanded half his legions, totalling 00,000 men and established a professional
army with an annual income of !!A denarii and a retirement pension of ,A00 denarii% 5ugustus also
established the 'raetorian :uard of + cohorts of A,000 men and the (aerarium militaire,
!
funded by
citiEens taxes and State inheritance taxes% "hese acts reaffirmed the public perception of 5ugustus as the
(restorer of peace and ensured military morale and loyalty% 1n the political sphere, 5ugustus reduced the
number of senates from $000 to -00, in order to eliminate corruption and inefficiency% "his mo#e
assured public support and rapport, especially with the freedmen and middle class, whom 5ugustus
diplomatically recruited to administrati#e roles% >urther, 5ugustus began an expansi#e building program
by erecting a temple to Caesar in the >orum and completing Caesarian proCects% "hrough the funding of
aqueducts, sewerage systems and a new fire department, 5ugustus ensured that most Roman homes had
access to water and that the insulaes prone to fire outbrea. were protected% 1n addition, 5ugustus
legislation of (de maritandis and (de adulteris appealed to the Romans, who regarded themsel#es as
conser#ati#e people de#oted to the worship of law and power% 5ugustus o#erall focus on establishing
strength within the empire, rather than pushing for power to larger borders, saw the establishment of the
('ax Romana, which guaranteed him public de#otion and admiration% "his support was also encouraged
by the spectacular festi#als and games 5ugustus financed, such as those described in Res :estae, </
gladiatorial shows in#ol#ing $0,000 men, 0 athletic games and !- beast shows where ,A00 animals
were slaughtered%=
!*
7nder the reforms, e#ery sector of the empire had reason to be grateful for
increased security, a crucial factor which ensured support for 5ugustus%
5ugustus was a percepti#e leader who established and maintained power within Rome through a fusion
of propaganda, bribes and widespread reforms% "hrown into the ruthless arena of Roman politics at an
early age, 5ugustus sur#i#ed opposition by surreptitiously seducing public loyalty through the shrewd
use of finances and propaganda% 9ater, 5ugustus established his dominance within Rome through
sullying his ri#als reputation and purchasing support through la#ish festi#als and celebrations% ;nce he
had ascertained his supremacy after 5ctium, 5ugustus employed a (two,faced approach to the
settlements, simultaneously ensuring public support whilst safeguarding his personal powers% ;#er the
years, support was bolstered through 5ugustus widespread reforms, courtesy of the pro#inces he held in
subCugation%% ;#erall it was 5ugustus acumen, ruthlessness and determination which allowed him to
<institute his own form of permanent super#ision of go#ernment and li#e to de#elop it o#er a reign of *A
years, to die in his bed at the ad#anced age of ??%=
!A
Caesar had chosen well to in#est his faith in
5ugustus, a (star that would surpass and outlast opposition in order to challenge and ri#al his adopted
fathers achie#ements%
!$
5s cited in6 8#eritt, 5% p%$!!%
!!
>irth, J%B% 5ugustus Caesar and the ;rganisation of the 8mpire of Rome, :%'% 'utman Sons, Dew
Kor., $+0, p%-%
!
"ranslated as the (military treasure%
!*
5ugustus, :% p% $%
!A
Shotter,, D% p%!
Shotter6 =:verall it !as ,u%ustus- a"umen5 ruthlessness and determination !hi"h allo!ed
him to =institute his o!n form of permanent supervision of %overnment and live to develop it
over a rei%n of 4> years5 to die in his (ed at the advan"ed a%e of ??0@
)hat role did the settlements of !?BC and !BC play in the de#elopment of 5ugustus principateS
"he settlements of !?BC and !BC were significant in the de#elopment of 5ugustus principate as
they were co#ert de#elopments, which further consolidated 5ugustus power and strengthened his
(authoritas%
5fter eradicating 5ntonius as a potential ri#al, 5ugustus had finally managed to establish his sole
dominance within Rome, ensuing in the (>irst Settlement of !?BC% 5t a meeting in the Senate on
the $
th
January, 5ugustus announced that the Republic was (restored and that he would relinquish
his authority and supremacy o#er Rome and 8gypt, entering an early retirement% 1n reality, this
declaration was merely another calculati#e gesture in order to publicly secure 5ugustus power%
*"# aptly commented, <Dothing was left to chance or accident in preparing these exemplary
manifestations% "he ruler had ta.en counsel with his friends and allies B and perhaps with neutral
politicians%= 5ugustus announcement was successful in spar.ing plebeian riots and public outcry,
resulting in the Romans fierce proclamation that they needed his leadership% Subsequently, three
days later the Senate bestowed additional honours upon 5ugustus, insisting he ta.e on the role of
proconsul o#er the Senate, as well as the pro#incial areas of Spain, Syria and :aul% "hese new
honours ensured 5ugustus singular control o#er ?0L of the Roman legions% >urthermore,
5ugustus was conferred the title of ('ontifex &aximus, mar.ing him as the re#ered leader of
Roman religion% 5ugustus was now firmly established as the ('rinceps and Shotter remar.ed that
gi#en his high profile between !+,!/BC the timing was ideal% )hilst years of ci#il war had left
Rome in a state of near lawlessness, the Republic was not yet prepared to accept the role of
5ugustus as despot% By implying that he had laid down all the powers he had accumulated during
the trium#irate and ci#il war period, new powers were granted to 5ugustus by the Senate,
effecti#ely <increasing his powers two,fold%= 6Shotter7
9ater, in !BC, 5ugustus maintained and consolidated his powers through the (Second
Settlement% 'rompted by the conspiracies of Caepio and &urena, as well as 5ugustus ill health,
the Roman population demanded a tighter formula of go#ernment in order to guarantee security
and stability for the empire% 5dditionally, the Roman senate also pushed for administrati#e change,
ensuing from resentment o#er 5ugustus o#erbearing political influence% 1n response, 5ugustus
(relinquished his powers, officially renouncing his consulship in order to quench dissatisfaction%
Subsequently, the Senate compensated for 5ugustus loss of consular power in two ways% "he first
was to grant him (&aius 'roconsular 1mperium, which bestowed 5ugustus with unlimited control
o#er the army and pro#inces for life% "he second was the power of ("ribunicia 'otestas, which
empowered 5ugustus to legislate in the assembly, summon the Senate, #eto proposals and spea.
first at meetings% 5ugustus tribunician authority pro#ided the basis of his legal power and was
described by Ta"itus as <the most important feature of the power of the 'rinceps=% ;nce again,
5ugustus had manipulated public feeling through the symbolic (surrender of his powers, only to
further consolidate his authority% S"ullard remar.ed, <"hus the authority of 5ugustus was re,
established on two foundations6 tribunicia potestas which ga#e him ci#il authority in Rome itself,
and proconsular imperium maius which ga#e him control of the armies and pro#inces%=
Assess the reform programs and polces of Augustus
5ugustus maintained his through his widespread military, political, administrati#e reforms and his
social policies% 1irth commented, <5fter the settlement in !BC, 5ugustus immediately began his
patient reorganisation of the empire=% 5ugustus initial military and political reforms ensured him
support from both the army and population, whilst the religious reforms and social policies
portrayed 5ugustus as the conser#ati#e re,establisher of (traditional Roman #alues%
5ugustus military reforms ensured him loyalty and support from both the army and populace%
5fter the (>irst Settlement, 5ugustus disbanded half his legions, totalling 00,000 men and
established a professional army with an annual income of !!A denarii and a retirement pension of
,A00 denarii% 5ugustus also established the 'raetorian :uard of + cohorts of A,000 men and the
(aerarium militaire, funded by citiEens taxes and State inheritance taxes% "hese acts reaffirmed
the public perception of 5ugustus as the (restorer of peace and ensured military morale and
loyalty% 5ugustus o#erall focus on establishing strength within the empire, rather than pushing for
power to larger borders, saw the establishment of the ('ax Romana, which further guaranteed him
public de#otion and admiration%
Similarly, 5ugustus political reforms furthered his support but more significantly, consolidated his
power through co#ert transformation% 5ugustus reduced the number of senates from $000 to -00,
in order to eliminate corruption and inefficiency, a mo#e which Suetonius suggests was
underta.en in order to restore the dignity of the Senate% "his mo#e assured public support and
rapport, especially with the freedmen and middle class, whom 5ugustus diplomatically recruited to
administrati#e roles% Syme argued that most of the Senate was comprised of 5ugustus supporters
and between !! and $+BC, se#en of the consuls were (new men 5ugustus had elected, re#ealing
5ugustus attempts to create a new aristocracy and win their support% Jury courts for criminal cases
were drawn from the equites and appeals against magistrates decisions were sent to the (princeps%
"he Senate gradually became a legislati#e body and shared a prominent role in the criminal courts%
"he senates (self,respect was also increased through the appointment of senators to newly created
positions of ci#il administration within Rome, such as the control of aqueducts, public wor.s and
thee prefecture of the city% 4owe#er, Ta"itus asserted that, <5ugustus absorbed the functions of the
senate, the officials and e#en the law=, ma.ing them, as Jones bluntly put it, <a mere rubber
stamp=%
>urther, 5ugustus social policies appealed to the conser#atism of Roman society, howe#er, whilst
these policies appeared to (restore Roman traditions, they were largely ineffecti#e% 'alla"e-
Hadrill suggests that the Romans belie#ed that the ci#il war and strife they had been plagued with
before 5ugustus could be attributed to the immorality, sin and adultery which had proliferated
throughout the city% 4ence, 5ugustus legislation of (de maritandis and (de adulteris appealed to
the Romans, who regarded themsel#es as intrinsically conser#ati#e people de#oted to the worship
of law and power% "hese new policies outlawed adultery, with the punishment being exile for both
the partners% )hilst these laws appeared to be promoting family unity, they also possessed
(loopholes and were rarely followed, especially by the rebellious aristocracy% "echnically,
(adultery was defined as an extra marital union of a male and married female citiEen, or
(matrona% 1n effect, prostitution, homosexuality and consummation with a non,citiEen was
permitted% Suetonius suggests that these polices were implemented as 5ugustus <did not want
nati#e Roman stoc. to be tainted with foreign blood=%
>urther, in terms of religion, 5ugustus instituted a (cult, which worshipped his (genius in !?BC,
which proliferated throughout Rome and the extended pro#inces% Religions prestige had
deteriorated by the outbrea. of ci#il war as many of the Roman people felt the gods were
abandoning them% 5ugustus was established as the Chief 'riest, or the ('ontifex &aximus and
restored and built se#eral temples throughout Rome in order to encourage religious tradition%
1n terms of 5dministration, 5ugustus began an expansi#e building program by erecting a temple to
Caesar in the >orum and completing Caesarian proCects% "hrough the funding of aqueducts,
sewerage systems and a new fire department, 5ugustus ensured that most Roman homes had
access to water and that the insulaes prone to fire outbrea. were protected% "he building program
instituted by 5ugustus was hea#ily lin.ed with the restoration of Roman religion through the
construction of numerous temples, such as the (5ra 'acis, the temple to (5ugustan 'eace% "he
building program was a (propaganda tool with religious, moral and aesthetic aspects% 1t ga#e the
Roman people a sense of pride in their city, whilst simultaneously pro#iding employment for the
lower classes%
Jones6 <5ugustus was ruthless, unscrupulous and ambitious=
Assess the role of the arm% n the Augustan prncpate
"he 5rmy and 'raetorian :uard played an immensely significant role in the 5ugustan principate
as they empowered 5ugustus to initially established power and then later, to maintain control in
both the pro#inces and Rome% Southern commented that 5ugustus realised that the army was the
<bac.bone and real power in the state=, and accordingly, ensured their support through
propaganda, bribes and war booty% "hroughout the principate, 5ugustan exploited his (maius
imperium in order to ensure the 5rmys support and consolidate his own power%
"he 5rmy, initially composed of Caesars #eterans, played a #ital role in established 5ugustus
power% 4eralded as Caesars heir as a young teenager, 5ugustus sought to raise his own forces in
order to legitimise his claim and re#eal his sincere and serious intentions to fulfil his adopted
fathers will% 5ugustus remar.ed in es &estae5 <5t my own expense, 1 raised an army, with
which 1 successfully championed the liberty of the republic%= "hrough seducing Caesars #eterans
with promises of A00 denarii 2more than twice the annual pay of a legionary3 and appealing to their
Caesarian loyalties, 5ugustus succeeded in raising an army, although illegal, from Caesars
#eterans and two of 5ntonius &acedonian legions% &ilitary force initially #alidated 5ugustus
claim to power and re#ealed to the Senate and 5ntonius that they had underestimated the
determination of 5ugustus% "hrough the o#erall expenditure of -00 denarii to plebeians and
#eterans and the circulation of Caesarian propaganda, 5ugustus guaranteed the support and loyalty
of the public and the army, a preliminary step on his climb to power%
>urther, the 'raetorian :uard helped to maintain control and ensure protection domestically within
Rome% 5ugustus established the 'raetorian :uards, who were an elite body whose tas. was to
protect 5ugustus and 1taly personally% "here were nine cohorts in Rome and six in the 1talian
towns and there were $,000 men in each cohort% "here were three urban cohorts, who were under
the control of the city prefect and were charged with o#erseeing ci#il order within the City and at
the games% "he (#igiles guarded the streets at night and also acted as the fire brigade% "he men
were recruited from the regular army, or talented and upstanding youth from the 1talian pro#inces%
"he 'rateorian :uard inconspicuously patrolled the maCor public buildings within the city and
some were stationed in the towns surrounding Rome% Cassius Dio remar.ed that in order to ensure
their support, they were payed a generous ?A denarii a year and A,000 denarii upon retirement, a
significant contrast to the !!A denarii paid to the normal standing army% "heir sign was the
(scorpion and they were made a standing force by 5ugustus after the Battle at 5ctium% >urther,
when soldiers were not fighting, they were in#ol#ed in public wor.s such as road, canal, aqueduct
and bridge building%
&oreo#er, the 5rmy was a #ital part within in the principate in assisting 5ugustus maintain control
and order with the Roman pro#inces% 1n order to emphasis the illusion of the ('ax Romana or
(peace within the empire, 5ugustus focused on securing the Roman frontiers, gaining natural and
defensible boundaries and pacifying and organising the areas which needed it% 8ssentially,
5ugustus frontier policy was one of maintaining the status quo and consolidating the current
extent of his empire, which apart from the ill,fated expedition into :ermania, was achie#ed% 1n the
8ast, he purused a policy of non,agression, although maintained a presence in 8gypt, as Rome
relied on its natural resources and it was a strategically important location in the &iddle 8ast and
8astern &editerranean regions% "he 5rmys primary role was thus transformed, as they were now
directed towards protecting the borders and frontiers from barbarism and pacifying conquered
lands and pro#inces% Colonies of #eterans in places such as Syria and 'isidia were expected to
assist the Romans .eep order when necessary% "he army also acted as a force to spread Roman
culture% "he camp life was traditionally Roman and the 9atin was always used as the language of
communication% Roman citiEenship was extended through the army, thus contributing to the
(Romanisation of the empire%
8#idently, the 5rmys role transformed throughout the 'rincipate and whilst it was initially
focused on establishing 5ugustus power through force, it later assisted the shrewd leader in
consolidating peace and stability within the Roman empire%
"7plan how Augustus ganed and mantaned hs consttutonal poston!

1nitially, 5ugustus embar.ed on establishing his power through the dissemination of propaganda,
promises and bribes, which enabled him to raise his own forces and ascertain public support%
5fter the murder of Julius Caesar in **BC, 5ugustus, as adopted son and heir, was thrust into the
subsequent political and military uphea#al% "hough, as Holland commented, <>or the moment,
Caesars heir was merely a nuisance, not a factor of much influence upon the policy of 5ntonius
and the Senate%= 1n order to demonstrate that he undertoo. his inheritance seriously, 5ugustus
obediently fulfilled Caesars legacy by granting 00 sesterces 2?A denarii3 to each Roman citiEen,
a generous act which required ?A million sesterces 2$/,?A0,000 denarii3% 4owe#er, 5ntonius had
rebuffed 5ugustus claims to inheritance, <answering him with excuses and delays%=2&rant70 5s
a result, 5ugustus was forced to auction his inherited R of Caesars estates, as well as his own
property, an action which ensured 5ugustus greater popularity and odium to be thrown towards
5ntonius% Fuic.ly realising the dominance Caesars memory retained o#er the populace,
5ugustus de#oted himself to Caesarian propaganda through the finance of monuments, games
and festi#als, such as the (9udi @ictoriae Caesaris which honoured the late dictators memory%
;nce 5ugustus had guaranteed public support, he then turned to raising his own forces, <5t my
own expense, 1 raised an army, with which 1 successfully championed the liberty of the
republic%= "hrough seducing them with promises of A00 denarii 2more than twice the annual pay
of a legionary3 and appealing to their Caesarian loyalties, 5ugustus succeeded in raising an army,
although illegal, from Caesars #eterans and two of 5ntonius &acedonian legions% Bac.ed by
military support, 5ugustus was later able to exhort the role of consulship, twenty,three years
before the minimum age% 8ffecti#ely, public support and military force #alidated 5ugustus claim
to power and re#ealed to the Senate and 5ntonius that they had underestimated the determination
of Caesars heir% "hrough the o#erall expenditure of -00 denarii to plebeians and #eterans and the
circulation of Caesarian propaganda, 5ugustus guaranteed the support and loyalty of the public
and the army, a preliminary step on his climb to power%
9ater, in *BC, the formation of the (Second "rium#irate empowered 5ugustus to a#enge
Caesars assassination and gain further territorial spheres of interest% Dio Cassius remar.ed that
the "rium#irates purpose was to <order the state and attac. the forces of Brutus and Cassius=
whilst Shotter realistically rebutted that <despite its high sounding purpose B to heal the
Republics afflictions B its real aim was the ser#ice of personal and factional ambition%= "he
trium#irs first motion was (proscription in which !000 equites and 00 senators 2including
Cicero, who had pre#iously attempted to utilise 5ugustus as a political pawn3 were depri#ed of
both their property and li#es% "urning their wrath eastward, the trium#irate defeated Brutus and
Cassius in two battles on the !
rd
;ctober and the $*
th
Do#ember BC in &acedonia, resulting in
the suicide of Caesars assassins% "he Battle of 'hilippi mar.ed the end of Republican opposition
and restored wealth and economic stability to the Roman state, through royal treasures, war
booty and land income from 8gypt% "erritory was di#ided between the three trium#irs, with
5ugustus recei#ing 1taly, which had the diplomatic ad#antage of being the <heart of the Roman
8mpire=, as Shotter remar.ed% 9ater, in -BC, a triple attac. launched at Daulochus by
5ugustus, 5grippa and 9epidus on the hostile Sextus 'ompeius, resulted in a great na#al #ictory%
"hrough effecti#ely exploiting the trium#irate, 5ugustus succeeded in a#enging Caesars
assassination, legitimising his expanding army, eliminating political opposition and furthering his
economic strength% "hese accomplishments effecti#ely raised 5ugustus profile, establishing his
influence further%
"he next milestone in 5ugustus consolidation of power was the Battle of 5ctium, which was
both a physical battle and a <propaganda battle for hearts and minds%= 6Shotter7 )hilst 5ntonius
was conducting a romantic affair 2Syme remar.ed that the relations of 5ntonius and Cleopatra
<were not merely those of proconsul and #assal,ruler=3, 5ugustus conducted a networ. of allies
in Rome, securing his (authoritas whilst spreading propaganda against 5ntonius% 'oets and
pamphleteers financed by 5ugustus 2such as @irgil, 4orace and ;#id3 extolled their patrons
apparent modesty and moral strictness, contrasting it strongly with 5ntonius life as an oriental
monarch at the la#ish 8gyptian court% Cleopatra was the point in which 5ntonius was most
#ulnerable and Roman sentiment most easily exploited and swayed% Realising this, 5ugustus
continually #ilified the 8gyptian ruler, declaring war on the (>oreign Fueen in !BC% ;n the !
nd

September $BC, 5ugustus outnumbered and defeated 5ntonius armada of A00 ships on the
west coast of :reece% 5ntonius men were already wea.ened by hunger and malaria, a result of
5ugustus bloc.ade and the marshy surroundings% 1n an uncharacteristic gesture, 5ntonius
abandoned his men, later committing suicide before 5ugustus entry into 8gypt% Bo!erso"#
commented <5ctium was a shabby affair, the worthy climax to the ignoble propaganda against
Cleopatra, to the sworn and sacred union of all 1taly%= 4owe#er, 5ugustus metamorphosed the
anticlimactic affair into a great na#al battle, a national crusade in which 5ugustus had fought for
Romes integrity against ;riental corruption and emerged #ictorious% 7pon his return, 5ugustus
publicly indicated that (peace was restored, through the symbolic closure of the ("emple of
Janus and the more practical action of settling $!0,000 #eterans, reducing his legions from -0 to
!/% 1n an empire where political uphea#al, ci#il wars and proscriptions had pre#ented peace for
!00 years, 5ugustus (restoration of unity and harmony won him e#en greater loyalty and
support, mar.ing <a turning point in the history of Rome B the end of the Republic and the
beginning of a new monarchy%= 6Shotter7
5fter eradicating 5ntonius as a potential ri#al, 5ugustus had finally managed to establish his sole
dominance within Rome, ensuing in the (>irst Settlement of !?BC% 5t a meeting in the Senate on
the $
th
January, 5ugustus announced that the Republic was (restored and that he would relinquish
his authority and supremacy o#er Rome and 8gypt, entering an early retirement% 1n reality, this
declaration was merely another calculati#e gesture in order to publicly secure 5ugustus power%
*"# aptly commented, <Dothing was left to chance or accident in preparing these exemplary
manifestations% "he ruler had ta.en counsel with his friends and allies B and perhaps with neutral
politicians%= 5ugustus announcement was successful in spar.ing plebeian riots and public outcry,
resulting in the Romans fierce proclamation that they needed his leadership% Subsequently, three
days later the Senate bestowed additional honours upon 5ugustus, insisting he ta.e on the role of
proconsul o#er the Senate, as well as the pro#incial areas of Spain, Syria and :aul% "hese new
honours ensured 5ugustus singular control o#er ?0L of the Roman legions% >urthermore,
5ugustus was conferred the title of ('ontifex &aximus, mar.ing him as the re#ered leader of
Roman religion% 5ugustus was now firmly established as the ('rinceps and Shotter remar.ed that
gi#en his high profile between !+,!/BC the timing was ideal% )hilst years of ci#il war had left
Rome in a state of near lawlessness, the Republic was not yet prepared to accept the role of
5ugustus as despot% By implying that he had laid down all the powers he had accumulated during
the trium#irate and ci#il war period, new powers were granted to 5ugustus by the Senate,
effecti#ely <increasing his powers two,fold%= 6Shotter7
9ater, in !BC, 5ugustus maintained and consolidated his powers through the (Second
Settlement% 'rompted by the conspiracies of Caepio and &urena, as well as 5ugustus ill health,
the Roman population demanded a tighter formula of go#ernment in order to guarantee security
and stability for the empire% 5dditionally, the Roman senate also pushed for administrati#e
change, ensuing from resentment o#er 5ugustus o#erbearing political influence% 1n response,
5ugustus (relinquished his powers, officially renouncing his consulship in order to quench
dissatisfaction% Subsequently, the Senate compensated for 5ugustus loss of consular power in
two ways% "he first was to grant him (&aius 'roconsular 1mperium, which bestowed 5ugustus
with unlimited control o#er the army and pro#inces for life% "he second was the power of
("ribunicia 'otestas, which empowered 5ugustus to legislate in the assembly, summon the
Senate, #eto proposals and spea. first at meetings% 5ugustus tribunician authority pro#ided the
basis of his legal power and was described by Ta"itus as <the most important feature of the
power of the 'rinceps=% ;nce again, 5ugustus had manipulated public feeling through the
symbolic (surrender of his powers, only to further consolidate his authority% S"ullard remar.ed,
<"hus the authority of 5ugustus was re,established on two foundations6 tribunicia potestas which
ga#e him ci#il authority in Rome itself, and proconsular imperium maius which ga#e him control
of the armies and pro#inces%=
0ropaganda:
2terature:
9iterature was a significant aspect of propaganda and allowed 5ugustus to maintain his power
and authoritas% Syme commented, <"he literature of the 5ugustan age can be seen as a product of
an insurmountable 5ugustan auctoritas, written for its ability to curry fa#our with the 'rinceps
rather than for pure entertainment, historical record or legitimate social commentary=% 9i#y,
@irgil and 4orace were the principal writers of 5ugustus time, who were commissioned by
&aecenas, a wealthy 8truscan aristocrat% :ree. tyrants, such as &aecenas, employed
propaganda as a method of propaganda% "he wor. of @irgil, 4orace and ;#id emphasis and
extolled 5ugustus as the <sa#iour of Rome= and compared him to 4omeric heroes% @irgils
5eneid was published on 5ugustus orders, <But Caesar rose into the city in triple triumph and
dedicated his #owed offering to the gods to stand fore#er=% )or.s such as these were often
written simplistically and engaging in order to appeal to the wider population, especially in the
rural areas%
Reforms ttles and honour:
5ugustus had obser#ed and learnt from Caesars mista.e to not antagonise the nobility and
senate% 4is settlements were a means of achie#ing this, so he renounced his powers on two
separate occasions in order to distance himself from the title (.ing% 4e also achie#ed popularity
through his physical restoration of Rome and /! temples were restored and constructions such as
the (5ra 'acis are a good example of the propaganda he used% "he 5ra 'acis shows the #alues
and beliefs of 5ugustus and on it, are inscribed 5ugustus family and magistrates in religious
possession% 1t shows the traditional past and a promising future with the combination of
5ugustus family, as well as the goddess Roma and the two founders of Rome, Romulus and
Remus=%
Cons:
5ugustus possessed the power to mint gold and sil#er coins% 4e normally printed on them, <father of
my country=% Certain coins depict 5ugustus in triumphal procession returning home from war,
promoting his image as a general%