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Chapter XIV
Simulation of VANET Applications
Valentin Cristea
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania
Victor Gradinescu
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania
Cristian Gorgorin
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania
Raluca Diaconescu
University Politehnica of Bucharest, Romania
Liviu Iftode
Rutgers University, USA
ABSTRACT
This chapter systematically presents actual issues regarding the simulation of VANET applications.
Some of them refer to challenges in developing VANET simulators. The chapter discusses simulator
architectures, models used for representing the communication among vehicles, vehicles mobility
features, and simulation tool implementation methods. A critical analysis of the solutions adopted in
some well-known actual simulators is also included. Other issues relate to the use of simulation in the
evaluation of applications that aim at improving the traffc safety and control. Representative city and
highway application scenarios are discussed, and results that can be obtained by simulation, along with
ways these results can be exploited by VANET developers and users are highlighted. Future trends in the
development of simulators that produce more accurate results and their use for the evaluation of more
sophisticated traffc control solutions are also included.
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Simulation of VANET Applications
INTRODUCTION
Vehicle-to-vehicle communication is a very
actual and challenging topic. Vehicles equipped
with devices capable of short-range wireless
connectivity can form a particular mobile ad-hoc
network, VANETVehicular Ad-hoc NETwork.
The existence of such networks opens the way
for a wide range of applications. Two of the most
important classes of such applications are those
related to route planning and traffc safety. Route
planning aims to provide drivers with real-time
traffc information, which, in the absence of a
VANET, would require an expensive infrastruc-
ture. By contrast, the VANET approach is scal-
able and has low maintenance costs. Moreover,
short-range wireless communication technologies
(such as 802.11) have no associated cost, other than
the communication devices. Safety applications
involve disseminating urgent information, which
is not present in the drivers feld of view, or it is
diffcult to notice for reasons such as fog or other
vehicles obstructing the line of sight. For instance,
a lot of accidents occur in foggy conditions be-
cause drivers notice too late that some kind of
incident has occurred in front of them. Safety at
intersections could also be enhanced, since the
risk of collisions could be detected in advance and
the driver could be warned seconds before what
would otherwise be an imminent accident.
The evaluation of VANET protocols and ap-
plications could be made through real outdoor
experiments, which are time-costly and claim
for a large number of resources in order to obtain
signifcant results. Instead, simulation is a much
cheaper and easier to use method. Obviously, this
leads network and application developers to use
simulation in order to evaluate different simple
or complicated and innovative solutions before
implementing them. In turn, this stimulated the
interest for the development of simulators that
easily integrate the models and respond to the
requirements of VANET applications. Simula-
tors have become indispensable tools at least
in the initial phases of the VANET application
engineering process.
This chapter aims to present the features
and trends in VANET applications simulation,
to explain the sources of its complexity and to
describe actual solutions. The main challenges
are presented in the next section, which intro-
duces the three models involved in VANET
simulations: the network and traffc models are
determined by the currently used technology;
the third model corresponds to the application
itself. Then, general features of VANET simula-
tors are presented. We describe an architecture
that integrates the frst two models and allows
an easy interfacing with the third model. Details
about the network / communication model are
also given, and several components of the traf-
fc / mobility model are then discussed. Current
challenges in developing VANET simulators,
and the description of solutions adopted so far
are subjects of a separate section, in which issues
regarding the performance of different simulation
tools are presented. Another section is dedicated
to application scenarios, the results that can be
obtained by simulation, and the ways these results
can be exploited by VANET developers and users
to improve the car-to-car communication and the
traffc control. The chapter ends with conclusions
and future trends.
BACKGROUND
Simulating a VANET involves two different
aspects. First, there are issues related to the com-
munication among vehicles. Network simulators,
like The Network Simulatorns-2 (2008) and Jist/
SWANS (2008) cope with communication issues
and focus on network protocol characteristics.
The second very important aspect is related
to the mobility of the VANET nodes. Traffc
simulators take into account the traffc model,
not necessarily in conjunction with VANETs. For
example, TRANSTraffc Network Simulator
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Simulation of VANET Applications
(Katz, 1963) was used to optimize the timing
of traffc lights in the absence of inter-vehicular
communication.
In the majority of VANET applications, ve-
hicles react to messages. For instance, if a driver
receives a message saying that the road ahead
is congested, that driver will probably change
her/his route. In order to study such reactions, an
integrated simulator is needed, one in which the
relationship between the vehicle mobility module
and the network communication module is bidirec-
tional. Choffnes and Bustamante (2005) showed
that the vehicular mobility (traffc) model is very
important, and its integration with the wireless
network model could produce more signifcant re-
sults. The authors present an integrated simulator
that uses an original vehicular traffc model called
Street Random Waypoint (STRAW) implemented
on top of JiST/SWANS (2008). The authors have
used the simulator to show that studying routing
protocols for a vehicular network without an ac-
curate vehicular traffc model is a wrong approach.
In this respect, they compared their own results
with those obtained with the Random Waypoint
model (Broch, 1998), which is a very inaccurate
representation of a vehicular network.
The mobility model implemented in some
simulators is not a suffciently accurate repre-
sentation of actual vehicle mobility. For example,
in the model of Saha and Johnson (2004), each
vehicle moves completely independent of other
vehicles, with a constant speed randomly chosen.
Multi-lane roads or traffc control systems are not
taken into consideration. Other authors (Mang-
haram et al., 2005) make similar simplifying as-
sumptions and do not consider multi-lane roads
or car following models. The mobility model of
Choffnes and Bustamante (2005) is more com-
plex: the motion of a vehicle is infuenced by the
preceding vehicle, and traffc control systems are
considered. However, multi-lane roads are not
taken into consideration.
A more accurate model has been used in the
development of an integrated vehicular networks
simulator, VNSim (Gorgorin, 2006), which in-
cludes a complex model for vehicles mobility, a
wireless network simulator, and an interface for
the emulation of vehicular applications. The simu-
lator can be used to analyze networks of several
thousands of nodes in complex city scenarios as
well as in highway scenarios. The simulator al-
lows the evaluation of a large range of vehicular
computing applications, which cannot be studied
by using other simulators, and can be used to
improve both car-to-car communication protocols
and traffc control applications (Gradinescu, 2007;
Diaconescu, 2007).
GENERAL FEATURES OF VANET
SIMULATORS
VANET simulators can be classifed as microscop-
ic or macroscopic. Microscopic traffc simulators
emphasize local behavior of individual vehicles
by representing the velocity and position of each
vehicle at a given moment. This type of simula-
tion is especially helpful for studying localized
traffc interactions, but it comes with the price
of reduced scalability. Macroscopic simulators
capture traffc conditions in a global manner and
may use concepts from wave theory. Usually, the
traffc is represented in terms of fows (vehicle/
hour), density (vehicles/km) or average speed.
Similarly, microscopic network simulators take
into account the transmission of each individual
packet (or message), while the macroscopic net-
work simulators consider transmission statistical
properties.
Most authors agree that a macroscopic mobil-
ity model is not suffcient to allow the study of a
vehicular network, therefore microscopic simula-
tion, although more complex, is required.
The evaluation of vehicular applications for
online traffc control (that produce real time
feedback to the driver), such as safety applica-
tions, also requires a model of driver behavior.
Models for lane changing or car-following are
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Simulation of VANET Applications
some of the features that a microscopic VANET
simulator has to implement to allow the analysis
of such applications.
Simulator Architecture
A VANET simulator has two main components:
a network component, capable of simulating the
behavior of a wireless network, and a vehicular
traffc component, able to provide an accurate
mobility model for the nodes of a VANET. De-
pending on the simulation type, the simulator can
contain other components as well. To describe
them, we refer to the VNSim presented in (Gor-
gorin, 2006).
Figure 1 shows the general view of VNSim.
This is a microscopic discrete-event simulator.
Consequently, it includes components for event
management: an Event Queue, where the events
are registered in the order of their occurrence
times, the modules for events processing, and a
logical clock for the management of the simulation
time. The simulation time is quantifed in fxed
pieces so that each event can be associated to a
specifc timestamp with an acceptable resolution.
At every moment of the simulation time, the Event
Engine pulls the current events from the queue,
and handles them in a random order by calling
the event processing modules. The vehicular
traffc component is represented by the Mobility
Module, while the wireless network component
is incorporated into the Network Module and
Scheduler.
The Event Queue can hold three types of
events: send, receive or GPS. A send event for
a specifed node triggers the call to the nodes
procedure responsible for preparing a message. It
also schedules the corresponding receive event(s)
for the message receiver(s) that are determined by
the simulator according to the wireless network
model. The receive event is associated with a
node (group of nodes) to which the message is
transmitted (broadcasted). Its action is to call
the appropriate handler in each of the receiving
Figure 1. General VNSim architecture
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Simulation of VANET Applications
nodes. The GPS event is scheduled at a regular
time interval, for each node, in order to simulate
the way an actual VANET application periodically
collects GPS data. The mobility module repeatedly
updates the position of each node representing a
vehicle, according to the vehicular mobility model.
This model takes into account vehicle interactions
(passing by, car following patterns, etc.), traffc
rules, and the behavior of different drivers.
The main advantage of this architecture is
the possibility to execute (or emulate) the actual
code of a vehicular application without signif-
cant changes, by using appropriate simulator
interfaces.
In other cases, the vehicular mobility and
wireless network models can be incorporated
in different simulation tools. For example,
MOVEMObility model generator for VEhicu-
lar networks (2008) uses SUMOSimulation
of Urban MObility (2008) for simulating a traf-
fc scenario and generating an output fle with
vehicular mobility traces. This fle is offered as
an input to a network simulator, such as ns-2 or
Qualnet (2008), to obtain the fnal simulation
results. A similar solution is adopted in (Eichler,
2005), where the authors propose the coupling of
the CARISMA Traffc simulator with ns-2 and
with the application module, in order to study the
vehicle-to-vehicle warning-message distribution.
Synchronization data is exchanged periodically
between the two simulators. The challenge is to
ensure the coupling of simulators, i.e. the con-
sistency of vehicle positions in both simulators,
at synchronization points.
The simple architecture mentioned above
makes use of existing traffc and network simu-
lators. The drawback is that it does not support
the simulation of complex VANET applications
in which the driver behavior would be infuenced
by the application itself, as already discussed be-
fore. An innovative architecture aiming at solving
this problem is currently under evaluation by the
authors of TraNS (Piorkowski, 2008). They are
trying to develop a general framework for con-
trolling the mobility, without being limited to a
specifc traffc simulator or to a specifc network
simulator. This architecture promises to offer new
possibilities for simulating VANET applications,
but the framework has not yet been released.
A slightly different architectural approach is
the hybrid simulation (Killat, 2007). The simula-
tor architecture incorporates a previously imple-
mented vehicular traffc simulator VISSIM and
two new components: VCOM, used to simulate
the inter-vehicle communication on the basis of a
statistical model proposed by the authors, and an
application module. The simulator has to respond
to specifc user requirements regarding the func-
tionality (it was aimed to investigate the impact of
car-to-x communications on transport effciency)
and the performance (scalability, short response
time, and easy of use). The relevant character-
istics of a VANET simulator are the simulation
effciency and accuracy for large scale VANETs,
which we will address in a separate section.

Communication Models
Communication models highlight the information
fows between vehicles and are of special interest
when vehicles move with high relative speeds.
VANET applications are affected by wireless
networking aspects such as transmission delay,
packet loss or network access scheme. However,
accurate network simulation introduces additional
complexity and makes several large scale VANET
applications unsuitable for simulation. In this
section, we discuss the network characteristics
that are mostly relevant for VANET simulation,
as well as the accuracy that can be reached with
their implementation.
At the physical layer, the reliability of the wire-
less network, in terms of packet loss and trans-
mission delays, is relevant to simulation. Several
models are used for the radio waves propagation,
which consider estimates of the power of a received
signal. This signal can be received by an antenna
only if the Signal-To-Noise (SNR) ratio is over a
specifc SNR Threshold (SNRT).
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Simulation of VANET Applications
Wave propagation models have been studied
extensively for decades in telecommunication
and recently have been correlated with vehicular
short range communication. The radio signal can
be degraded by fading. This is caused by signal
propagation over multiple paths (with different
values for the attenuation, delay and phase shift),
which produces interferences at the receiving
antenna.
There are several examples of such propagation
models that were implemented in wireless simula-
tors. Free Space Model is the simplest one, which
considers ideal conditions: a single radio signal
that attenuates with distance. Two Ray Ground
propagation model considers two rays between
the source and the destination: the direct line
and the ground refection. It gives more accurate
estimates than the free space model, especially
for long distances. VNSim (Gorgorin, 2006)
implements this model and includes the signal
attenuation with distance in order to test different
ways to optimize the network traffc. Rayleigh
fading (Sklar, 1997) models multiple indirect paths
between the sender and the receiver, while the
Ricean fading model considers only one dominant
line of sight and multiple indirect signals. Reports
from real experiments have shown that vehicular
short-range wireless networks can be modeled
using the Nakagami fading model (Sklar, 1997),
which considers fast fading to characterize the
wireless channel.
Concerning the protocols, DSRCDedicated
Short-Range Communications Protocol (Taliwal,
2004) is a multi-channel wireless protocol, which
is based on the IEEE 802.11a Physical Layer and
the IEEE 802.11 MAC Layer. It operates over a 75
MHz licensed spectrum in the 5.9 GHz band al-
located by the Federal Communications Commis-
sion, and supports low latency vehicle-to-vehicle
and vehicle-to-infrastructure communications.
The motivation behind the development of DSRC
is mainly the need for a more tightly controlled
spectrum for maximized reliability. The use of
hand-held and hands-free devices on the 2.4 and 5
GHz bands along with the increase of WiFi could
cause intolerable and uncontrollable levels of
interference, which would signifcantly decrease
the reliability and effectiveness of vehicular safety
applications. But, even with a licensed band, some
issues arise, such as fair access to all applications,
including priority scheduling of traffc between
different application classes (safety over non-
safety). Unlike 802.11, multi-channel coordination
is a fundamental capability of DSRC.
Consistent effort has been put into matching
simulation results to real outdoor experiments.
Yin et al. (2004) observe signifcant degradation
of the network performance under the high node
mobility. The study evaluated the DSRC Physi-
cal Layer and the MAC Layer, in the context of a
traffc safety application, on top of a customized
simulator combining the CORSIM (2008) traffc
simulator and the Qualnet (2001) network simula-
tor. It showed a long term average throughput of
50-60%. Using the Nakagami m-distribution fad-
ing model implemented in ns-2, Killat et al. (2007)
estimated the probability of successful reception
at a given distance depending on vehicle density
and data load. Their idea is to combine discrete-
event simulation and mathematical modeling,
starting from the observation that the data trans-
mission that is actually interesting and relevant
for a VANET application represents only a small
percentage of the total data exchanged during a
traffc scenario. There is a lot of background
traffc, which can be much more effciently
simulated with statistical methods, while keep-
ing the more accurate discrete-event simulation
techniques only for interesting data. Their work
is based on the concept of hybrid simulation
and offers much better performance compared
to purely discrete-event approaches. Although
actual outdoor experiments have been made,
the behavior of the wireless network (the DSRC
protocol) under stressed city-like scenarios with
high node density is still an open issue. This is
why simulation frameworks now focus on large
scale VANET simulations.
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Simulation of VANET Applications
A lot of work has been done to study the
routing layer protocols in mobile ad-hoc net-
works, MANETs. They can be grouped in two
categories. The frst category includes protocols
that use the IP addresses to locate nodes, such
as: DSDVDestination-Sequence Distance
Vector Routing (Perkin, 1994), DSRDynamic
Source Routing (Johnson, 2001), AODVAd
hoc on demand distance vector (rfc3561, 2008),
and MPRMobile Relay Protocol (Nain, 2004).
Protocols in the second category are based on lo-
cation information. Some examples are: DREAM
(Basagni, 1998), GPSRGreedy Perimeter State-
less Routing (Karp, 2000), and ABRPAnchor
Based Routing Protocol (Huaizhi, 2005).
Classical MANET protocols have been proven
to perform poorly (Blum, 2004) due to specifc
characteristics of vehicular ad-hoc networks,
namely: rapid topology changes, small network
diameter, and limited redundancy. This is why
other position-based forwarding solutions have
been proposed (Festag, 2004) for vehicular en-
vironments, which take into account some ele-
ments of the vehicle mobility model such as the
distance between communicating partners and
the available paths towards destination. This led
to a combined position-based and map-based ad
hoc routing.
Mobility Models
Mobility models emphasize local behavior of
individual vehicles by representing the velocity
and position of each vehicle at a given moment.
This type of simulation is especially helpful for
studying localized traffc interactions.
Vehicular traffc mobility models have been
studied for a long time. However, until recently,
the purpose of developing and studying accurate
mobility models has not been to use them for
VANET simulation. In this section, we review
vehicular mobility models, from the perspective
of a VANET simulator architect.
Generally, when choosing a mobility model
for a VANET simulator, the complexity and the
accuracy are the most important issues need to be
considered. The beneft of using a very complex
and accurate mobility model, together with the
performance penalty, should be carefully evalu-
ated, keeping in mind the purpose of the VANET
simulator and the type of applications for which
it is designed.
In the Random Waypoint mobility model
(Broch 1998), each mobile node has a position and a
velocity, and moves towards a random destination
in a predictable way that can be calculated as a
function of time. This model was used originally
in ns-2 (2008). It was designed for general-purpose
mobile networks and does not accurately represent
vehicular motion.
Jardosh et al. (2003) defne a more complicated
model that corresponds to urban settings, in which
obstacles are introduced to constrain vehicles
mobility and the wireless transmission. Two other
models have been defned by Potnis and Mahajan
(2006). The Stop Sign Model (SSM) introduces
stop signs at every intersection. Every vehicle
arriving at the intersection would wait for a fxed
period of time before proceeding to its destination.
The Traffc Sign Model (TSM) introduces traffc
lights at every intersection. A vehicle arriving at
an intersection waits for a random period. Both
models introduce queues at intersections and inter-
dependencies among vehicles on the same street.
A thorough analysis of these models is described
in (Mahajan et al., 2007). The authors studied the
dependency of the packet delivery ratio and delay
on the characteristics of the urban settings such
as street layout, traffc rules, etc. In some studies
(Baumann et al., 2008), specifc models such as
the Manhattan model and GIS models, are used
to establish the street layouts.
In the model of Saha and Johnson (2004), each
vehicle starts at some randomly selected point
on a road and moves until a destination point
on another randomly selected road. Several new
elements are added to the model and to its use.
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Simulation of VANET Applications
First, the path between the starting and destination
points is calculated by using the Dijkstras shortest
path algorithm. Second, the vehicle speed is also
randomly calculated using a uniform distribution
within a specifed interval. Third, the authors use
the TIGER map database to create a more realistic
environment of the simulation study.
The mobility model of Choffnes and Busta-
mante (2005) is more complex: the motion of a
vehicle is infuenced by the preceding vehicle (car
following model), and traffc control systems are
considered to introduce some actual traffc condi-
tions such as traffc congestion. In addition, the
model includes communication details, such as
the percentage of cars actively communicating,
and road maps details, such as characteristics
of street segments and number of lanes in each
direction.
The study of safety and traffc control ap-
plications requires an accurate model of driver
behavior. One example is the model developed
by Wiedemann (1974, 1991) and further studied
by Fellendorf and Vortisch (2001). This psycho-
physical model is used in the commercial traffc
simulator VISSIM (2008). The basic assumption is
that a driver can be in one of four modes, which are
classifed according to the drivers convenience:
free driving (superior convenience), approaching,
following, and braking (lowest convenience). In
the free driving mode there is no infuence from
preceding vehicles on the same lane. In this situ-
ation, the driver will seek to obtain and maintain
a desired speed. The desired speed and the ac-
celeration depend on drivers personality, and on
roads characteristics. In the approaching mode,
there is a slower preceding vehicle that infuences
the driver. In this situation, the driver decelerates
in order to obtain the same speed as the preced-
ing vehicle. The deceleration is a function of the
distance between the two vehicles, their speeds, as
well as other parameters. In the following mode,
there is a current and a preceding vehicle, but the
speeds of the two vehicles are practically equal.
In this situation, the driver will seek to keep the
speed constant. In the braking mode, there is a
slower preceding vehicle, very close in front. In
this mode, due to the immediate danger, the driver
will apply high deceleration rates.
This model was implemented in VNSim, to-
gether with a lane-changing model for multilane
roads, based on lane-usage rules valid for several
European countries. According to these rules, the
use of the frst lane is required, unless it is oc-
cupied. It means that a driver will always try to
stay on the lower lanes, except when overtaking
another slower vehicle. Overtaking on the right
side is not allowed. Whenever a driver is in a dif-
ferent mode than free driving, she/he will always
check if the higher lane can provide a superior
mode. If this is the case, the driver will switch to
a higher lane. Similarly, whenever a driver is in a
different mode than braking, she/he will always
check if the lower lane provides at least equal
conditions. In this case, the driver will switch to
a lower lane.
Different driver profles (aggressive, regular,
calm) can easily be modeled by using several
parameters: distance between vehicles, maximum
speed, desired speed, driver reaction time, criti-
cal distance for driver reaction, etc. Each driver
class is represented by a specifc set of values for
these parameters. In order to further differentiate
the drivers, the model allows small deviations
from the specifed values, which are randomly
computed for each individual driver. Fellendorf
and Vortisch (2001) showed that the model is ac-
curate, by comparing simulated traces with actual
measurement data taken from a German freeway
and from a US freeway. To further calibrate the
model, the authors of VNSim performed an ex-
tra validation, by measuring real-time traffc in
intersections and comparing the results to those
obtained by simulation (Gradinescu, 2007).
Estimating fuel consumption and pollutant
emissions is an increasingly important issue when
studying vehicular traffc. The model of Akcelik
and Besley (2003) considers the estimation of the
relation between fuel consumption and emissions,
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Simulation of VANET Applications
on one side, and the speed and acceleration of the
vehicle, on the other. A simplifed version of this
was used in VNSim to take into account only light
vehicles. Statistics and global measures have been
easily obtained.
Maps
A digital map is required in almost any VANET
application. Each vehicle that is part of the system
should have access to such a digital map. A very
popular option for digital maps used by VANET
simulators is TIGERTopologically Integrated
Geographic Encoding and Referencing (2008),
which is freely-available, actual digital maps for
the USA. Most of the VANET simulators use
TIGER fles as the source for their digital maps.
TIGER fles contain detailed geographical infor-
mation about the roads in a region, from large
highways to small streets. For each road, the
TIGER fles specify its end points, along with as
many intermediate points as needed, depending
on the roads shape. Furthermore, for each road, a
class information is given (whether it is a small
street, a local road, a State Route, or an Interstate
Highway). Unfortunately, the TIGER database
lacks more detailed traffc-specifc information,
like the number of lanes, or traffc control sys-
tems, like traffc lights, yield or stop signs. In
more realistic simulations, such information is
required. The authors of VNSim have chosen to
add the extra information, based on simple heu-
ristics and on the road class information included
in the TIGER fles. For example, more lanes are
considered for higher class roads, yield or stop
signs are introduced for lower class roads, traffc
lights are used at intersections between equally
important roads, etc.
IMPLEMENTATION ISSUES
Approaches to Simulator Development
The development of VANET simulators follows
two different approaches. One is to implement
the mobility model from scratch. In this situa-
tion, the integration between the mobility model
and the network communication model is ensured
in the design phase. The integration is implicitly
achieved since the developers start with this
integration in mind. On the other hand, the com-
plexity of realistic models for communication and
mobility makes this approach a very challenging
one. There is a huge amount of work required to
implement complex models.
A typical example of this approach is
GrooveSim (Mangharam, 2005), which is a
simulator for geographic routing in VANETs.
It has several modes of operation that allow the
evaluation of network protocols, extraction of
mobile wireless propagation models in real time,
the generation of test scenarios for simulation,
hybrid simulation with real and virtual vehicles,
and others. The most important limitation of
GrooveSim is the simplistic mobility model, which
does not consider car-following or lane-changing
models. The authors acknowledge this limitation
and mention that the focus of their work is to
provide basic models and evaluate their impact
on key performance metrics.
STRAWSTreet RAndom Waypoint (Choff-
nes, 2005) builds a mobility model that constrains
vehicles movement according to the map of a city,
different traffc profles (for example vehicular
congestion) and specifc control mechanisms.
It is implemented as an extension to a wireless
network simulator developed by Barr (2004)
at Cornell University. The mobility model of
STRAW is also simplistic, and does not consider
multi-lane roads.
Saha and Johnson (2004) based their simula-
tion on building a realistic mobility model com-
patible with the ns-2 network simulator. Their
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Simulation of VANET Applications
development makes use of the TIGER database.
The mobility model which they implement is
very simple, without considering car-following
or lane-changing models. However, their simula-
tions are among the frst ones which prove that
using a different mobility model than the well-
known random waypoint model will generate
signifcantly different results, thus proving that
the mobility model is an important component of
a VANET simulator
The other approach is to use an existing
mobility model implementation and integrate
it with a network simulator. This approach takes
advantage from existing vehicular traffc simula-
tors, which already implement complex, validated
mobility models. The challenge of this approach
is to achieve an online integration, in which the
movement of vehicles is directly infuenced by
the VANET applications running on some of
the vehicles.
The easier way for integration is to generate
traffc patterns offine, and then use these results
as an input to a network simulator. VanetMobiSim
(Harri et al., 2006) is a generator of realistic ve-
hicular movement traces for network simulators.
It considers macro-mobility features, such as road
topology, number of lanes, speed limits, etc., and
micro-mobility characteristics, like crossroads
regulated by traffc signs or lane change capabil-
ity for vehicles. Similarly, the Generic Mobility
Simulation FrameworkGMSF (Baumann et al.,
2008), which models and simulates node mobil-
ity, is designed to work together with a network
simulator. GMSF has some important distinctive
features: it implements new GIS-based models
with detailed road maps, and includes microscopic
features such as traffc lights management.
An example of using mobility traces is given
in (Yang et al., 2007). The authors propose an
evaluation framework for VANET applications.
It utilizes a hybrid emulation testbed TWINE,
which combines real implementation of high level
network layers (closer to the application) with the
simulation of low level layers (physical, MAC).
The framework offers several advantages to its
users: it allows the execution of real applications
in a simulated network environment; it integrates
realistic mobility traces and deployment data; it
uses evaluation metrics related to the applica-
tion.
A similar approach is described in (Rehuna-
than et al., 2007), where a microscopic traffc
simulator, MITSIMLab is used to generate vehicle
movement traces to be used in ns-2. This approach,
however, does not allow for an accurate evaluation
of a VANET application or protocol, because the
mobility pattern cannot be modifed as a reaction
to the VANET application.
Using an existing traffc simulator, which
is based on already validated complex traffc
models, has the important advantage of avoiding
re-inventing the wheel. Among the most recent
attempts to implement a VANET simulator by
using this approach are MOVE (Karnadi et al.,
2007) and TraNSTraffc and Network Simulator
(Piorkowski et al., 2008). Both use the open-source
microscopic traffc simulator SUMO (2008),
which implements complex validated vehicular
traffc mobility models. And both use two steps
for the VANET simulation. In the frst step, traf-
fc traces are generated offine using the traffc
simulator. In the second step, a network simula-
tor processes the traffc traces and evaluates the
network communication between the nodes. The
authors of both simulators agree that the approach
does not allow the simulation of complex VANET
applications, in which the driver behavior would
be changed by the application itself. However,
both developer teams mention that this is a goal
for future work that will achieve a real integration
between the traffc mobility model and the network
communication model. Furthermore, the authors
of TraNS claim that their simulator is the frst
open source project that attempts to realize this
highly pursued coupling for application-centric
VANET evaluation (Piorkowski et al., 2008).
Sommer et al. (2008) describe the simulation
framework Veins (Vehicles in Network Simula-
268
Simulation of VANET Applications
tion) that is based on the bidirectional coupling
of OMNeT++, a network simulator capable of
modeling realistic communication patterns of
VANET nodes, and of SUMO, the microscopic
traffc simulator. The bidirectional coupling is
able to support the analysis of more realistic traf-
fc models that refect the impact of inter vehicle
communication on the road traffc.
Simulator Performance
Accurate simulation of vehicles mobility and
wireless transmission is time-costly. Also, for an
application designer, the study of many applica-
tion scenarios requires experiments with large
maps and with large numbers of vehicles. This
is why the scalability of VANET simulators is a
main performance metric for which we present
some guiding fgures.
Experiments performed with VNSim on a
1.6GHz uni-processor showed that it can support
around 10.000 network events per second. This
value is lower than the throughput of the widely-
used network simulator ns-2, which can simulate
over 60.000 events per second, on a 2GHz uni-
processor. This is explained by the of the network
simulator with a complex node mobility model,
which is responsible for accurately computing the
motion of all nodes, in each time quantum.
The graph in Figure 2 shows the evolution of
the simulators performance with the increase
of the number of nodes. The results are based
on simulations performed in a highway traffc
scenario, with all the nodes running a neighbor-
discovery and update protocol, with a 1 second
period for the beacon messages.
VNSim is able to simulate motion of 1000
vehicles, in a complex city-scenario in real-time
(1 second of simulation in 1 second of real time).
Experiments have been done by the authors with a
squared region of 1km by 1km in Manhattan down-
town, which has a high number of intersections
and traffc lights (see Figure 3). VNSim was also
used to perform the simulation of more complex
scenarios, involving up to 10.000 vehicles.
NCTuns (Wang, 2008), a highly-integrated
simulator, cannot be used for large-scale simula-
tions. Thus, for the simulation of a scenario with
100 vehicles, 22 minutes are required. For the
same scenario, if the number of vehicles doubles
then the amount of time required for the simula-
tion grows approximately 4 times, to 84 minutes.
These results, obtained on a 1.8 GHz uniprocessor,
show that the simulation of large-scale vehicular
networks (with tens of thousands of vehicles) can
be achieved.
0
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100
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200
250
300
350
400
450
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250 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000
NUMBER OF NODES
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Figure 2 VNSim performance evolution with the
increase of the number of nodes
Figure 3 Squared region in Manhattan down-
town
269
Simulation of VANET Applications
Some performance results are presented in
(Choffnes, 2005) for the STRAW simulator. Here,
STRAWs overhead has been evaluated for two
models: a simple one in which vehicle movement
is determined randomly at each intersection, and a
more complicated one in which the movements are
determined according to pre-computed shortest
paths. The evaluation was done by disabling the
wireless communication simulator. The experi-
ments were performed on a Pentium 4 at 2.4GHz
computer with HyperThreading enabled. When
the number of nodes considered in the experi-
ment increased from 100 to 1600, the runtime
increased four times for the simple model and
6.5 times for the more complicated model. The
highest overhead of 10% of the simulation time
has been registered for the complex model with
1600 vehicles.
One solution to improve simulators perfor-
mance is parallelization. Fujimoto et al (2003)
report experiments performed on packet level
network simulators. Parallelization is achieved by
federating several copies of the same simulator or
of different simulators. This approach was used to
produce two parallel simulators, PDNSParallel
/ Distributed Network Simulator (PDNS) based
on ns-2 and GTNetS developed at Georgia Tech.
The results showed a very good performance
measured in number of transmissions per second,
PTSPacket Transmissions that can be simulated
per Second. More specifc, for the best case of
parallel simulations, the number of PTS was 50
times higher than the number of PTS obtained in
the best sequential case.
MoVES, a Mobile Wireless Vehicular Envi-
ronment Simulator (Bononi et al., 2006) is also
parallel and distributed. Its idea is to distribute
subsets of the model entities to different proces-
sors that communicate via message passing.
The authors fnd that the parallel approach gives
good results when simulating massive wireless
vehicular networks.
Higher performance can also be achieved by
the use of hybrid simulators (Killat, 2007). The
authors present the results obtained for 2.500
to 3.000 vehicles in a scenario dedicated to the
analysis of the impact of the penetration rate of
radio-equipped vehicles on the average speed.
The speedup factor was 500 as compared to the
NS-2 simulation. The result is due to the use of
the hybrid simulation concept, which combines
the discrete-event simulation with analytical
traffc modeling.
As a general conclusion, developing a highly-
integrated simulator, with complex models for both
the vehicular mobility and the wireless commu-
nication has the advantage of higher accuracy but
has a severe impact on performance. Integrating
existing vehicular traffc simulators and network
simulators can lead to better performance but it
is not able to support more complex scenarios
involved in safety and traffc control applications.
Improvements can be achieved by parallelization,
which distributes the simulation task to different
computing resources, or by selecting a model that
reduces the computation load.
SIMULATION OF REPRESENTATIVE
CITY AND HIGHWAY APPLICATION
SCENARIOS
This section presents several simulation use
cases together with results obtained in realistic
simulation experiments performed with the VN-
Sim simulator. The way these results could be
exploited by VANET developers and users are
also highlighted.
An important class of applications that can be
deployed over VANETs is concerned with traffc
operations and maintenance: dynamic route plan-
ning, weather conditions publishing and adaptive
signal control in intersections.
Traffc Coordination in Intersections
Traffc coordination in intersections is a very
challenging and not enough studied topic. As
270
Simulation of VANET Applications
an example of a VANET application, we pres-
ent an adaptive traffc light system based on
wireless communication between vehicles and
fxed controller nodes deployed in intersections
(Gradinescu et al., 2007). We describe the steps
required to deploy such an application in VNSim.
Furthermore, we present the results showing sig-
nifcant improve of traffc fuency in intersections,
and the advantages over other architectures in
terms of cost and performance.
The goal of the VNSim project was to reduce
congestion and the number of accidents in inter-
sections by enabling wireless communication
between traffc lights and vehicles. In this way,
the traffc lights can get a real-time image of
the traffc, and make an informed decision on how
to set signal plans. As a secondary beneft, the
traffc lights can also detect dangerous situations
and alert drivers about the intersection status to
increase their awareness.
The following aspects need to be taken into
consideration when such an application is simu-
lated. First, there must be a data dissemination
system that supports the information fow from
vehicle to vehicle and to the traffc light. Based
on the TraffcView system (Dashtinezhad et. al
2004), data dissemination was designed so that
vehicles forward information about other vehicles
they know about (position, speed, direction) to
all the other vehicles in their range.
The simulation of this propagation scheme
in VNSim demonstrated that a lot of redundant
data is transmitted and a high data charge is
put on the network. Moreover, for large packet
size, the probability of the successful transmis-
sions decreases due to wireless interferences. A
solution is the use of aggregation mechanisms.
A possible method is the use of a probabilistic
scheme in which only some leader vehicle,
chosen randomly with a probability depending
on the traffc density, transmit the information.
The simulation experiments highlighted the great
decrease in the network load while preserving the
functionality of the solution.
The data dissemination algorithm supports
the implementation of the traffc light control
that establishes a signaling plan well suited for
the intersection. Considering the traffc light is a
node participating in the dissemination process, it
can gather traffc metric values (fows, delays) on
all the concurrent roads. Optimum cycle length
and green split phases are computed using traffc
engineering methods, such as Websters formula
(Gradinescu et. al 2007).
One of the simulation scenarios that were used
to analyze the effciency of the algorithm was a
4-way intersection in Bucharest during rush hour.
As shown in Figure 5, the intersection recovered
sooner from congestion when using the adap-
tive strategy described above, compared to the
pre-timed system deployed in the intersection.
The total delay measured for all vehicles was
decreased by 28%.
An additional component of the VNSim
simulator is the module for estimating the pol-
lutant emissions and fuel consumption, which
considers the particular behavior of each vehicle
speed and acceleration. This feature was used in
Figure 4. Traffc lights and vehicles communicate
to improve traffc effciency
0
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300
400
500
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Pre-timed Adaptive - Ideal Adaptive - Real
Figure 5. Average control delay in intersection
271
Simulation of VANET Applications
this application to demonstrate the benefts of the
adaptive solution due to increased traffc fuency:
6.5 % improvements in fuel consumption and CO
2

emissions were measured.
Collaborative Route Computation
Finding the best route to destination in congested
roads traffc is a major challenge in the attempt
to improve traffc conditions. Collaborative route
planning is the second VANET application we
use to show how ad-hoc communications can
improve the driving experience.
The simulation of a collaborative, dynamic
routing application requires several features
from the simulation tool. First, in order to study
a congested roads network, a large number of
vehicles, moving on a large map, should be sup-
ported. Therefore, the simulators performance
and scalability are crucial. Furthermore, this kind
of application supposes that the mobility of the
vehicles is infuenced by the application itself:
if drivers fnd out, by using the VANET route
planning application, that a road is less congested,
then they might change their initial path in order
to take advantage of this information. A simulator
which does not integrate the vehicular mobility
module with the application module will not be
able to represent dynamic route changes.
Diaconescu et al. (2007) used VNSim in order
to study the dynamic route computation problem.
The authors discuss two different approaches. The
frst is to exclusively use the ad-hoc network for
all the information exchanges. The second ap-
proach is based on the existence of fxed nodes,
placed in intersections, which also participate to,
and facilitate the communication.
In the frst approach, each driver frst com-
putes a route towards its destination. This initial
computation is based on distance, on the roads
types, and on the assumption that drivers tend to
prefer the main roads. After this initial computa-
tion, the driver starts the journey. Along the way,
periodically, queries about the traffc conditions
ahead are sent via the ad-hoc network. Depend-
ing on the replies (for example, the reception of
information about traffc jams ahead), re-calcula-
tions of the route occur.
The simulation experiments showed that global
improvements in travel times occur when only a
percentage of the vehicles use the algorithm, not all
of them. When all vehicles change their route, the
traffc jam moves to another road. Starting from
this observation, the authors suggested the use of
fxed-nodes placed in intersections, which are able
to communicate with vehicles and, at the same
time, are inter-connected through a separate high-
speed network. Of course, this solution requires
a more extensive infrastructure. In large cities, a
large part of this infrastructure might already be
present. The fxed-nodes gather information about
the actual traffc (number of vehicles traveling)
on each road and execute a collaborative route
planning with the other fxed nodes. The results
are sent to the vehicles in proximity informing
them about the best routes.
Highway Lane Reservation
An innovative VANET application was proposed
in (Ravi et al., 2007). The authors argue that
time guarantees of other means of transportation
(like train or plane) can be incorporated into the
highway system. The idea is to allow drivers to
reserve an entry slot onto dedicated lanes of a
highway by paying a premium price. Reservations
will be allowed for these lanes up to their carrying
capacity, so that the dedicated lanes will never
become jammed and the system can guarantee
the trip duration between any two highway points,
in the absence of accidents.
The general architecture of the system is shown
in Figure 6. The proposed system is complex and is
made up of several subsystems. First, a reservation
system is required to allow users make advance
reservations of time-slots on the dedicated lanes.
Then, an enforcement system is needed to ensure
that only drivers with valid reservations travel on
272
Simulation of VANET Applications
the dedicated lanes. This could be achieved by
using RFID tags located on vehicles, and RFID
readers placed on the highway.
The lane entrance must be assisted by a
VANET. More specifc, since the dedicated lane
will often be used at near-to-maximum capacity,
it is important that vehicles that enter or leave the
lane do not create disruptions in the traffc fow
on this lane. In order to allow smooth entering
and leaving, a VANET protocol can be designed.
For example, the car that wants to enter the lane
will send a request to a vehicle already on the
lane, asking for permission to enter.
In order to evaluate such a large-scale system,
a proper simulation tool is needed. It should be
scalable enough to be able to simulate a large-scale
highway traffc scenario. Furthermore, emulating
the application code run by each node would also
be required. The authors plan to investigate the
possibility of using VNSim in order to study and
validate a lane reservation system.
CONCLUSION
This chapter discussed the simulation of VANET
applications. The focus was on the new trends
in communication protocols and traffc models,
and on new facilities incorporated in simulation
tools. The advances in the VANET technology and
protocols support the adoption and use of more
complex mobility models and of more fexible and
adaptable traffc controls. VANETs have specifc
characteristics such as the rapid topology changes
or the changes in the vehicles mobility as reac-
tion to traffc changes. Obviously, these changes
must be captured by the simulation models, which
become more or less complicated and include
more elements that constrain the vehicle mobility:
maps, real traffc conditions (congestion), driver
behavior, fuel consumption, pollutant emissions,
etc. Recent research referenced in this chapter
targeted the validation of these models and the
exploitation of their facilities in different applica-
tions. Realistic models, such as those used in lane
reservation, were proposed and will eventually
constitute the subject of further research.
In order to more accurately evaluate the traffc
control applications, more powerful microscopic
simulator tools have been developed. The tools
integrate the network communication model and
the traffc / mobility model, and facilitate the
interfacing with the core application modules.
One drawback is the high time consumption re-
quired by simulation experiments besides other
aspects like usability and fexibility. Since micro-
scopic simulators demonstrated their utility in the
VANET applications design process, the increase
of tool performance, scalability, and fexibility
will be subjects to future research work.
The technological progress will stimulate
new applications aiming to improve the traffc
safety and control strategies. More vehicles will
be equipped with GPS receivers, communication
devices compatible with different protocols (for
example DSRC), radars for identifying neighbors
positions, equipment for storing digital maps,
etc. These and other similar components will
facilitate the development of more complex safety
applications (like imminent collision warning,
obstacle detection, collision avoidance, etc.) and
Figure 6. Lane reservation general architecture
273
Simulation of VANET Applications
traffc control applications (like traffc congestion
avoidance, traffc lights control, route computa-
tion, etc.). Obviously, the role of simulation in
the evaluation of different solutions will become
even more important.
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