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Table 4
Scientic approaches to re history and past re regimes using re proxies related to indirect re effects on sediment ux or post-re reactions of organisms.
domain of analysis type of information on fire
spatial temporal
k
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g
d
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m
scientific field specific approach, proxy, fire indicator, biomarker, marker
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lichenometry fire resetting of lichen clock, characteristics of lichen populations as bioindicators of fire history unb l
analysis of pollen assemblages, presence of fire-tolerant species unv-var-pea-roc-etc h
percentage of grass pollen, AP/NAP, total arboreal pollen influx var l
cultural or anthropogenic pollen indicator (API), pollen indicators of slash-and-burn cultivation soi-flu-var-unv-pea m
palynology,
paleomycology
spores of pyrophilous and coprophilous fungi and other non-pollen palynomorphs (NPP) pea-soi-aeo-arc-etc m
uncharred plant macrofossils, permineralised plant macrofossils flu-unv-roc-pea-soi l palaeobotany of
uncharred plant fossils phytoliths assemblages (uncharred phytoliths) roc-soi-flu-aeo-etc m
water acidity (pH), lake-water pH, alkalinity pulses due to increased fire activity unv l
phosphorus concentrations (estimated as a function of diatom assemblages) var l
species assemblage and richness, diatom concentration, benthic to planktonic ratio unv-var l
phycology
(chrysophytes, algae,
diatoms, etc.)
quantification of sedimentary pigments with high performance liquid chromatography var-unv l
p
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t
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f
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g
i
study of peat profiles initiation of peat formation, variation in peat and carbon accumulation rates, hiatus in profiles pea l
fossil insect remains (Coleoptera, pyrophilous insects, etc.) in fire-related layers pea l
palaeoentomology
study of chironomid assemblages and stratigraphy (aquatic insects: Diptera, Chironomidae) unv l
paleomalacology biostratigraphy of fossil land snails and malacofaunas, decline of shade-demanding taxa roc-arc-soi l
vertebrate taphonomy indirect fire-induced massive mortalities, unburned skeletal deposits roc-flu-unv l
biosedimentology bioturbation interruption due to increased sedimentation rate following fire events roc-mar-flu l
a
n
i
m
a
l
biodiversity present biodiversity revealing some characteristics of past fire regimes unb l
fire-induced increases in avalanche activity unb l
fire-induced increases in gelifluction or solifluction activity aeo-soi l
fire-induced permafrost dynamics (degradation or aggradation) and thermokarst features pea-soi l
periglacial
sedimentology,
cryostratigraphy,
geocryology
fire-induced shallow landslides in slopes underlain by permafrost soi-col l
peaks in fire-related mass movement processes (debris-flows, mudslides, landslides, etc.) roc-flu m
geomorphic impact of fire (asymmetric hanging valley, asymmetric slopes, etc.) roc-soi-col l
sedimentation rates, fire-induced erosion and sedimentation episodes, varve thickness var-flu l
sediment granulometry, grain size, particle size distribution unv-pea l
loss-on-ignition (LOI), imput of mineral sediment, organic / inorganic matter ratio unv-roc-flu-pea l
archaeomagnetism, magnetic measurements (magnetic susceptibility, etc.) var-unv-soi-aeo m
wind erosion, aeolian sedimentation, dune activity, datation of mobilization (OSL on quartz) aeo-soi-pea-unv l
physical sedimentology
14
C dating anomalies caused by erosion after fire events unv l
silicon and titanium in peat profiles as indicators of erosion pea l
changes in total organic carbon (TOC) assessed by near infrared spectroscopy var-unv l
m
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chemical sedimentology,
geochemistry
substances indicating the amount of rock-forming material washing into the lake pea-var-unv l
For every approach we present the typical spatial and temporal domain of analysis, the degree of diffusion and utilization in the scientic community, and the types of information on past re regime achievable.
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According to Tolonen (1983) re history from peat is generally less
powerful than that from lake sediments. In mires and bogs only
local res may leave detectable carbon horizons, and often only
where the drier margins of the peat have burned. In addition, mires
and bogs may burn during dry periods, leading to a substantial loss
of information. Nevertheless peat sequences may provide very
helpful insights where lacustrine sequences are lacking.
The mainproblems that the sedimentaryapproachstill has to face
are the lack of standardization of methods (sample preparation
techniques, charcoal identication, methods of charcoal quantica-
tion, and sample calibration, see the reviews in Patterson et al., 1987;
MacDonald et al., 1991; Novakov et al., 1997; Rhodes, 1998; Whitlock
and Larsen, 2001) and limitations to the degree of spatial, temporal
and event resolution that it can provide (Carcaillet et al., 2001;
Whitlock and Larsen, 2001). Charcoal analysts have developed tech-
niques to tackle these problems that vary in their approaches to site
selection, laboratory techniques and statistical analyses (see below).
Charcoal may have local (within the watershed), extra-local
(just outside the watershed), regional (distant), continental or even
global origin depending on release (e.g. particle size), transport (e.g.
air convection) and deposition (e.g. basin size) conditions. Patter-
son et al. (1987) suggested that the most useful records for recon-
structing local res are small lakes and forest clearings. According
to Patterson et al. (1987) and Clark et al. (1998), charcoal particle
size distribution may be used to help determine the distance of the
source; large particles are likely to indicate a nearby source.
Generally, it is assumed that microscopic charcoal (or micro-
charcoal) particles (ca 10200 mm length) may be windborne over
long distances from the deposition site and therefore mostly reect
regional re history (Clark, 1988b; Clark and Royall, 1995; Tinner
et al., 1998; Blackford, 2000). On the contrary, macrocharcoal
particles (ca >100200 mm length) are usually not transported far
from res, and are likely suitable for reconstructing local re events
(Clark, 1988b; Clark and Royall, 1995; Carcaillet et al., 2001; Whit-
lock and Larsen, 2001). This assumption is based on calibration
studies (e.g. Clark, 1989, 1990; MacDonald et al., 1991; Millspaugh T
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Table 6
Chemical substances used as chemical markers and re proxies in re history
reconstruction.
Chemical group Chemical species (or subgroup)
Monosaccharide
anhydrides
Levoglucosan, galactosan, mannosan
Lignin phenols Vanillin, vanillic acid, syringyl aldehyde,
syringic acid, etc.
Resin acids and derivatives Dehydroabietic acid,
methyl dehydroabietate, etc.
Phytosterols b-Sitosterol
Triterpenoids a-Amyrone and b-amyrone
Polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons
PAHs, retene, pyrene, uoranthene, coronene,
benzo[e]pyrene, etc.
Fullerenes C
60
and C
70
Dibenzofurans PCDDs (dioxins)
PCDFs (furans)
Heterocyclic nitrogen
compounds
Pyrrole-type molecules
Pyridine-type molecules
Heavy carboxylic acids Benzenepolycarboxylic acids (BPCAs)
Light carboxylic acids Oxalic acid, oxalate, glycolic acid, glycolate, etc.
Simple ions Cation ammonium (NH
4
),
anion formate (HCO
2