What Is Critical Reading?

Note: These remarks are primarily directed at non-fictional texts.

Retrieved from: an !"rland#s $$$.criticalreading.com on %e&r"ary '()
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%acts v. Interpretation
To non -critical readers, texts provide facts. Readers gain knowledge by memorizing the
statements within a text.
To the critical reader, any single text provides but one portrayal of the facts, one individuals
take! on the sub"ect matter. #ritical readers thus recognize not only what a text says, but also
how that text portrays the sub"ect matter. They recognize the various ways in which each and
every text is the uni$ue creation of a uni$ue author.
% non-critical reader might read a history book to learn the facts of the situation or to discover an
accepted interpretation of those events. % critical reader might read the same work to appreciate
how a particular perspective on the events and a particular selection of facts can lead to particular
understanding.
What a Text ,ays) oes) and -eans: Reaching for an Interpretation
&on-critical reading is satisfied with recognizing what a text says and restating the key remarks.
#ritical reading goes two steps further. 'aving recognized what a text says, it reflects on what the
text does by making such remarks. (s it offering examples) %rguing) %ppealing for sympathy)
*aking a contrast to clarify a point) +inally, critical readers then infer what the text, as a whole,
means, based on the earlier analysis.
These three steps or modes of analysis are reflected in three types of reading and discussion,
-hat a text says . restatement
-hat a text does . description
-hat a text means . interpretation .
/ou can distinguish each mode of analysis by the sub"ect matter of the discussion,
-hat a text says . restatement . talks about the same topic as the original text
-hat a text does . description . discusses aspects of the discussion itself
-hat a text means . interpretation 0 analyzes the text and asserts a meaning for the text
as a whole
.oals of Critical Reading
Textbooks on critical reading commonly ask students to accomplish certain goals,
to recognize an authors purpose
to understand tone and persuasive elements
to recognize bias
&otice that none of these goals actually refers to something on the page. 1ach re$uires inferences
from evidence within the text,
recognizing purpose involves inferring a basis for choices of content and language
recognizing tone and persuasive elements involves classifying the nature of language
choices
recognizing bias involves classifying the nature of patterns of choice of content and
language
#ritical reading is not simply close and careful reading. To read critically, one must actively
recognize and analyze evidence upon the page.
/nalysis and Inference: The Tools of Critical Reading
These web pages are designed to take the mystery out of critical reading. They are designed to
show you $hat to look for 0 analysis 1 and ho$ to think a&o"t $hat yo" find 0 inference 1 .
The first part 0what to look for0 involves recognizing those aspects of a discussion that control
the meaning.
The second part 0how to think about what you find0 involves the processes of inference, the
interpretation of data from within the text.
Recall that critical reading assumes that each author offers a portrayal of the topic. #ritical reading
thus relies on an examination of those choices that any and all authors must make when framing a
presentation, choices of content, language, and structure. Readers examine each of the three areas
of choice, and consider their effect on the meaning.
Choice: Texts
%s with photography, all written expression involves choices. (magine you are seated before a
blank page. -hat choices must be made)
+or openers you have to say something. -hether you start with an observation, a statement of
belief, or simply a thought, you have to say something. -e2ll call that content.
'aving decided on something to say, you have to decide how to phrase your remark. -hat words
will you use) 3ifferent terminology, after all, can change the meaning of a remark. -ill you claim
someone cheated, bent the rules, or committed a crime) -ill you refer to 4resident 5ill #linton,
-illiam 6efferson #linton, or *onika2s 5ill) -e2ll call that a choice of language.
+inally, you cannot simply rattle off disconnected remarks. 7-ell, you could, but they would have
little meaning89 The remarks must be related to one another, from sentence to sentence and within
the discussion as a whole. -e2ll call that structure,
#ritical readers are consciously aware of the choice of content They look at the content, at the
evidence marshaled for an argument, the illustrations used to explain ideas, and the details
presented within a description. That uni$ueness is defined by choices of content, language and
structure. . They distinguish between assertions of fact, opinion, and belief. They are aware
whether evidence consists of references to published data, anecdotes, or speculation, and they
evaluate the persuasiveness of a text accordingly.
#ritical readers are aware of ho$ lang"age is &eing "sed. They notice whether a text refers to
someone as a :bean counter: 7no respect9 or :an academic statistician: 7suggesting
professionalism9, whether some is said to have :asserted a claim: 7with confidence, and no need
for proof9 or :floated a claim: 7without backing, as a trial balloon9. %nd they draw inferences
from the choice of language they observe.
#ritical readers are aware of the str"ct"re of a disc"ssion, both in terms of the movement of
ideas from beginning to end and in terms of the relationship of ideas throughout the discussion.
They distinguish between assertions offered as reason or conclusion, cause or effect, evidence or
illustration. They recognize patterns of contrast and distinguish whether contrasting ideas are
shown to be dissimilar, competing, or contradictory.
%ll authors confront three areas of choice,
the choice of content
the choice of language
the choice of structure
#hoices must be made in each of these areas, and each choice contributes to the thought of the text
as a whole.
&ote that we do not list elements such as tone, style, perspective, purpose, and message. -hile
these are all useful perspectives for discussing texts, they are all based on, and reflect, the choice
of content, language, and structure.
Implications %or Reading
To non-critical readers, texts provide facts. ;nowledge comes from memorizing the statements
within a text. To the critical reader, any single text provides but one portrayal of the facts, one
individual2s take! on the sub"ect. The content of a text reflects what an author takes as the facts
of the matter.! 5y examining these choices, readers recognize not only what a text says, but also
how the text portrays the sub"ect matter.
The first step in an analysis of a text, then, must be to look at the content, at the evidence
marshaled for an argument, the illustrations used to explain ideas, and the details presented within
a description. &ot that any particular author<text is necessarily wrong. -e simply recognize the
degree to which each and every text is the uni$ue creation of a uni$ue author. That uni$ueness is
defined by choices of content, language and structure.
#ritical reading thus relies on an analysis of choices of content, language, and structure.
#ritical readers are consciously aware of the act of choice underlying the content. They
distinguish between assertions of fact, opinion, and belief. They are aware whether
evidence consists of references to published data, anecdotes, or speculation, and they
evaluate the persuasiveness of a text accordingly.
#ritical readers are aware of how language is being used. They notice whether a text
refers to someone as a bean counter 7no respect9 or an academic statistician 7suggesting
professionalism9, whether some is said to have asserted a claim 7with confidence, and no
need for proof9 or floated a claim 7without backing, as a trial balloon9. %nd they draw
inferences from the choice of language they observe.
#ritical readers are aware of the structure of a discussion, both in terms of the movement
of ideas from beginning to end and in terms of the relationship of ideas throughout the
discussion. They distinguish between assertions offered as reason or conclusion, cause or
effect, evidence or illustration. They recognize patterns of contrast and distinguish
whether contrasting ideas are shown to be dissimilar, competing, or contradictory.
These web pages examine each of the three areas of choice. They considers their effect on the
meaning, and how readers might identify and respond to them.
Implications %or Writing
/our first step as a writer is to generate some content, to put forth assumptions, evidence, and
arguments that you can then defend and from which you can draw conclusions.
'aving generated some initial discussion, the task as editor is then to ad"ust the discussion to
assure that it presents a coherent, consistent, and comprehensive discussion %s we shall see in
#hapter Twelve, what we take as evidence lies at the basis of all argument, and shapes and
predetermines the outcome of an argument.
-riting is ultimately concerned with
what we say 7content9,
how we say it 7language9, and
the flow from one assertion to another, how ideas connect to one another to convey
broader meaning 7structure9.
-e may initially write in an unstructured manner, concerned simply with getting some ideas on the
page rather than in creating a finished document right off the bat. Revision and editing then
focuses on two concerns,
correcting spelling, grammar, and punctuation
ensuring a coherent flow of ideas.
To ensure a coherent flow of ideas, we must focus on the three areas of choice,
providing appropriate and sufficient arguments and examples)
choosing terms that are precise, appropriate, and persuasive)
making clear the transitions from one thought to another and assured the overall logic of
the presentation
-e edit to assure the content and language and structure. %n increased awareness of the impact of
choices of content, language, and structure can help students develop habits of rewriting and
revision.
Choices: The Choice of Content
4eople obtain information and ideas from many sources. They meet people, attend classes, and
overhear conversations. They watch television, listen to the radio, read newspapers, and surf the
(nternet. =ome information they gain vicariously, some they seek out. They experience some
things first-hand, on their own> others they experience second-hand, through the reports of others.
%ny two people will have different experiences. They will be in different places and see different
things. They will meet different people and be influenced by different values and information.
They will come to be interested in different topics, concerned with different issues, and hold
different beliefs.
+rom our uni$ue knowledge and experience, we each make sense of the world. -e come to accept
different assertions as :the facts: of the matter. -e make evaluations, form opinions, assert
priorities, and arrive at conclusions. -e reach0and preach0different perceptions and
understandings of the world.
2xample: /merica
(magine someone asked to list examples of %merican culture. They might mention the space
shuttle, rap music, :6eopardy,: teen pregnancy, or ?ittle ?eague baseball. %ll of these are examples
of %merican culture, yet each portrays %merica differently. The picture offered depends on the
evidence chosen. %merica is all of them, you say) 5ut it is also so much more. %ny list would be
incomplete, but one portrayal of reality1xample, Time #apsules.
2xample: 3eard#s 4istory
%t one time, many considered #harles 5eard2sA Basic History of the United Statesthe authoritative
text in its field. =tudents wanting to know %merican history read 5eard. %t some point in each
student2s career, however, each came to the realization that 5eard2s history of the @nited =tates
offered "ust that0notthehistory of the @nited =tates, butBeard'shistory of the @nited =tates. 5eard,
himself, was $uite aware of the sub"ectivity of his own work,
Every student of history knows that his colleagues have been influenced in their selection and
ordering of materials by their biases, preudices, beliefs, affections, general upbringing, and
e!perience " " " " Every written history#of a village, town, county, state, nation, race, group, class,
idea or the wide world#is a selection and arrangement of facts, of recorded fragments of past
actuality" And the selection and arrangement of facts#a combined and comple! intellectual
operation#is an act of choice, conviction, and interpretation respecting values, is an act of
thought" $acts, multitudinous and beyond calculation, are known, but they do not select
themselves or force themselves automatically into any fi!ed scheme of arrangement in the mind of
the historian" %hey are selected and ordered by him as he thinks"
&harles Beard, '(ritten History as an Act of $aith,'American Historical )eview, vol" *+, no" ,, p" ,,-"
?ike any other text, 5eard2s offers but one of many credible accounts and interpretations. -e can
expect no more.
@sing the notion of fiction to suggest the extent to which all authors must transmit their own
vision of the world, another writer observed,
)eality presents a random, infinite supply of details, and the ob of writers#whether you consider
yourself a historian, a biographer, or a novelist#is similar. to create a coherent narrative" /ou
can't select everything, and in making choices, thus putting an emphasis here and diminishing it
there, you invariably move into the realm of fiction" 01ay 2arini, 34elving 5nto the (orld of
4reams by Blending $act and $iction,6 %he &hronicle of Higher Education, $ebruary ,7, 8++9,
p" B:";
% recent high school %merican history text, 5uild Aur &ation, covers the 3epression 1ra and the
entire term of 4resident Roosevelt in thirty-three lines. An the other hand, it devotes two full pages
to 5altimore Arioles shortstop #al Ripken, 6r.2s breaking of ?ou Behrig2s (ron *an! record for
consecutive baseball games played. -hat image of %merica do these examples, taken together,
portray)
2xample: 3reast %eeding
%he <ew /ork %imes posed the following $uestion,
%he American Academy of 2ediatrics recommends that babies be breast=fed for at least one year
and beyond ' for as long as mutually desired"' 4o you agree>
The opposing answers appear below.
/1=
Ruth %. ?awrence, *.3.
4rofessor of 4ediatrics, @niversity of Rochester
Aur society has been so critical of women who have nursed beyond one year. (t is perfectly
normal. (t is done around the world and has been for centuries. 5abies wean at different times> in
fact, many anthropologists think the normal time to breast-feed is about four years. (n multiple
studies, we find that babies who are breast-fed beyond one year, instead of clinging to their
mothers, are stable, self-assured children. The sexualization of the breast does not occur in this age
group under ordinary circumstances. 5abies associate the breast with nourishment and have no
reaction that may be considered sexual. %s for the father2s role, it is e$ual but different. 1very baby
needs a non-nutritive cuddler. That2s the father.
&A
6oan ;. 4eters
%uthor, :-hen -omen -ork, ?oving Aur #hildren -ithout =acrificing Aur =elves:
?ate nursing limits the father2s involvement and means that the husband can2t take on some of the
most intimate child-rearing tasks. 'is parenting is not about that close bonding, making it harder
for him to participate. ?ate nursing is also difficult for working women. -hen CC percent of
mothers of children under C work, who is available in that way and who wants to create that kind
of dependence that such nursing engenders) (t may be medically correct, but all decisions about
children must be weighed, medical vs. social vs. psychological. -hat is best for a family must be
considered, and that includes what is best for a child, because ultimately it means what is going to
create the happiest atmosphere.
:4ro D #on, -hen to =ay -hen To 5reast-+eeding,:%he <ew /ork %imes, &ovember EF, GHHI. p. 3I.
-hat are we to make of the disagreement) (ndeed, why do the two respondents differ)
The answer comes in examining the nature of the pattern of examples they each offer. The first
looks at the effect on the baby, arguing that the practice is accepted as in the baby2s best interest by
the world, anthropologists, and studies. (t re"ects arguments related to adverse affects on sexuality
and a denial of the father2s role in the baby2s life.
The second looks at the effect on the parents and parenting, in fact granting the medical argument
that it might be in the baby2s best interests.
(n each case, the choice of content both determines and reflects the overall perspective and
understanding.
Choices: The Choice of 5ang"age
6ust as authors must choose what to say, they must choose how to say it. The choice of content and
language are closely related. #hoices of content and language reflect and reinforce each other.
An %ugust JG, GHHI, after an unprecedented three-year period of rising prices, the stock market
dropped KGJ points, the second largest point 7as against percentage9 drop in history at that time.
+or @=% Today, it was an exciting day at the office,
The 3ow 6ones industrial average Lthe most common stock market performance indicatorM plunged
KGJ points *onday, erasing all of its GHHI gains as investors fled a global crisis that is upending
the longest-running bull market in history.
The 3ow2s C.FN decline to OKJH brought its six-week loss to GH.JN, less than GN shy of an
official bear LsellingM market. (t now is down KN for GHHI. 3amage was even greater in the
broader markets> the &asda$ composite Lanother stock performance indicatorM dropped GFP points,
or I.CN, to GFHH in its worst-ever point decline.
:3ow2s yearly gain gone on -all =treet,:USA %oday, =eptember G, GHHI,
http,<<www.usatoday.com<money<mphotof.htm. updated PE,EG %* 1T.
% reliance on statistics lends an ob"ective tone to the coverage. &evertheless, the pattern of terms
plunged? erasing? fled ?upending ?down ?dropped ?worst=ever point decline
clearly emphasizes the fall of the market.
Ather newspapers viewed the event differently. The opening paragraphs of the news articles below
provide essentially the same information 7content9, but they tell somewhat different stories,
implying different implications and conse$uences. +or the %ustin %merican-=tatesman, it was a
particularly dramatic day,
The stock market2s summer swoon turned into a dramatic rout *onday as the 3ow 6ones industrial
average plunged more than KPP points, its second-worst point drop in history. =tocks now teeter on
the edge of their first bear market since GHHP.
6ames +. 4eltz, :3ow dives KGE points,:Austin American Statesman, =eptember G, GHHI, p. G.
The selection of dramatic terms 7summer swoonQ dramatic routQplungedQ teeter on the
edgeQ9 cannot be missed. % writer for The &ew /ork Times saw the event in a more
psychological vein,
Bloom, fear, pain and $ueasiness. %round the nation, anxieties ran high yesterday as investors big
and small watched the "agged lines fall and much of the year2s profits evaporate in a breathtaking
KGE-point plunge on -all =treet. *any called it scary, but almost no one seemed ready to panic.
Robert 3. *c+adden, :(t2s 3isturbing, to 4ut (t *ildly, 5ut (nvestors =ay They2ll 'old An,:%he
<ew /ork %imes, =eptember G, GHHI, p. G.
Bloom, fear, pain and $ueasinessQanxietiesQbreathtakingQ plungeQ scaryQpanic. The choices
of content and language focus more on the reaction of investors than on the stock market itself. %
pattern of terms of adverse psychological feelings is apparent. The choice of terms invariably
shapes how a topic is portrayed. %ll of the above articles convey the fact that the stock market
dropped significantly. %ll of the articles also interpret the significance of that drop through their
choice of language. (ndeed, there is no way to convey the information without coloring the report
in some way8 To use bland language would itself downplay the significance of the event.
The stock market average dropped KGJ points yesterday. (t had dropped by more once before.
'ow we say something is often as important as what we say.
Choices: The Choice of ,tr"ct"re
The third area of choice open to an author, and hence the third area to focus when analyzing and
constructing texts, involves structure.
'ere we look at two meanings of structure, following the two parts of analysis. The first sense of
structure we examine is in the sense of parts coming together to form a larger unit. The second
sense is in terms of the relationships between parts.
Recogni6ing 7arts
%nalysis makes sense of something by breaking it into parts. (nstead of examining a whole all at
one time, we examine smaller, more isolated portions.
#onsider the following string of letters,
889988998899998888999888999
To make sense of the whole, we try to break it into more manageable, and hopefully more
meaningful, parts. (nitially we might see clusters of letters within the string,
88 99 88 99 88 9999 8888 999 888 999
+rom one perspective, we have gro"ped similar elements together, R2s with ad"acent R2s and A2s
with ad"acent A2s. +rom another perspective, we have separated the whole into parts, either R2s or
A2s. 1ither way, we break the whole into parts. -riters use this process when they signal
the boundary of words with spaces,
the boundaries of sentences with periods,
the boundaries of paragraphs with indentation,
the boundaries of sections with headings
Readers use this model when they group words within a sentence into phrases or group paragraphs
of a text into larger sections.
+rom another perspective, we can analyze the earlier string as patterns 7of R2s or A2s9 running
throughout the string.
88 88 88 8888 888
99 99 9999 999 999
-e use this model when examining patterns of content or language usage throughout a portion of a
text. (n the above example, we recognize that certain elements go together to form parts or
patterns. 4art and parcel of this action is recognizing how those elements go together0and giving
them a name. -hen we group items we classify them under a common heading. -e recognize
what they have in common and how they differ from other items. -ith texts, we talk about kinds
of evidence, kinds of language usage, kinds of structure. %s we shall see in detail below, much of
critical reading depends on not only seeing what the examples are, but what the examples are
examples of.
Recogni6ing Relationships
+orming parts is only the first step in analysis. -e must then recognize how the parts are related to
each other.
(n the discussion here, we are concerned with
how $ords are related to form phrases and sentences
how sentences are related to form paragraphs
how paragraphs are related to form complete texts , and
how patterns of content and lang"age are related to shape the tho"ght of a text as a
$hole .
The first case, grouping words to find meaning within sentences, involves the study of 1nglish
grammar 7see the %ppendix9. The remaining cases can be discussed in terms of the same set of
relationship categories. The primary relationships of concern throughout our discussion are,
elements in a series , a listing of similar items, often in a distinct order, whether in terms
of location, size, importance, etc.
time order or chronological listing , a series of events in order of occurrence
general:specific relationship , examples and generalizations
comparison , similarity and<or difference 7contrast9
logical relationships , reason<conclusion, cause<effect, and conditional relationship
between factors
Inference: Reading Ideas as Well as Words
(deally, speakers mean what they say and say what they mean. =poken communication is not that
simple. *uch of what we understand0whether when listening or reading0we understand
indirectly, by inference. ?istening involves a complex combination of hearing words, analyzing
sentence structure, and attempting to find meaning within the context of the given situation.
The situation with the written word is no different. % text does not contain a meaning.
Readersconstructmeaning by what they take the words to mean and how they process sentences to
find meaning.Readers draw on their knowledge of the language and of conventions of social
communication. They also draw on other factors, such as knowledge of the author 7-ould 'enry
say such a thing)9, the occasion 7&o one knew such things then8!9, or the audience 7'ed never
admit that publicly.!9 They infer unstated meanings based on social conventions, shared
knowledge, shared experience, or shared values. They make sense of remarks by recognizing
implications and drawing conclusions.
Readers read ideas more than words, and infer, rather than find, meaning.
Inferring -eaning
#onsider the following statement,
%he Senator admitted owning the gun that killed his wife"
An the face of it, we have a simple statement about what someone said. Aur understanding,
however, includes much that is not stated. -e find meaning embedded in the words and phrases.
@npacking that meaning, we can see that the =enator was married and his wife is now dead0
although this is not actually stated as such. 7(n fact, the sentence is about an admission of gun
ownership.9 (t is as though the single sentence contains a number of assertions,
There is a =enator.
'e owns a gun.
'e is married.
'is wife is dead.
That gun caused her death.
The =enator admitted owning that gun.
#learly, the original sentence is a clearer and simpler way of conveying all of this information.
-riters take note8
An a more subtle level, we recognize that a public figure confronts involvement in a ma"or crime.
Aur understanding need not stop there. -e infer that the gun 7or at least a bullet9 has probably
been recovered and identified as the murder weapon0or the notion of an admission would make
little sense.
-e also recognize the danger of unwarranted inferences. -e recognize that we do not necessarily
know if the =enator2s admission is true. -e do not really know whether the =enator is in any way
responsible for his wife2s death, nor do we know that she died of gun shot wounds 7she could have
been hit over the head with the gun9. -e do not even know if it was murder0it might have been
suicide or an accident.
%re we reading things in here) Ar are these meanings truly within the sentence) -e are going
beyond that the textsays, but not beyond what it actuallymeansto most readers.
(nferences such as these are essential to both written and spoken communication. -riters often
only hint at what they mean, and mean much more than they actually seem to say. An the other
hand, we can see the danger 7and temptation9 of assuming facts or interpretations for which
evidence is not present, and recognize that a critical reader reads with an open mind, open to many
possible interpretations.
The following story is often presented as a brain twister. (n fact, its a reading exercise.
% man and his son are driving in a car. The car crashes into a tree, killing the father and seriously
in"uring his son. %t the hospital, the boy needs to have surgery. @pon looking at the boy, the doctor
says 7telling the truth9, :( cannot operate on him. 'e is my son.:
'ow can this be) 3ecide on your answer before reading further.
-hether this passage is a brain twister or a reading passage, readers must assume that any lack of
understanding is not due to the story, but due to their own lack of understanding. -e must work
harder to think about how the story might make sense.
-e $uickly see that we have to explain how a doctor can have a son 7:( cannot operate on him. 'e
is my son.:9 when at the same time the father is dead 7The car crashes into a tree, killing the
father!9. The answer, The doctor is the boy2s mother. *any readers are blinded to this meaning by
the sexist assumption that the doctor must be a male.
% somewhat similar example has been offered by Robert =koglund, The 'umble +armer of 4ublic
Radio in *aine 7http<<www.The'umble+armer.com9, as follows,
-e had visitors a week or so ago. 'ouseguests. =ix of them. Ane of them was Ascar who teaches
geology at the @niversity in @trecht. &ow ( love houseguests. @sually. 5ut when they arrived (
discovered that two of them couldn2t even walk into the house. 'ad to be carried in. %nd then (
found out they couldn2t talk, either. -hat would you have done if you2d been in my place) 'ow do
you handle a situation like that)
=ee the end of the page for possibly the most appropriate advice.
Implications %or Reading
%ll reading is an active, reflective, problem-solving process. -e do not simply read words> we
read ideas, thoughts that spring from the relationships of various assertions. The notion of
inference e$uations is particularly powerful in this regard. Readers can use the notion of inference
e$uations to test whether or not the ingredients for a given inferences are indeed present. To show
lying, for instance, a text must show that someone made a statement that they knew was incorrect
and that they made that assertion with the specific purpose of deception. (f they did not know it
was wrong at the time, its an error, not a lie. (f they did not make the statement for the specific
purpose of deception, we have a misstatement, not lying.
Implications %or Writing
The notion of inference e$uations is e$ually useful for writing.
-riters must assure that the ingredients of the e$uation are present and clear, and that the desired
relationships are signaled in a clear and effective way. %s writers, we must be aware that our
readers will interpret our thoughts.
-e must strive to make our meaning as clear as possible. -e must provide sufficient examples to
make our ideas clear, as well as to short-circuit undesired interpretations. -e must recognize what
evidence is necessary and sufficient for our purpose, and assure that it is included.
%nd we must choose our terms carefully for accuracy and clarity of meaning, and spell out our
exact thoughts in as much detail as possible. -e must recognize biases our readers might bring to
the text and explain and support our evidence as much as our conclusions
Restatement: Reading What a Text ,ays
Reading what a text says is more notable for what it does not include than for what it does.
Reading what a text says is concerned with basic comprehension, with simply following the
thought of a discussion. -e focus on understanding each sentence, sentence by sentence, and on
following the thought from sentence to sentence and paragraph to paragraph. There is no attempt
to assess the nature of the discussion and no concern for an overall motive or intent. Reading what
a text says is involved with rote learning.
Restatement generally takes the form of a summary, paraphrase, or prScis. Restatements should
avoid the same language as much as possible to avoid plagiarism and to show understanding.
Reading what a text says is common under a variety of circumstances,
when learning the definitions and concepts of a new discipline,
when there is agreement on the facts of a situation and their interpretation,
when a text is taken to offer a complete and ob"ective presentation, or
when the word of a specific author or source is accepted as authoritative.
Readers simply accept what a text states.
-hen first studying any academic topic, your initial goal will be to understand what others have
discovered before you. (ntroductory courses ask students to learn terms, concepts, and data of the
particular area of study. /ou are expected to use your imagination and your critical faculties to
understand the concepts> you are not expected to $uestion the assertions. The goal is to learn the
commonly accepted paradigm for discussing topics in that field of study.
+inally, remember that repeating the assertions of a text need not suggest a denial of critical
thinking, merely a postponing of, or preparation for, critical thinking.
escription: escri&ing What a Text oes
Read an essay about %(3=, and you think about %(3=. 5ut you can also think about the essay.
3oes it discuss preventive strategies or medical treatments) Ar both) 3oes it describe %(3=
symptoms or offer statistics) (s the disease presented as a contagious disease, a 5iblical scourge,
or an individual experience) -hat evidence is relied on) 3oes it $uote medical authorities or offer
anecdotes from everyday people) 3oes it appeal to reason or emotions) These are not $uestions
about what a textsays, but about what the textdoes"They are not about %(3=, but aboutthe
discussionof %(3=.
This second level of reading is concerned not only with understanding individual remarks, but also
with recognizing the structure of a discussion. -e examine what a text does to convey ideas. -e
might read this way to understand how an editorial "ustifies a particular conclusion, or how a
history text supports a particular interpretation of events.
%t the previous level of reading, restatement, we demonstrated comprehension by repeating the
thought of the text. 'ere we are concerned with describing the discussion,
what topics are discussed)
what examples and evidence are used)
what conclusions are reached)
-e want to recognize and describe how evidence is marshaled to reach a final position, rather than
simply follow remarks from sentence to sentence.
This level of reading looks at broad portions of the text to identify the structure of the discussion
as a whole. An completion, we can not only repeat what the text says, but can also describe what
the text does. -e can identify how evidence is used and how the final points are reached.
/ ;ariety of escriptive %ormats
'ere we look at various models for describing the development of thought within a discussion as a
whole. -e shift from a focus on the trees, if you will, to the forest.
Recogni6ing ,tr"ct"re: /n /nalogy
To a casual observer, a tennis match consists of one person serving the ball, another returning
itQ.over and over again. To someone who sees no structure, the game is simply a series of
disconnected events. To someone who understands a tennis game, play is divided into games,
games into sets, and sets into matches. The game has a structure. -e make sense of the game as a
whole by understanding each action within the overall structure of the match as a whole. -inning
a point, for instance, has different implications at different parts of the game. -inning a point may
be a minor occurrence early in the game, or match point at the end of the game.
6ust as a tennis match involves more than exchanging serves, a text consists of more than simply a
series of assertions. The notion of discussion, itself, suggests a starting point and a "ourney to other
ideas. ?et2s say an essay starts,
-e hold this truth to be self-evident, that all people are created e$ual.
-here could the discussion go from here)
it could
explain or explicateone of the topics mentioned,
-hat do we mean by created e$ual!) 1$ual how)
offer reasons or evidencefor the assertion,
'ow self-evident) -hy e$ual)
dra$ a concl"sion or inference
3oes this imply people should be treated, or how government should be formed)
look at related tho"ghts
Ather statements may or may not be truths, or may be truths but may not be self-evident.
examine historical examples
-hat role does this idea play in the +rench Revolution) The Russian Revolution) The
%merican Revolution)
% text could do any, all, or none of the above. (t all depends on where the author wants to go.
3ifferent authors will choose to follow different lines of argument and different paths for the
discussion to different conclusions. To fully understand the discussion as a whole, to understand
the remarks within the context and in relationship to each other, we must be aware of the direction
the discussion takes.
-hatever a text may say, however a text may be organized, readers assume that the material upon
the page is the realization of a plan. (f a text is well written, there is a logical structure to the
argument. There is a clear beginning and end, a clear starting point on which reader and writer can
agree, and a clear conclusion developed and supported by the earlier material. There is a clear
intent and purpose to the remarks and the overall organization. -e know where the author is
going, and can watch as the text progresses to a seemingly inevitable conclusion.
%s when on a trip, readers want to know the ultimate destination and how long it will take to get
there. %s they travel<read, they want to be able to recognize the route or plan. -e want to know
whether a story or article is one page or seventeen so that we might allocate our time and attention
effectively. The shorter the piece, the longer we might dwell on each argument. The longer the
piece, the more we might continue on when confused to see if the later material makes things
clearer. -e want to have a sense of where a text or argument ends so that we can see our progress
in perspective.
To recognize a plan we must possess a double awareness,
what the essay asserts about people and the world0what the text says
how the discussion within the essay is structured0what the text does
-e want to recognize an underlying strategy to the remarks, a se$uence by which remarks play
different roles in the development of the final thought. %s with the tennis match, we anticipate a
conclusion and try to recognize where we are at any step along the way.
/ ;ariety 9f escriptive %ormats
-hat a text :does: can be described in a variety of ways. 3ifferent models and terminologies view
the structure of texts differently. =ome models overlap one another, and aspects of a variety of
models can be brought to bear to capture insights about any single text.
'ere we look at five models.
5eginning, *iddle %nd 1nd *odel, #hanges (n Topic
The Relationship *odel
The Rhetorical *odel
The Role *odel
The Task *odel
These models are explained at 3escriptive +ormats, -ays to 3esribe a 3iscussion
%ll of these models have a common purpose, to describe the flow of discussion and<or indicate
how arguments are advanced. (n practice, you should draw on as many models as you can to
describe the structure of a presentation.
The ideas here should be familiar to most readers. The point is not that you must use all of these
models in a discussion of a text, but that models and terminologysuch as thiscan be used to
recognize and discuss what a text does at any point in the discussion.
&AT1, -e should note one additional factor. -e can often describe one remark in a variety of
ways. 6ust as a person may, at the same time, be a son, father, and brother to different people, or a
politician may hold views to the right of one politician and to the left of another politician, so a
single sentence can be described in a variety of ways.
% sentence may be a reason, an explanation, or a description in relationship to different remarks.
This is one reason for having a number of descriptive models. To truly describe something we
often have to describe if from a variety of perspectives and in a variety of different relationships to
other things.
2xample: / ,ol"tion
The following passage is from a chemistry textbook.
A S@AU%5@< is a mi!ture of two or more substances dispersed as molecules, atoms or ions rather
than as larger aggregates" 5f we mi! sand and water, the sand grains are dispersed in the waterB
since the grains are much larger than molecules, we call this mi!ture a suspension, not a solution"
After a while, the sand will settle to the bottom by gravity" 5magine doing this e!periment with
finer and finer grains" (hen the grains are small enough, they will not sink to the bottom, not
matter how long you wait" (e now have a colloidal dispersion" %hough we cannot see the
individual grains, the mi!ture appears cloudy in a strong beam of light C%yndall effectD" 5f,
however, we stir sugar with water, the grains disappear and the result is a liEuid that does not
scatter light any more than water itself" %his is a true solution, with individual sugar molecules
dispersed among the water molecules"
-hat have we here)
% =A?@T(A& is a mixture of two or more substances dispersed as molecules, atoms or ions rather
than as larger aggregates.
The passage opens with a definition of solution.! &ote that a solution is not simply a mixture of

two or more substances
but of
two or more substances dispersed as molecules, atoms or ions
-e must note the complete noun phrase.
The passage continues,
5f we mi! sand and water,
-e recognize the beginning of a hypothetical experiment, presumably as part of an explanation
the sand grains are dispersed in the waterB
further description of experiment.
since the grains are much larger than molecules,
reason
we call this mi!ture a suspension, not a solution"
%n alternative situation and alternative definition of a suspension
After a while, the sand will settle to the bottom by gravity"
continuing description of hypothetical experiment
5magine doing this e!periment with finer and finer grains"
continuing description of hypothetical experiment
(hen the grains are small enough, they will not sink to the bottom, not matter how long you wait"
same experiment, different size particles.
(e now have a colloidal dispersion"
and third definition, colloidal dispersion.
%hough we cannot see the individual grains, the mi!ture appears cloudy in a strong beam of light
C%yndall effectD"
further description of colloidal dispersion.
5f, however, we stir sugar with water,
additional change in experiment
the grains disappear and the result is a liEuid that does not scatter light any more than water
itself" %his is a true solution, with individual sugar molecules dispersed among the water
molecules"
final explication of a solution, emphasizing the size of the dispersed material as molecules.
% critical, self-aware reader thus reads on two dimensions, both what the text says and what it
does. (ndeed, each feeds the other recognition. 1ach is impossible without the other.
Implications %or Reading
% description of a presentation might draw on any or all of the previous models at various levels of
discussion. 3iffering perspectives might be employed at different levels of analysis.
The goal of each is the same, to isolate elements that shape how ideas are portrayed within the
discussion. -e can ask why a statement is included in a text0 which is like asking why a speaker
would bother saying it. -hat does it help accomplish) -hat purpose does it serve) 'ow does it
lead into or follow from other remarks) 'ow are the ideas connected)
Implications for Writing
:-hat to say...what to say.: (t2s the traditional writer2s lament. :-here do ( start): :-hat should (
say): 5ut writing is more than saying. -riting a text--producing a completed text, not "ust writing
sentence after sentence--involves constructing a discussion. To :make a case! does not mean to
simply say certain things.
To make a case a writer must construct an argument, piece together examples and illustrations and
"ustifications and explanations and conclusions. (t2s not only what we say, it2s also what we do. %s
we2ve seen above, many ideas are conveyed not by stating them so much as by the reader inferring
them from the relationships of ideas within the discussion.
-hen we know exactly what we want to say, we simply go out and say it. Ather times, we have to
assemble our evidence and our thoughts. -e weigh which remarks should come first, and what
additional evidence and arguments are essential to our conclusion. 'owever we start, after some
initial writing all writers must become readers. -e must realize not only what we have said, but
what we have done. %nd we must evaluate how what we have done will get us where we want to
go. -hat additional ingredients are re$uired) -hat other aspects must be considered) -hat
misunderstandings must be prevented) This process is facilitated by two concepts, the notion of
structure, and the notion of doing as well as saying.
The models for describing texts suggest other ways of outlining a text. -e can outline not only
shifts in topic, but also shifts in tactics, as when we shift from introduction to explanation to
argument as with the rhetorical model. -e can outline in terms of tactics of enticing, addressing,
and convincing the reader as with the role model. -e can outline in terms of similarities,
differences, and logical implications as with the relationships model. %nd we can mix the various
models.
+inally, we can outline not only from beginning to end, but also in terms of patterns running
throughout a text. -e can outline the various viewpoints to be evaluated or the various participants
to be discussed to make sure we hit all the re$uired bases throughout the discussion.
The better the writing, the more the sentences clearly follow from, and lead, to one another.
-riters can lead their reader and assure their own structure by making sure to include transition
and relationship words. % sign of poorer writing is independent, disconnected thoughts0and with
that assertions that are not supported by details, reasons or examples.
escriptive %ormats: Ways to escri&e a isc"ssion
3eginning) -iddle /nd 2nd -odel: Changes In Topic
The simplest way to describe a text is in terms of a beginning, middle, and an end. (n writing class,
teachers often speak of texts having an introduction, body, and conclusion.
The parts of a text do not have to be of the same length, and may not necessarily coincide with
paragraph divisions. /ou can determine a beginning, middle and end only after having read the
complete text. *any shifts that you note in your initial reading will seem minor once you get
further into the text. -hat you take as the main idea in the early paragraphs you may come to see
later as merely the catalyst for the discussion, or as a viewpoint refuted later in the discussion.
=ection headings may guide you, but critical readers verify that such headings ade$uately describe
the text.
'ow should you distinguish between parts in deciding on a beginning, middle and end) The most
obvious shifts are changes in topic. The discussion might shift in terms of discussing
parts of a whole, one after another
steps in a se$uence, such as large to small, ma"or to minor
different time periods 7chronological order9
steps in a logical argument
alternative conditions or circumstances
shifts in viewpoint or perspective
&ote that parts need not be e$ual in length. Ane part may include a single sentence, another part
five paragraphs. The point is not to divide the whole e$ually, but to divide it into units that
recognize ma"or features of the presentation as a whole.
+inally, note that this model can be expanded to lower levels of analysis,
beginning of discussion
middle, main argument
o beginning of main argument
o middle of main argument
o end of main argument
end of discussion
The act of isolating a beginning, middle, and end of a discussion, by itself, doesn2t tell us very
much. 5ut the effort can help you see the content more clearly. The activity of trying to divide the
text into ma"or parts may be the first step in seeing the content in detail.
The Relationship -odel
=tatements, and hence ideas, are usually related to each other in one of the following ways,
se$uence or series
a listing of similar items, often in a distinct order, whether in terms of location, size,
importance, etc.
time order<chronology , a series of events in order of occurrence
general<specific relationship, examples and generalizations
comparison
similarity
difference 7contrast9
logical relationships
reason<conclusion,
cause<effect,
conditional relationship between factors
These relationships are usually signaled by an appropriate term, such as one of the following,
se$uence or series,
ne!t, also, finally, lastly, then, secondly, furthermore, moreover
time order<chronology ,
before, after, then, since, soon, until, when, finally
general<specific relationship,
e!amples, such as, overall, for instance, in particular
comparison
o similarities
similarly, like, in the same way, likewise
o differences 7contrast9,
however, unlike, otherwise, whereas, although, however, nevertheless, still, yet
logical relationships
o indicating reason<conclusion, cause<effect, and<or a conditional relationship
between factors,
hence, because, if, therefore, so, since, as a conseEuence, in conclusion
These relationship concepts and terms can be used to discuss connections between paragraphs or
larger sections of a text, as well as the relationship of patterns of content or language throughout a
text. % particular fact may serve as a reason for a certain conclusion, a cause for a given effect, or
an example for a generalization. %n assertion isn2t a reason, after all, until it is used as the basis for
reaching a conclusion. %n assertion doesn2t necessarily specify a cause until you assert an effect
resulting from it. %nd any single sentence can be, at once, both a conclusion for the preceding
discussion and an assumption for the following one.
The Rhetorical -odel
%n alternative model looks at the rhetorical nature of remarks. This model uses categories such as
the following,
definition , indicating what a term means
explanation , discussing what an idea means
description , indicating $ualities, ingredients, or appearance
narration , recounting events
ela&oration , offering details
arg"mentation , reasoning, or otherwise defending an idea
eval"ation , "udging or rating
(n very general terms, we argue and evaluate positions, define and explain concepts, describe
ob"ects, and narrate events. %spects of any or all may appear anywhere in a discussion.
Recall the observation that relatively specific remarks tend to support other remarks by offering
description, reasons, or examples. This model describes that process.
The Role -odel
% text can also be examined according to the roles different portions play within the discussion.
Roles might include,
Raise an initial idea, topic, or $uestion
,hape the scope or direction of the discussion
isc"ss and<or explain an idea
Concl"de the idea or otherwise draw elements together
/dd material for emphasis, clarification, or purposes of persuasion,
Remarks carrying out these roles can be found throughout a discussion, at all levels of analysis.
The Task -odel
The final model presented here reflects tasks that different elements fulfill within a discussion.
-hat has to be shown to reach a particular conclusion) -hat evidence is re$uired) -hat
authorities would be applicable) -hat assumptions must be made) -hether we are trying to shape
our own thoughts or evaluate the effectiveness of a presentation, we can attempt to determine the
ingredients necessary to make a certain point.
To show a lie, for instance, we have to indicate a statement that contradicts the speaker2s beliefs,
and that the speaker intended to deceive. -ithout these specific elements, we might simply have
someone misspeaking, more a case of ignorance than deceit.
-e might think of this model somewhat in the way we think of recipes. Recipes indicate not only
the ingredients, but also how they are mixed, not only what to include, but also what to do.
Recipes indicate steps to be accomplished and the ingredients with which each step is executed.
Interpretation: /naly6ing What a Text -eans
This final level of reading infers an overall meaning. -e examine features running throughout the
text to see how the discussion shapes our perception of reality. -e examine what a text does to
convey meaning, how patterns of content and language shape the portrayal of the topic and how
relationships between those patterns convey underlying meaning.
Repeating v. /naly6ing: -aking The 5eap
Rightly or wrongly, much of any student2s career is spent reading and restating texts. +or many, the
shift to description and interpretation is particularly hard. They are reluctant to trade the safety of
repeating an author2s remarks for responsibility fortheir ownassertions. They will freely infer the
purpose of an action, the essence of a behavior, or the intent of a political decision. 5ut they will
hesitate to go beyond what they take a text to :say: on its own. They are afraid to take
responsibility for their own understanding. Athers are so attuned to accepting the written word that
they fail to see the text as a viable topic of conversation.
?ook at ?eonardo da Tinci2s painting *ona ?isa, and you see a
woman smiling. 5ut you are also aware of a painting. /ou see
different color paint 7well, not in this illustration89 and you see how
the paint was applied to the wood. /ou recognize how aspects of the
painting are highlighted by their placement or by the lighting.
-hen examining a painting, you are aware that you are examining a work created by
someone. /ou are aware of an intention behind the work, an attempt to portray something a
particular way. =ince the painting does not come out and actively state a meaning, you are
consciously aware of your own efforts to find meaning in the painting, (s she smiling) =elf-
conscious) %lluring) %loof)
?ooking at the *ona ?isa, you know that you are not looking at *ona ?isa, a person, but The
*ona ?isa, a painting. /ou can talk not only about the meaning of the picture, but also about how
it was crafted. -hat is the significance of the dream landscape in the background) -hy, when we
focus on the left side of the picture, does the woman looks somehow taller or more erect than if we
focus on the right side) The more features of the painting that you recognize, the more powerful
your interpretation will be.
-hen reading texts, as when reading paintings, we increase understanding by recognizing the
craftsmanship of the creation, the choices that the artist<author made to portray the topic a certain
way. %nd yet there is still that feeling that texts are somehow different. Texts do differ from art
insofar as they actually seem to come out and say something. There are assertions :in black and
white: to fall back on. -e can restate a text> we cannot restate a painting or action. /et a text is
simply symbols on a page. Readers bring to their reading recognition of those symbols, an
understanding of what the words mean within the given social and historical context, and an
understanding of the remarks within their own framework of what might make sense, or what they
might imagine an author to have intended.
There is no escape> one way or another we are responsible for the meaning we find in our reading.
-hen a text says that someone burned their textbooks, that is all that is there, an assertion that
someone burned their textbooks. -e can agree on how to interpret sentence structure enough to
agree on what is stated in a literal sense. 5ut any sense that that person committed an
irresponsible, impulsive, or inspired act is in our own heads. (t is not stated as such on the page
7unless the author says so89. =tories present actions> readers infer personalities, motives, and
intents. -hen we go beyond the words, we are reading meaning.
Readers infer as much, if not more, than they are told. Readers go beyond the literal meaning of
the words to find significance and unstated meanings0and authors rely on their readers2 ability to
do so8 The reader2s eye may scan the page, but the reader2s mind ranges up, down, and sideways,
piecing together evidence to make sense of the presentation as a whole.
/dditional 9&servations
% number of observations should be made lest there be misunderstanding.
/ll Three -odes of Reading and isc"ssion /re 5egitimate
The models are designed to identify varying levels of sophistication and insight in reading and
discussion. -hile one approach may be more complex than another, no one way of reading a text
is necessarily better than another. They are simply different, and involve different observations and
reasoning. The key thing is to know which style of reading you want to do at any time, how to do
it, and how to tell whether you are actually doing it successfully.
/ll Reading Involves -ore Than 9ne %orm of Reading
The divisions between the three modes of reading are, to some extent, artificial. 3ividing reading
into reading what a text says, does, and means is somewhat like dividing bicycle riding into
concern for balance, speed, and direction. They are all necessary and affect one another. =peed
and direction both affect balance> we will fall off, or crash, without all three. %nd yet we may
focus on one or another at any particular time. -e can parse each out for analysis.
-hile the modes of reading and discussing texts can be separated out for purposes of discussion,
and it is relatively easy to distinguish between the resulting forms of discussion, in practice these
reading techni$ues overlap. %ny particular text can, and will, be read at various levels of
understanding at once. -e cannot understand what a text says without recognizing relationships
between sentences. -e cannot even understand sentences without drawing inferences that extend
beyond the words on the page. Abservations and realizations at any one level of reading
invariably support and spark observations at another. Abservations characteristic of all three forms
of response can be included in an interpretation.
+inally, while it is relatively easy to distinguish between forms of discussion.0restatement,
description, and interpretation0a description might include restatement for the purposes of
illustration, and an interpretation may be supported with descriptions of various portions of the
text and even restatement of key points 7see the example above9. (n the end, the :highest: level of
remark characterizes the discussion a whole.
These /re Not the 9nly Ways To Respond To a Text
Restatement, description and interpretation are not the only ways one can respond to a text. 5ut
they are the ones of interest here, if only because they are the responses that must precede most
other forms of response. Readers can obviously offer their own ideas on a topic0but that does not
fall under the topic of discussing a text. Readers can criticize an author2s handling of a topic based
on their own knowledge or views, evaluate the writing style, or attack the honesty of the author.
These too are legitimate forms of response, but they re$uire a critical reading of the text first if
they are to be meaningful. The first order of business is to make sense of the text, and it is with
that task that our efforts are concerned here.
+inally, we might note that book reports or reviews often contain additional elements, such as a
feeling for the writing style, comparison to other works, the reviewer2s emotional response to the
reading experience, or the circumstances of publication. %nd book reviewers often use the book
under reviews as a taking-off point for a discussion of the topic itself0all elements that go
beyond, but depend on, a careful reading of the text in $uestion. U
4o$ the 5ang"age Really Works:
The %"ndamentals of Critical Reading and 2ffective Writing
The /ssassination of -alcolm 8
@n $ebruary ,8, 8+FG, the black leader Halcolm I was
assassinated as he started to address a rally in <ew /ork &ity"
Halcolm I was a controversial figure" He had spent time in ail as a
street criminal" As spokesman for Eliah Hohammed's <ation of
5slam, he articulated a virulently antiwhite program of black self=
help" After a trip to Hecca, he broke with Eliah Hohammed and his
antiwhite policies to form an independent political group e!pressing
both national and international concerns"
/: from The New York Times
*alcolm R, the JH-year-old leader of a militant black nationalist
movement, was shot to death yesterday afternoon at a rally of his
followers in a ballroom in -ashington 'eights.
=hortly before midnight, a EE-year-old &egro, Thomas 'agan, was
charged with the killing. The police rescued him from the ballroom
crowd after he has been shot and beaten.
*alcolm, a bearded extremist, had said only a few words of greeting
when a fusillade rang out. The bullets knocked him over backward.
4andemonium broke out among the FPP &egroes in the %udubon
5allroom at GCCth =treet and 5roadway. %s men, women and
children ducked under tables and flattened themselves on the floor,
more shots were fired. =ome witnesses said JP shots had been fired.
The police said seven bullets had struck *alcolm. Three other
&egroes were shot.
%bout two hours later the police said the shooting had apparently
been a result of a feud between followers of *alcolm and members
of the extremist group he broke with last year, the 5lack *uslims.
'owever, the police declined to say whether 'agan is a *uslim.
The *edical 1xaminer2s office said early this morning that a
preliminary autopsy showed *alcolm had died of multiple gunshot
wounds.! The office said that bullets of two different calibers as
well as shotgun pellets had been removed from his body.
Ane police theory was that as many as five conspirators might have
been involved, two creating a diversionary disturbance.
'agan was shot in the left thigh and his left leg was broken,
apparently by kicks. 'e was under treatment in the 5ellevue
'ospital prison ward last night> perhaps a dozen policemen were
guarding him, according to the hospital2s night erintendent. The
police said they had found a cartridge case with four unused .FK-
caliber shells in his pocket.
Two other &egroes, described as apparent spectators! by %ssistant
#hief (nspector 'arry Taylor, in command of *anhattan &orth
uniformed police, also were shot. They were identified as -illiam
'arris, wounded seriously in the abdomen, and -illiam 4arker, shot
in a foot. 5oth were taken to #olumbia 4resbyterian *edical #enter,
which is close to the ballroom.
#apt. 4aul Blaser of the 4olice 3epartment2s #ommunity Relations
5ureau said early today that 'agan, using a double-barrelled
shotgun with shortened barrels and stock, had killed *alcolm R.
*alcolm, a slim, reddish-haired six-footer with a gift for bitter
elo$uence against what he considered white exploitation of &egroes,
broke in *arch, GHCF, with the 5lack *uslim movement called the
&ation of (slam, headed by 1li"ah *uhammad . . . .
G
3: from Newsweek
'e was born *alcolm ?ittle, an Amaha &egro preacher2s son.
5efore he was out of his teens, he was 5ig Red, a 'arlem hipster
trafficking in numbers, narcotics, sex, and petty crime. 'e was
buried as %l 'a"" *alik =habazz, a spiritual desperado lost between
the peace of (slam and the pain of blackness. 'is whole life was a
series of provisional identities, and he was still looking for the last
when, as *alcolm R, JH, apostate 5lack *uslim and mercurial
black nationalist, he was gunned to death by black men last week in
a dingy uptown &ew /ork ballroom.
'e had seen the end coming)predicted it, in fact, so long and so
loudly that people had stopped listening. *alcolm R had always
been an extravagant talker, a demagogue who titillated slum
&egroes and frightened whites with his blazing racist attacks on the
white devils! and his calls for an armed %merican *au *au. 'is
own flamboyant past made it easy to disregard his dire warnings that
he had been marked for murder by the *uslims, the anti-white, anti-
integrationist &egro sect he had served so devoutly for a dozen years
and fought so bitterly since his defection a year ago.
'is assassination turned out to be one of his few entirely accurate
prophecies. (ts fulfillment triggered an ominous vendetta between
the *alcolmites and the *uslims)ominous in its intensity even
though it was isolated on the outermost extremist fringe of %merican
&egro life.
3eath came moments after *alcolm stepped up to a flimsy plywood
lectern in *anhattan2s %udubon 5allroom, "ust north of 'arlem, to
address FPP of the faithful and the curious at a =unday afternoon
rally of his fledgling Arganization of %fro-%merican @nity. The
extermination plot was clever in conception, swift and smooth in
execution. Two men popped to their feet in the front rows of wooden
folding chairs, one yelling at the other, Bet your hands off my
pockets, don2t be messing with my pockets.! +our of *alcolm2s six
bodyguards moved toward the pair> *alcolm himself chided, ?et2s
cool it.!
;olley: Then came a second diversion, a man2s sock, soaked in
lighter fluid and set ablaze, flared in the rear. 'eads swiveled, and as
they did, a dark, muscular man moved toward the lectern in a
crouch, a sawed-off shotgun wrapped in his coat. Blam=blamJ %
double-barreled charge ripped up through the lectern and into
*alcolm2s chest. +rom the left, near the spot where the two men had
been s$uabbling, came a back-up volley of pistol fire.
*alcolm tumbled backward, his lean body rent by a dozen wounds,
his heels hooked over a fallen chair. The hall was bedlam. *alcolm2s
pregnant wife, 5etty, rushed on stage screaming, They2re killing my
husband8! 'is retainers fired wildly through the crowd at the fleeing
killers. +our assailants made it to side doors and disappeared.
The man with the shotgun, identified by police as EE-year-old
Talmadge 'ayer of 4aterson, &.6., dashed down a side aisle to the
stairway exit from the second floor ballroom. +rom the landing, one
of *alcolm2s bodyguards winged him in the thigh with a .FK-caliber
slug. 'owling in pursuit 7;ill the bastard8!9, the ballroom crowd
caught 'ayer on the sidewalk, mauled him, and broke his ankle
before police rescued him.
'ayer was charged with homicide. +ive days later, police picked up
a karate-trained *uslim enforcer,! &orman JR 5utler, EC, as
suspect &o. E.
The arrest of a *uslim surprised almost no one. +or all his many
enemies, *alcolm himself had insisted to the end that it was the
*uslims who wanted him dead. They seemed to dog him
everywhere he went> a bare week before his death, he was
firebombed out of his Vueens home, the ownership of which he had
been disputing with the *uslims. (ncreasingly edgy, he moved with
his wife and four children first to 'arlem2s 'otel Theresa, finally)
the night before his death)to the &ew /ork 'ilton in the alien world
downtown. -hen he died, *anhattan police assumed that *uslims
were involved . . . .
E
C: from New York Post
They came early to the %udubon 5allroom, perhaps drawn by the
expectation that *alcolm R would name the men who firebombed
his home last =unday, streaming from the bright afternoon sunlight
into the darkness of the hall.
The crowd was larger than usual for *alcolm2s recent meetings, the
FPP filling three-$uarters of the wooden folding seats, feet scuffling
the worn floor as they waited impatiently, docilely obeying the
orders of *alcolm2s guards as they were directed to their seats.
( sat at the left in the GEth row and, as we waited, the man next to me
spoke of *alcolm and his followers,
*alcolm is our only hope,! he said. /ou can depend on him to tell
it like it is and to give -hitey hell.!
Then a man was on the stage, saying,
. . . ( now give you 5rother *alcolm. ( hope you will listen, hear,
and understand.!
There was a prolonged ovation as *alcolm walked to the rostrum
past a piano and a set of drums waiting for an evening dance and
stood in front of a mural of a landscape as dingy as the rest of the
ballroom.
-hen, after more than a minute the crowd $uieted, *alcolm looked
up and said, % salaam aleikum 74eace be unto you9! and the
audience replied -a aleikum salaam 7%nd unto you, peace9.!
5espectacled and dapper in a dark suit, his sandy hair glinting in the
light, *alcolm said, 5rothers and sisters . . .! 'e was interrupted
by two men in the center of the ballroom, about four rows in front
and to the right of me, who rose and, arguing with each other, moved
forward. Then there was a scuffle in the back of the room and, as (
turned my head to see what was happening, ( heard *alcolm R say
his last words, &ow, now brothers, break it up,! he said softly. 5e
cool, be calm.!
Then all hell broke loose. There was a muffled sound of shots and
*alcolm, blood on his face and chest, fell limply back over the
chairs behind him. The two men who had approached him ran to the
exit on my side of the room shooting wildly behind them as they
ran.
( fell to the floor, got up, tried to find a way out of the bedlam.
*alcolm2s wife, 5etty, was near the stage, screaming in a frenzy.
They2re killing my husband,! she cried. They2re killing my
husband.!
Broping my way through the first frightened, then enraged crowd, (
heard people screaming, 3on2t let them kill him.! ;ill those
bastards.! 3on2t let him get away.! Bet him.!
%t an exit ( saw some of *alcolm2s men beating with all their
strength on two men. 4olice were trying to fight their way toward
the two. The press of the crowd forced me back inside.
( saw a half-dozen of *alcolm2s followers bending over his inert
body on the stage, their clothes stained with their leader2s blood.
Then they put him on a litter while guards kept everyone off the
platform. % woman bending over him said, 'e2s still alive. 'is
heart2s beating.!
+our policemen took the stretcher and carried *alcolm through the
crowd and some of the women came out of their shock long enough
to moan and one said, ( don2t think he2s going to make it. ( hope he
doesn2t die, but ( don2t think he2s going to make it.!
( spotted a phone booth in the rear of the hall, fumbled for a dime,
and called a photographer. Then ( sat there, the surprise wearing off
a bit, and tried desperately to remember what had happened. Ane of
my first thoughts was that this was the first day of &ational
5rotherhood -eek.
J
G
4eter ;ihss, %he <ew /ork %imes, +ebnruary EE, GHCK, p. G.
#opyright WGHCK by The &ew /ork Times #ompany.
E
<ewsweek, *arch I, GHCK, #opyright W GHCK, &ewsweek.(nc. %ll
rights reserved.
J
Thomas =kinner, :( saw *alcolm 3ie,: %he <ew /ork 2ost,
+ebruary EE, GHCK, p. G.