1 Pendulum

1.1 Free oscillator

To introduce dynamical systems, we begin with one of the simplest: a free
oscillator. Specically,we consideranunforced,undampedpendulum.
Thearclength(displacement)betweenthependulumscurrentpositionand
restposition(=0)is
s=l
Therefore
s = l

s = l
FromNewtons2nd law,

F =ml
The restoring force is given by mgsin. (It acts in the direction opposite
tosgn()). Thus

F =ml=mgsin
or
d
2
g
+ sin= 0.
dt
2
l
l
mg
mg sin

Our pendulum equation is idealized: it assumes, e.g., a point mass, a rigid
geometry,and mostimportantly,no friction.
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The equation is nonlinear, because of the sin term. Thus the equation is
noteasilysolved.
Howeverforsmall1 wehavesin . Then
d
2

dt
2
=
l
whosesolutionis
g
=
0
cos t+
l
or
=
0
cos(t+)
wherethe angularfrequency is
g
= ,
l
the periodis
l
T = 2 ,
g
and
0
and comefromthe initialconditions.
Notethatthe motionisexactlyperiodic.
Furthermore,the periodT is independentof theamplitude
0
.
0 1 2
1
0
1

0

t / T
1.2 Global view of dynamics
What do we need to knowto completelydescribe the instantaneousstate of
the pendulum?
The position andthe velocity
d
=.

dt
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Instead of integratingour o.d.e. for the pendulum, we seek a representation
ofthe solutioninthe planeof and

.
Becausethe solutionis periodic,weknowthattheresultingtrajectorymust
be closed:


In whichdirectionis theow?
Whatshape does the curvetake?
To calculate the curve, we note that it should be characterized by constant
energy, since no energy is input to the system (it is not driven) and none is
dissipated(thereis no friction).
Therefore we compute the energy E(,

), and expect the trajectories to be

curvesof E(,

)=const.
1.3 Energy in the plane pendulum
mg
mg sin

l cos
h
l
The pendulumsheightaboveitsrestpositionish=llcos.
As before,s=arclength=l.
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The kineticenergyT is
1
2
1 1
T = ms = m(l

)
2
= ml
2

2
2 2 2
The potentialenergyU is
U =mgh = mg(llcos)
= mgl(1cos)
Thereforethe energyE(,

)is
E(,

) =
1
ml
2

2
+mgl(1cos)
2
We checkthatE(,

)isaconstantofmotionbycalculatingitstimederiva-
tive:
dE 1
= ml
2
(2

)+mgl

sin
dt 2
= ml
2

+
g
sin

l
= 0 (sincethe pend. eqn.

=
g
l
sin)
So whatdo these curveslooklike?
Take
0
tobe thehighestpointofmotion.

0
Then

(
0
) = 0
and
E(
0
,

| ) =mgl(1cos
0
)

0
Since cos= 12 sin
2
(/2),
E(
0
,

0
) = 2mglsin
2

2
0

= E(,

)in general,sinceE is conserved

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NowwriteT =EU:
1
2
ml
2

2
= 2mgl

sin
2

0
2
sin
2

(1)

2
= 4
g
l

sin
2

0
2
sin
2

(2)
For small
0
such that1,

2
4
g
l

4
0
2

4
2

or

2

+
2

0
g/l

Thus for small the curves are circles of radius

0
in the plane of and

/ g/l.
/ (g/l)
1/2

Whatabout
0
large?
Considerthe case
0
=.
For
0
=, E = 2mgl,and equation(2)gives
g

2
= 4 sin
2
sin
2
l 2 2

g
2
= 4 cos
l 2
Thus for
0
=, the curvesarethe cosines

=2

cos .
l 2
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Intuitively,werecognizethatthiscurveseparates
oscillatorymotion(E <2mgl)fromrotarymotion(E >2mgl).
Thus for undampled, nonlinear pendulum we can construct the following
phase portrait:
2 1 0 1 2
2
0
2
(
d

/

d
t
)

/

(
g

/

l
)
1
/
2

/
The portraitisperiodic.
The points

= 0, = . . . ,2,0,2, . . . are stable equilibrium, or xed,

points(actually,marginally stable).
The points

=0,=. . . ,3,, ,3 . . .areunstablexed points.

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The trajectoriesappeartocross,butthey donot. Why not?
(Deterministictrajectories.)
Ifthetrajectoriesactuallyarrivetothesecrossingpoints,thenwhathappens?
(The motion stops, awaitinginstability. But we shall see that it would take
innitetimetoarriveatthese points.)
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