Ergonomics

The Lumbar Spine in Sitting

Why should we spend our time talking about seating? After all there have
been seats around for hundreds of years so surely we must know all about it
by now. If we do, why are so many chairs uncomfortable, and why do so many
people get backache after using some chairs? Perhaps, if we do know all
about seating, the people who design chairs haven't yet got the knowledge.
Chairs are most often designed by designers or architects. What is lacking
from both these camps is any detailed knowledge of the human body and
what happens when we sit.
In what follows we are talking about working seats, for ofces, schools,
factories and other business places, e.g., checkout stations. Easy chairs are a
diferent matter, although much of the same knowledge is needed.
First, though, a bit of anatomy.
The curve in the small of our backs allows us to stand upright with a minimum
of back muscle activity, because the vertical line through the centre of gravity,
(CG) of the upper part of our body is over the peak of that curve. So there is no
line of force trying to bend us forward or backward. As a result the back
muscles are at a very low level of activity, just enough to keep our trunk
upright.
Point 1:
Maintaining the lumbar curve allows the minimum back muscle activity.
When we sit on a fat seat, which is horizontal, our thighs are also horizontal. It
was shown many years ago that rotation of the thigh from in-line with the
body to being at right angles at the hip was achieved, for the frst 70 or so by
hip rotation and, for approximately the last 20, by a backward rotation of the
pelvis.
The efect of this backward rotation is to fatten the lumbar curve. In conse-
quence, when we sit upright, the line of thrust through the CG of our upper
body lies forward of this (now fattened) curve, so the back muscles have to
become active to hold us upright.
This not only produces discomfort and fatigue, but it loads the spine, and its
discs. Add to this that, when the lumbar curve is fattened the discs are slightly
pinched at their front edges. This is another load on them, adding to that from
the counteracting moment of the back muscles.
Point 2:
Sitting upright with the thighs horizontal loads the spine even before any
work is done.
Almost all of the load arising from work with the arms, as well as forces
exerted by the trunk, are transmitted to the ground via the seat, and thus
through the spine and pelvis. These are the loads created by working.
We expect such loads. But if we pre-load our bodies as in point 2, then we
reduce the available capacity of the spine for transmitting these work loads.
The load we introduce is a continuous pressure, unlike the usually varying
loads arising from work activities, so recovery is not so readily available.
It has been shown that a continuous muscular load, (static load), maintained
for a long period requires a long time for the muscles to recover. Also,
continuous loadings due to posture eventually cause the body to adapt to the
posture, distorting our bodies if poor postures are held for long periods of
time.
Point 3:
A poor sitting posture reduces our physical capacity for efort and can lead to
bodily distortions in the long run.
The human body is an organism which thrives on change, not on stasis. It is
benefcial to change our posture frequently, to allow loaded muscles to
recover and this can be helped if we can stand up easily. If a chair is low,
standing up is difcult, because our leg muscles are not in an advantageous
arrangement for rotating our hip and knee joints.
If the seat is higher, not only are we part way to standing but the mechanical
advantage of our leg muscles allows them to exert more force, making it
easier to stand. Note, also, that if we sit higher, our thighs will be sloping
downward, which will allow us to retain our lumbar curve, reducing the load
on our spines, (point 1).
Point 4:
Having a sloping thigh reduces back loading and makes it easier to stand up.
But, how can we sit with a sloping thigh without sliding of the seat? We have
to arrange it so that, although it is possible for our legs to slope downward,
our weight is always borne on a horizontal part of the seat. This apparent
contradiction can be achieved if the seat is curved from front to back, with the
weight being taken on the top of the curve, which is horizontal.
As we raise the seat, to prevent our feet lifting from the foor we rotate the
seat forward. This gives clearance for the thighs so that the feet reach the foor
whilst there is still a horizontal bit of the seat for bearing the weight. Such a
seat makes it possible for people of diferent heights to work comfortably at
the same bench, without a footrest, and to stand or sit as the work requires.
This is the purpose and the basis of the design of the Nottingham sit/stand
seat.
Ergonomic chair criteria
Does the seat pan feel comfortable and t your shape?
When you sit in the chair the seat pan should be at least one inch wider than
your hips and thighs on either side. The seat pan should not be too long for
your legs otherwise it will either catch you behind the knees or it will prevent
you from leaning fully back against the lumbar support. Most ergonomic
chairs have a seat pan with a waterfall front that prevents the seat from
catching you behind the knees. The seat pan should also be contoured to
allow even weight distribution and it should be comfortable to sit on.
Is the seat chair height adjustable?
For preference the chair should be pneumatically adjustable so that you can
adjust seat pan height while you are sitting on the chair. Some chairs have a
mechanical height adjustment (spinning) mechanism that is also acceptable.
Is the range of height adjustment of the chair sucient to meet the needs of
all users?
You should be able to adjust the height of the seat pan so that the front of
your knees is level or slightly below level and your feet are frmly on the
ground. In most cases there should be no need for you to use a footrest. The
mechanism to adjust seat height should be easy to reach and operate when
you are seated.
Does the chair have a comfortable lumbar (lower back) back rest?
Many chairs have cushioned lumbar supports that can be adjusted up and
down and forwards and backwards to best ft your shape. If the chair will be
used by multiple users then this level of adjustment may be required. If the
chair has a fxed height lumbar support and it feels comfortable when you sit
back against this, and you will be the primary user of the chair then a fxed
lumbar support may be acceptable.
Is the chair back rest large enough to provide good back support?
Many chairs have back supports that are large enough to provide mid-back
and upper-back support, in addition to good lumbar support.
When you sit back against the lumbar support is there ample space for hip
room?
Insufcient hip room can make you sit too far forwards on the seat pan so that
you will not have enough thigh support.
Does the seat pan still feel comfortable after you've been sitting in it for 60 -
120 minutes?
If the seat pan is made from low-density foam then continuous use can cause
it to become permanently deformed and then it will not provide adequate
cushioned support. Insufcient cushioning and inappropriate contouring can
cause discomfort, imbalance and hip and back fatigue.
Does the chair backrest recline and support your back in dierent positions?
Movement of the back while you are sitting helps to maintain a healthy spine.
Look for chairs that allow you to easily recline, that provide you with good
back support in diferent recline postures, and that have a back that tracks
where your back is. Locking the chair backrest in one position generally isn't
recommended or benefcial to users.
Does the chair have a 5 pedestal base?
If chair mobility is important to help you to do your work then the chair
should have at least a 5 pedestal base with casters that glide freely over the
foor surface. You may also want to choose a chair that swivels easily.
Do you need armrests on your chair?
If so, are the armrests broad, contoured, cushioned and comfortable? While
sitting can you easily adjust the height of the armrests and can you move the
armrests closer together or further apart? Can you easily move the arms out of
the way if you need to do this?
Other considerations:
Do you need a footrest?
In the vast majority of situations you should not need a foot support to be
able to sit comfortably on your chair? However, if you do need a foot support
then choose a free-standing foor-mounted support that allow you to rest
your feet out in front of you in a comfortable manner.
What chair covering is best?
Chairs can be covered in a variety of upholstery materials, each of which has
benefts and concerns. Vinyl and vinyl-like coverings are easy to clean and spill
resistant, but they don't breath and if the chair begins to heat up under the
thighs uncomfortable amounts of moisture can accumulate. Cloth upholstery
is the most common covering, but this is less resistant to spills and more
difcult to clean. A cloth covered seat pan can also become warm and
moisture laden, and cloth covered foam seat pans can be a signifcant source
of dust mite allergen. When selecting your chair covering think about cleaning
and maintenance issues and plan appropriately.
Do you need an adjustable tilt seat pan ?
In most situations this is not an essential feature. In some situations it can be
helpful to change the tilt of the seat pan to help to maintain a balanced
seated posture.
A
Seat Height Adjustment
The chair should be able to be adjusted so that your hips are higher than you
knees with you feet frmly on the foor or footrest.
B
Seat Depth Adjustment
Needed to accommodate thigh length and enable you to sit back into the
chair to gain support from the backrest. This will avoid pressure at the back of
the knee preventing restriction of circulation.
C
Seat Tilt
Rotates the pelvis forward which puts the lumbar spine into its natural curve
reducing stress on muscles and discs.
D
Backrest Height Adjustment
The height of the lumbar curve difers from person to person, so the adjust-
ment accommodates individual body shape.
E
Free Float Mechanism (adjustable to body weight)
A free foat mechanism activates the vein pumps in the calf and stimulates
venous drainage to promote reduction of oedema, pain and numbness of the
lower limbs and feet.
F
Reclining Feature
By taking the opportunity to recline in your chair (talking on phone, meetings,
reading), you reduce back strain and allow the body to rest.
G
Backrest Angle Adjustment
By increasing the angle between the trunk and thigh reduces stress on the
discs and muscles. By adjusting the back seat angle to 110 rather than an
upright 90 it reduces disc pressure on L3/4 by 50%.
H
Height Adjustable Armrests
Armrest should be adjusted in height to support the arms (up to 10% of body
weight is placed through the arms). The armrests on the chairs in this
brochure are all set back so they do not interfere with desk access.
I
Headrest
Takes the weight of your head of your spine (12lbs approx), relaxes the neck
and shoulders, increases blood fow and reduces fatigue. Most are height and
depth adjustable to accommodate diferent shaped cervical curves.
16 max.
16 max.
17 max.
19 max. seat height
4 max.
11 lumbar height
20.5 for thoracic support
18 max. seat height
4 max.
11 lumbar height
20 for thoracic support
18.5 max. seat height
4 max.
11 lumbar height
20.25 for thoracic support
10
13
10
13
Man (99% US population) Woman (99% US population)
Mix use (99% US population)
Material and Processes
History
In the mid-19th century, an ingenious concept enabled fimsy sheets of paper
to be transformed into a rigid, stackable and cushioning form of packaging for
delicate goods in transit.
Corrugated (also called pleated) paper was patented in England in 1856, and
used as a liner for tall hats, but corrugated boxboard would not be patented
and used as a shipping material until December 20, 1871. The patent was
issued to Albert Jones of New York City for single-sided (single-face)
corrugated board.[1] Jones used the corrugated board for wrapping bottles
and glass lantern chimneys. The frst machine for producing large quantities of
corrugated board was built in 1874 by G. Smyth, and in the same year Oliver
Long improved upon Jones' design by inventing corrugated board with liner
sheets on both sides.[2] This was now corrugated board as we know it today.
The Scottish-born Robert Gair invented the corrugated box in 1890; that is,
pre-cut fat pieces manufactured in bulk that folded into boxes. Gair's
invention, as with so many other great innovations, came about as a result of
an accident: he was a Brooklyn printer and paper-bag maker during the 1870s,
and one day, while he was printing an order of seed bags, a metal ruler
normally used to crease bags shifted in position and cut them. Gair discovered
that by cutting and creasing bags in one operation he could make prefabri-
cated paper boxes. Applying this idea to corrugated boxboard was a straight-
forward development when the material became available. By the start of the
20th century, corrugated boxes began replacing the custom-made wooden
crates and boxes previously used for trade.
The corrugated box was initially used for packaging glass and pottery
containers, which are easily broken in transit. Later, the case enabled fruit and
produce to be brought from the farm to the retailer without bruising,
improving the return to the producers and opening up hitherto unafordable
export markets. (There had previously been a great deal of waste when, for
example, oranges were craned out of the hold of a ship, having been bulk
loaded into it.)
Cardboard
Is a fat packaging material consisting of paper stock and generally being of
high-quality stock composition (e.g. white mechanical pulp board). Its basis
weight is 250 - 500 g/m. If cardboard has a basis weight of between 150 and
250 g/m, it is described as light, while cardboard with a basis weight of 500 -
600 g/m is described as heavy.
Cardboard may either be single ply or consist of several paper webs couched
together mechanically or stuck (laminated) together.
Boxboard (carton board) is used to make the blanks from which cartons and
the like are made.
A distinction is drawn between the following types of cardboard:
Chromo imitation board: chromo imitation board is a cardboard couched
from several plies and provided with a smooth coating on one side while in
the board machine. Chromo imitation board generally consists of outer plies
on the recto and verso, intermediate plies and fllers of wood pulp or waste
paper. It is designed for producing cartons and is suitable for printing. Its basis
weight is 225 - 500 g/m.
Chromo carton board: chromo board is a chromo imitation board which is
coated on one or both sides outside the board machine. Its color is pure
white.
Folding carton board: folding carton board is a multi-ply cardboard some-
times with coated recto. The fold edges are pre-marked with grooves.
Cup board: cup board is a cardboard which may or may not contain wood. It is
used to produce cups for the food and drinks industry. Its basis weight is 200 -
250 g/m.
Drawing cardboard: drawing cardboard is smooth, thin, white paperboard or
smooth white paper for drawing purposes.
Manufacture of Corrugated Cardboard
Corrugated board is manufactured on large high-precision machinery lines
called Corrugators running at 500 lineal feet per minute or faster. These
machines over time have become very complex with the objective to avoid
some common problems in corrugated board production, such as warp and
washboarding. In the classical corrugator the paper is humidifed by means of
high pressure steam. The humidity aims to soften the paper fbres so that the
formation of the fute and the consequent glueing will go smoothly. The
process adds a considerable amount of water to the papers. After the
formation of the board this humidity has to be removed by drying in the
so-called dry-end. Here the newly formed corrugated board is heated from
the bottom by hot plates. On the top various pressure is applied by a load
system on the belt.
The corrugated medium is usually a 26 lb/1000 sq ft (127 g/m2) paperboard;
higher grades are also available. It arrives to the corrugator on large rolls. At
the single-facer, it is heated, moistened, and formed into a futed pattern on
geared wheels. This is joined to a fat linerboard with a starch based adhesive
to form single face board. At the double-backer, a second fat linerboard is
adhered to the other side of the futed medium to form single wall corrugated
board. Linerboards are often kraft paperboard (of various grades) but may be
bleached white, mottled white, colored, or preprinted. Corrugated fberboard
Is a combination of paperboards, usually two fat pieces of paper and one
inner intestined corrugated medium
Types of Corrugated Cardboards
BROWN CORRUGATED - Double Face Sheets
Plain brown double face corrugated sheets and pads. Flutes run width-wise. These
sheets are 200 lb. Test, "C" ute, approximately 3/16" thick. Excellent for dividers
and shock absorbers.
THICK CORRUGATED - Double WALL Sheets
Plain brown sheets constructed of one sheet of 200 lb. Test "B" futing and one
sheet of 200 lb. Test "C" futing sandwiched between three sheets of paper for extra
350 lb. Bursting strength. Approximately 5/16" thick.
SINGLE FACE CORRUGATED SHEETS - Plain brown single face pads. Flutes run
widthwise. These pads are 50/63 basis (one 50lb. Face sheet glued to a 63lb.
Corrugated sheet). "B" ute". Approximately 3/16" thick.
FLUTES
When dealing with difering types and styles of cardboard, we often refer to its
fute, or futes. What is a fute? Well, it simply means the type or size of corrugation
that is sandwiched between the two outer layers of cardboard.
The larger the fute, the stronger the box. Below is a small break down of the three
types of fute that we ofer at Cactus and their respective strengths and
weaknesses.
"C" Flute
Thickness = 11 / 64"
Flutes per foot = 41
"C" fute cardboard has a very high stacking strength and a higher resistance to
being crushed. It is one of the most commonly used futes for shipping boxes and
tends to perform the best when holding materials such as glass, furniture and food
products.
"B" Flute
Thickness = 1 / 8"
Flutes per foot = 49
"B" Flute cardboard is the perfect combination of strength and style. It has a higher
resistance to punctures than the other futes and usually consumes less space than
the regular "C" Flute. It is ideal for boxes that have to be durable but also need to
have some style. Generally used for stand up displays or ballot boxes.
"E" Flute
Thickness = 1 / 16"
Flutes per foot = 95
"E" Flute is the most lightweight of all the types of corrugated cardboard we carry.
It is a stronger alternative to paperboard and performs great when used for die cut
designs. "E" Flute has a superior printing surface and works best when used as
software packaging or point of purchase boxes.
BROWN CORRUGATED - Double Face Sheets
Plain brown double face corrugated sheets and pads. Flutes run width-wise. These
sheets are 200 lb. Test, "C" ute, approximately 3/16" thick. Excellent for dividers
and shock absorbers.
THICK CORRUGATED - Double WALL Sheets
Plain brown sheets constructed of one sheet of 200 lb. Test "B" futing and one
sheet of 200 lb. Test "C" futing sandwiched between three sheets of paper for extra
350 lb. Bursting strength. Approximately 5/16" thick.
SINGLE FACE CORRUGATED SHEETS - Plain brown single face pads. Flutes run
widthwise. These pads are 50/63 basis (one 50lb. Face sheet glued to a 63lb.
Corrugated sheet). "B" ute". Approximately 3/16" thick.
FLUTES
When dealing with difering types and styles of cardboard, we often refer to its
fute, or futes. What is a fute? Well, it simply means the type or size of corrugation
that is sandwiched between the two outer layers of cardboard.
The larger the fute, the stronger the box. Below is a small break down of the three
types of fute that we ofer at Cactus and their respective strengths and
weaknesses.
"C" Flute
Thickness = 11 / 64"
Flutes per foot = 41
"C" fute cardboard has a very high stacking strength and a higher resistance to
being crushed. It is one of the most commonly used futes for shipping boxes and
tends to perform the best when holding materials such as glass, furniture and food
products.
"B" Flute
Thickness = 1 / 8"
Flutes per foot = 49
"B" Flute cardboard is the perfect combination of strength and style. It has a higher
resistance to punctures than the other futes and usually consumes less space than
the regular "C" Flute. It is ideal for boxes that have to be durable but also need to
have some style. Generally used for stand up displays or ballot boxes.
"E" Flute
Thickness = 1 / 16"
Flutes per foot = 95
"E" Flute is the most lightweight of all the types of corrugated cardboard we carry.
It is a stronger alternative to paperboard and performs great when used for die cut
designs. "E" Flute has a superior printing surface and works best when used as
software packaging or point of purchase boxes.
Competitive products
Name:
Model:
Seat pan height comfort
Seat pan depth comfort
Seat pan width comfort
Seat waterfall comfort
Backrest comfort
Armrest comfort
Mid and upper back support
Lumbar area support
Armrest support
Overall ease of use
Overall aesthetics
Overall comfort
User survey
Unacceptable Average Excellent
0 1 2 3 4
Online sources:
http://www.inhabitat.com/2006/10/05/curvy-corregated-cardboard-chair/
http://www.designboom.com/cardboard3.html
http://www.designboom.com/cardboard.html
http://www.andrewsenior.com/gallery/design/cardboard_instruct.html
http://www.aias.org/chairafair/
http://www.ohdeedoh.com/ohdeedoh/cribs-bassinets/album-di-famiglia-019729
http://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/ware/papier/karton/karton.htm
Ergonomics:
http://www.safecomputingtips.com/ergonomic-chair.html
http://www.safecomputingtips.com/ergonomic-seating.html
http://www.safecomputingtips.com/ergonomic-chair-risk1.html
http://www.humanics-es.com/lumbar-seating.htm
http://www.humanics-es.com/rethinkingsitting.htm#chairs
http://www.humanics-es.com/seatheightrevis.htm#ergonomicseating
http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/AHTutorials/chairch.html
http://www.ergofactory.com/ergonomic-chair.asp
http://www.ergofactory.com/ergonomic-seating.asp
http://www.shopergo.com/ergologinnew/Web-ergo1/OCW.aspx
http://www.khulsey.com/workspace_ergonomics.html
http://www.backsaver.co.uk/choosing_oce.htm26sa%3DG
Materials:
http://www.papermart.com/templates/26-0-10.htm
http://www.tis-gdv.de/tis_e/ware/papier/karton/karton.htm
http://www.cactuscontainers.com/corrugated-materials.html
http://www.ipspackaging.com/honeycomb-packaging/paper-pallets.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardboard
http://www.uline.com/Class_04.asp?pricode=wj427
Videos:
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bh_qn62zny0&NR=1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g-OOGDeZjMk&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g-OOGDeZjMk&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=04UdRNHn8K8&NR=1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=U1q3sjsw6LM&NR=1
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aN0m29xyOW0&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ri5GH-Nsj3o&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ofHmZgj8bpY&feature=related
://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UgPp56tPmGY&feature=related
http://www.stupidvideos.com/video/science_technology/Cardboard_Chair/#42865
Books:
The Measure of Man & Woman
Henry Dreyfuss Associates
By Design
Ralph Caplan
Research sources