Вы находитесь на странице: 1из 42

a

r
X
i
v
:
1
1
0
8
.
0
0
3
1
v
1


[
a
s
t
r
o
-
p
h
.
E
P
]


2
9

J
u
l

2
0
1
1
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics
Vol. 00, No. 00, 00 00, 142
REVIEW
Super-Earths: A New Class of Planetary Bodies
Nader Haghighipour
a
a
Institute for Astronomy and NASA Astrobiology Institute,
University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
(0000)
Super-Earths, a class of planetary bodies with masses ranging from a few Earth-masses to slightly smaller
than Uranus, have recently found a special place in the exoplanetary science. Being slightly larger than a
typical terrestrial planet, super-Earths may have physical and dynamical characteristics similar to those of
Earth whereas unlike terrestrial planets, they are relatively easier to detect. Because of their sizes, super-Earths
can maintain moderate atmospheres and possibly dynamic interiors with plate tectonics. They also seem to be
more common around low-mass stars where the habitable zone is in closer distances. This article presents a
review of the current state of research on super-Earths, and discusses the models of the formation, dynamical
evolution, and possible habitability of these objects. Given the recent advances in detection techniques, the
detectability of super-Earths is also discussed, and a review of the prospects of their detection in the habitable
zones of low-mass stars is presented.
Keywords: Extrasolar Planets, Planetary Interior, Planet Formation, Planetary Dynamics, Habitability,
Planet Detection.
1 Introduction
It was almost 500 years ago when the Italian philosopher, Giordano Bruno, discussed the possi-
bility of the existence of planets around other stars and presented the idea of countless suns and
countless earths
1
. Since then, as the science of astronomy progressed, it became more and more
evident that the Sun and our solar system are not unique, and there must be many planets that
revolve around other stars. For centuries astronomers tried tirelessly to detect such extrasolar
planetary systems. However, until two decades ago, their eorts were rendered fruitlesstheir
detection techniques had not reached the level of sensitivity that was necessary to identify a
planetary body either directly, or through its perturbation on its host star.
Thanks to advances in observation and detection technologies, in the past two decades this
trend changed. Measurements of the shifts in the spectrum of the light of a star due to its
radial velocity that is caused by the gravitational attraction of a massive companion enabled
astronomers to identify many planetary bodies around nearby stars. The Precision Radial Veloc-
ity Technique, also known as Doppler Velocimetry (Figures 1) has been successful in identifying
now more than 500 planets including the rst exoplanetary body, a 4.7 Jupiter-mass object in

Corresponding author. Email: nader@ifa.hawaii.edu


1
From the quote by the Italian philosopher, Giordano Bruno (1548-1600): There are countless suns and countless earths all
rotating around their suns in exactly the same way as the seven planets of our system. We see only the suns because they
are largest bodies and are luminous, but their planets remain invisible to us because they are smaller and non-luminous.
These countless worlds in the universe are no worse and no less inhabited than our Earth. Bruno was burned alive because
of his ideas.
ISSN: 0000 print/ISSN 0000 online
c 00 Taylor & Francis
DOI: 0000
http://www.informaworld.com
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
2 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 1. Schematic illustration of Doppler shift of stellar light. As shown by the second panel from top, the light
is red-shifted when the star is moving away from the observer. When the star moves towards the observer (second
panel from bottom), light is shifted towards blue. By measuring this Doppler shift, astronomers can determine the
semimajor axis, eccentricity, and minimum mass of the unseen planet. Figure from spheroid.wordpress.com .
a 4-day orbit around the Sun-like star 51 Pegasi [1], and possibly an Earth-sized planet in the
habitable zone of the near-by star Gliese 581 [2]
2
.
Technological advances also enabled astronomers to detect planetary bodies by measuring the
dimming of the light of a star due to a passing planetary companion. This technique, known as
Transit Photometry, has been successful in detecting now more than 130 planets. Figure 2 shows
the schematics of this technique. As an example, the actual light curve of the star HD 209458,
the rst star for which a planetary transit was detected, is also shown. The transiting planet in
this system is a 0.64 Jupiter-mass object in a 3.5-day orbit [4]. In addition to the detection of
planets, transit photometry has also enabled astronomers to determine the size, density [5, 6],
and in some cases, the chemical elements in the atmospheres of transiting planets [7].
Other detection techniques such as microlensing, where the gravitational elds of a star and
its planetary companion create magnifying eects of the light of a background source (Figure 3)
[8, 9], transit timing variations method, where the gravitational perturbation of an object creates
variations in the time and duration of the transits of a close-in planet [10, 11], and direct imaging
(Figures 4 and 5) [12, 13, 14] have also been successful in detecting extrasolar planets. We refer
the reader to the extrasolar planets encyclopedia at http://exoplanet.eu, and exoplanet data
explorer at http://exoplanets.org/ for more information.
To-date the number of detected extrasolar planets exceeds 550. Almost all these planets depict
2
It is important to note that the rst planets outside of our solar system were discovered around pulsar PSR B 1257+12
by Wolszczan & Frail in 1992 [3].
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 3
Figure 2. Top: Schematic illustration of a planetary transit. Bottom: Actual light curve of HD 209458 caused by
the transiting of its 0.64 Jupiter-mass planet [4]. Figure from [4] with the permission of AAS.
physical and dynamical characteristics that are unlike those of the planets in our solar system.
While in the solar system, giant planets such as Jupiter and Saturn are in large orbits, and smaller
planets such as Earth and Venus are closer in, many extrasolar planetary systems are host to
Jupiter-like or larger bodies in orbits smaller than the orbit of Mercury to the Sun. Also, unlike
in our solar system where planetary orbits are almost circular, the orbits of many extrasolar
planets are considerably elliptical. These unexpected dynamical characteristics of exoplanets
have had profound eects on our views of the formation and dynamical evolution of planetary
systems. The theories of planet formation, which have been primarily developed to explain the
formation of the planets of our solar system, are now constantly revisited and their applicability
to exoplanetary bodies are continuously challenged.
The complexities of extrasolar planetary systems are not limited to their orbital dynamics.
The physical characteristics of many of these objects are also dierent from the planets of our
solar system. While in our solar system, terrestrial and (gas- and ice-) giant planets form two
distinct classes of objects with two distinct ranges of masses (giant planets are one to two
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
4 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 3. Detection of a planet using gravitational microlensing. The time sequence can be taken from either left
or right. The second panel from left shows the lensing of a background source by a star and its planet. As the planet
moves away from the lensing state, the image of the background source is only lensed by the planet-hosting star.
Figure courtesy of D. Bennett and Lockheed Martin Space Systems.
orders of magnitude more massive than terrestrial planets), several extrasolar planets have been
discovered with masses in an intermediate range from a few Earth-masses to slightly smaller
than Uranus. Dubbed as Super-Earths, these objects form a new class of planetary bodies with
physical and dynamical characteristics that may be dierent from those of the terrestrial planets
and yet signicant for habitability and planet formation theories. This paper presents a review
of the physical and dynamical characteristics of these objects.
The rst super-Earth was discovered by Beaulieu et al. (2006; [9]) using the microlensing
technique. To-date, the number of these objects has passed 30. Table 1 shows the masses and
orbital elements of these bodies
1
. Two of the more prominent super-Earths are CoRoT-7b, the
7th planet discovered by CoRoT (COnvection, ROtation and planetary Transits) space telescope
with a mass of 2.3-8 Earth-masses [5, 15, 16, 17], and GJ 1214b, the rst super-Earth discovered
by transit photometry around an M star with a mass of 5.69 Earth-masses [6]. These two
objects are the rst super-Earths for which the values of mass and radius have been measured
(CoRoT-7b: 1.65 Earth-radii, GJ 1214b: 2.7 Earth-radii). This is a major achievement and a
great milestone in the eld of exoplanetary science which for the rst time allows for estimating
the density of an extrasolar planet and developing models for its interior dynamics.
The semimajor axes of the majority of super-Earths are smaller than 0.2 AU and their ec-
centricities range from 0 to 0.4. This orbital diversity, combined with the values of the masses
of these objects, has made super-Earths a particularly important class of extrasolar planetary
bodies. The larger-than-terrestrial sizes and masses of super-Earths point to the less challenging
detection of these objects compared to the detection of Earth-sized planets. They also suggest
that super-Earths may have dynamic interiors and be able to develop and maintain moderate
1
Note that Table 1 does not include the three terrestrial-class planets around the pulsar PSR 1257+12.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 5
Table 1. Currently known extrasolar planets with masses up to 10 Earth-masses. The quantities
M, P, a and e represent the mass (in terms of Earths mass M), orbital period, semimajor axis, and
orbital eccentricity of the planet. The mass of the central star is shown by M and is given in the
units of solar-masses (M).
Planet M(M

) P (day) a (AU) e Stellar Type M(M

)
GL 581 e 1.70 3.15 0.03 0.0 M3 0.31
Kepler-11f 2.30 46.69 0.25 0.0 G 0.95
GL 581 g 3.10 36.56 0.15 0.0 M3 0.31
MOA-2007-BLG-192-L b 3.18 0.62 0.06
HD 156668 b 4.16 4.65 0.05 0.0 K2
HD 40307 b 4.19 4.31 0.05 0.0 K2.5 V
Kepler-11b 4.30 10.3 0.09 0.0 G 0.95
Kepler-10b 4.56 0.84 0.02 0.0 G 0.89
CoRoT-7b 4.80 0.85 0.02 0.0 K0 V 0.93
61 Vir b 5.08 4.21 0.05 0.12 G5 V 0.95
GL 581 c 5.60 12.92 0.07 0.0 M3 0.31
HD 215497 b 5.40 3.93 K3 V 0.87
OGLE-05-390L b 5.40 3500 2.10 M 0.22
GJ 1214 b 5.69 1.58 0.01 0.27 0.16
GJ 667C b 5.72 7.00 M1.5
GJ 433 b 6.04 7.00 M1.5
Kepler-11d 6.1 22.68 0.159 0 G 0.95
GJ 876 d 6.36 1.94 0.02 0.14 M4 V 0.33
HD 40307 c 6.86 9.62 0.08 0.0 K2.5 V
GL 581 d 5.60 66.87 0.22 0.0 M3 0.31
GL 581 f 7.00 433 0.76 0.0 M3 0.31
HD 181433 b 7.56 9.37 0.08 0.39 K3I V 0.78
HD 1461 b 7.59 5.77 0.06 0.14 G0 V 1.08
55 Cnc e 7.63 2.82 0.04 0.07 G8 V 1.03
CoRoT-7c 8.39 3.69 0.05 0.0 K0 V 0.93
Kepler-11e 8.40 31.99 0.19 0.0 G 0.95
HD 285968 b 8.42 8.78 0.07 0.0 M2.5 V 0.49
HD 40307 d 9.15 20.46 0.13 0.0 K2.5 V
HD 7924 b 9.22 5.39 0.06 0.17 K0 V 0.83
HD 69830 b 10.49 8.67 0.08 0.1 K0 V 0.86
HD 160691 c 10.56 9.64 0.09 0.17 G3 IV-V 1.08
atmospherestwo conditions that would render super-Earths potentially habitable if their orbits
are in the habitable zones of their host stars.
Although the close-in orbits of super-Earths pose a challenge to the planet formation theo-
ries (many eorts have been made to explain the formation of these objects in close-in orbits,
and several models have been developed. However, this issue is still unresolved.), the physical
characteristics of these objects, namely their densities, when considered within the context of
dierent formation scenarios, present a potential pathway for dierentiating between dierent
planet formation models. In that respect, the study of super-Earths plays an important role in
identifying the most viable planet formation mechanism. In this paper, we discuss these issues
and review the current state of research on the formation, interior dynamics, and atmospheric
evolution of super-Earths. We also review the prospects of the detection of these objects using
ground- and space-based telescopes as potential targets for searching for extrasolar habitable
planets.
2 Formation of Super-Earths
Planet formation is one of the most outstanding problems in astronomy. Despite centuries of
theoretical eorts in explaining the formation of the planets of our solar system, this problem
is still unresolved and the formation of planets is still an open question. Although it is widely
accepted that planet formation begins by the coagulation of dust particles to larger objects in a
circumstellar disk of gas and dust known as nebula, the details of this process are unknown and
the formation of giant and terrestrial planets is not fully understood.
The issue is even more complicated in extrasolar planetary systems. The current models of
planet formation, which have been developed primarily for explaining the formation of the planets
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
6 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 4. Image of the giant planet of Fomalhault by Kalas et al (2008; [12]). The central star is a 2 solar-masses A
star at 25 light-years from the Sun. The planet has a mass of approximately 4 Jupiter-masses. It orbits the central
star at 115 AU with an eccentricity of 0.11. Figure from [12] with the permission of AAAS.
Figure 5. Planetary system of HR 8799 imaged by Marois et al (2010; [14]). The central star is of spectral type
A with a mass of 1.5 solar-masses at a distance of 128 light-years from the Sun. The planets have the masses of
M
b
= 7M
J
, Mc = M
d
= 10M
J
, and Me = (710)M
J
, with semimajor axes of 68, 38, 24, and 14.5 AU, respectively.
Figure from [14] with the permission of NPG.
of our solar system, cannot explain the formation and dynamical diversity of many of extrasolar
planets. The unexpected properties of these bodies have raised many questions about the validity
of the current theories of planet formation and their applicability to other planetary systems.
For instance, many of the currently known extrasolar giant planets have orbits smaller than the
orbit of Mercury around the Sun. This is an anomaly that cannot be explained by the current
theories of planet formation (as explained below, giant planets are expected to form at large
distances). The discovery of these hot Jupiters prompted theoreticians to revisit models of giant
planet formation, and attribute the close-in orbits of these objects to their interactions with
their surrounding nebulae and their subsequent radial migrations to closer orbits (Figure 6)
1
.
1
The resultant of the gravitational forces that a planet receives from the portions of the nebula interior and exterior to
its orbit causes the planet to radially migrate. The migration is classied as type I when the planet is small and does not
accrete nebular material (i.e. it does not create a gap in the nebula while migrating). When the planet is large and accretes
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 7
Figure 6. Graphs of the type I (left) and type II (right) planetary migration. In the left panel, the mass of the planet
is small and no gap-opening occurs. As the planet grows, it clears its surrounding and a gap gradually appears. Figures
courtesy of F. Masset.
We refer the reader to Chambers (2009; [18]) and Armitage (2010; [19]) for a comprehensive
review of planet migration and its implications for the formation of planets.
The existence of super-Earths is another of such unexpected ndings. While in our solar
system, planets belong to two distinct categories of terrestrial (i.e. Earth-sized or smaller) and
giant (approximately 12 times more massive than Earth and larger), super-Earths, with an
intermediate mass-range, introduce a new class of objects. The planet formation theories not
only have to now explain the formation of these bodies; in some case, they also have to explain
their unusual dynamical properties.
This section focuses on the formation of super-Earths. It begins by explaining dierent mod-
els of the formation of giant and terrestrial planets in our solar system, and discusses their
applicability to the formation of super-Earth objects.
2.1 Models of Planet Formation
Planets are formed in a circumstellar disk of gas and dust by the coagulation of micron-sized
dust grains to larger objects. In general, this process proceeds in four stages;
growth of dust particles to centimeter- and decimeter-sized bodies through gentle hitting and
sticking,
growth of centimeter- and decimeter-sized objects to km-sized planetesimals,
collisional growth of km-sized planetesimals to the cores of giant planets in the outer regions of
the nebula, and to moon- and Mars-sized bodies (known as protoplanets or planetary embryos)
in the inner regions, and
the accretion of gas and formation of giant planets followed by the collisional growth of plan-
etary embryos to terrestrial bodies.
material during its migration, a gap will appear and the migration is classied as type II. See gure 6.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
8 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 7. Top: Hit-and-stick collisions lead to fractal growth and subsequently to a narrow size distribution [26].
The collision among dust grains occurs for several reasons including their Brownian motion in the gas. Bottom:
Graph of the fractal growth of aggregates during collisions in Brownian motion. The data points are taken from
experiments by Krause & Blum (2004; [25]). The solid curve is the analytical model. The time on the horizontal axis
is normalized to the collisional timescale for grains. The inset on the upper left corner shows examples of fractal dust
aggregates found in the space shuttle experiments by Blum et al (2000; [28]). Figure from [29] with the permission
of ARAA.
The rst stage of this process is well understood. At this stage, dust grains are strongly
coupled to the gas and their dynamics is driven by non-gravitational forces such as radiation
pressure, and also by gas drag. Because dust particles follow the motion of the gas, their relative
velocities are small. As a result, they slowly approach one another and gently collide. Laboratory
experiments and computational simulations have shown that such gentle collisions result in the
fractal growth of dust grains to larger aggregates (Figures 7 and 8) [20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27].
The second stage (i.e. the growth of centimeter-sized objects to kilometer-sized planetesimals)
is still a big mystery. The collisions of centimeter- or decimeter-sized bodies with one another do
not seem to facilitate the growth of these objects to larger sizes [29, 32]. As dust grains grow, their
coupling to the gas weakens (i.e., they move faster in the gas) [31] and they show more of their
independent dynamics. When two objects reach several centimeters or decimeters in size, their
relative velocities become so large that their collisions may result in breakage and fragmentation
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 9
Figure 8. Molecular-dynamics simulations by Paszun & Dominik (2006; [30]) showing compaction of fractal dust
aggregates. The upper left panel shows two aggregates before collision. The merging and compaction of the aggregates
are shown in subsequent panels. Figure from [29] with the permission of ARAA.
(e.g., [32]). Known as the centimeter-sized barrier, such disruptive collisions prevent the growth
of small bodies to larger sizes.
The diculties do not end here. In the event that some centimeter-sized bodies manage to
grow, the subsequent increase in their velocities causes many of them, in particular those with
sizes of 1 to several meters, to either collide and shatter each other, or rapidly spiral towards
the central star. Known as the meter-sized barrier, these eects deprive the nebula of enough
materials to form planets.
The puzzling fact is that despite these diculties, planets do exist and the above-mentioned
issues were somehow overcome. Many theoretical models have been developed to solve this puzzle
[33, 34, 35]. However, they all have limitations and none has been able to present a complete
and comprehensive scenario for the formation of km-sized planetesimals. We refer the reader
to articles by Blum & Wurm (2008; [29]) and Chiang & Youdin (2010, [36]) for reviews of the
current state of research in this area.
At the third stage of planet formation, the situation is dierent. Here, the interactions among
planetesimals are primarily gravitational. Since the protoplanetary disk at this stage is populated
by km-sized and larger objects, collisions among these bodies are frequent. In general, frequent
collisions in a crowded environment result in low eccentricities and low inclinations which facil-
itate the merging and accretion of the colliding bodies. As a planetesimal grows, the inuence
zone of its gravitational eld expands and it attracts more material from its surroundings. In
other words, more material will be available for the planetesimal to accrete, and as a result the
rate of its growth is enhanced. Known as runaway growth, this process results in the growth of
km-sized planetesimals to larger bodies in a short time (Figure 9) [37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44].
At large distances from the central star (e.g. > 5 AU from the Sun) where the rotational
velocities are small, the collisional growth of planetesimals is more ecient. At such distances,
planetesimals approach each other with small relative velocities and their impacts are likely to
result in accretion. Also, because far from the star, the temperature is low, the bulk material of
such planetesimals is primarily ice which increases the eciency of their sticking at the time of
their collision. As a result, in a short time, planetesimals grow to large objects with masses equal
to a few masses of Earth. As this process occurs while the nebular gas is still around, growing
planetesimals gradually attract gas from their surroundings forming a large body with a thick
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
10 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 9. Snapshots of the evolution of a disk of planetesimals during their collisional growth to larger objects.
The left panel shows the formation of a protoplanet after 2 10
5
years. The right panel shows the interaction of
protoplanets with planetesimals and the formation of several moon-sized embryos. Figure from [44] with permission.
gaseous envelope and a mass equal to a few hundred Earth-masses. At this state, a gas-giant
planet is formed. This mechanism that is known as the core-accretion model is widely accepted
as the model of the formation of gas-giant planets in our solar system (Figure 10) [45, 46, 47, 48].
At distances close to the central star, the accretion of planetesimals follows a slightly dierent
path. Similar to the process of the formation of the cores of gas-giant planets, the collisions of
planetesimals at this stage may result in their growth to larger bodies. However, the eciency
of planetesimal accretion will not be as high and as a result, instead of forming objects as big
as the cores of giant planets, accretion of planetesimals in this region results in the formation
of several hundred moon-sized bodies known as planetary embryos. Computational simulations
[49] and analytical analysis [50] have shown that when the masses of these embryos reach the
lunar-mass, planetesimals can no longer damp their orbits through dynamical friction, and the
runaway growth ends. The gravitational perturbation of the resulted planetary embryos aect the
dynamics of smaller planetesimals and cause them to collide with one another and/or be scattered
to large distances where they may leave the gravitational eld of the system. This growth and
clearing process continues until terrestrial planets are formed and the smaller remaining bodies
(asteroids) are in stable orbits [51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58]. Figure 11 shows the time evolution
of a sample simulation of terrestrial planet formation [56].
The above-mentioned processes, although seemingly straightforward, are extremely complex.
The immensity of the nebula, the enormous number of interacting objects, and the complicated
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 11
Figure 10. Graphs of the mass of the giant planet (left panels) and its radius (right panels) for simulations by Lissauer et
al (2009; [47]). Each color corresponds to a dierent value of protoplanet surface density (see [47] for details). The solid line
represents the mass of the core, the dotted line shows that of the gaseous envelope, and the dashes-dotted line corresponds
to the total mass of the planet. The upper left graph shows the mass-growth only up to 40 Earth-masses in order to show the
details of mass-accretion at early stages. The top right panel represents the radius of the planet during this stage. The panel
on the bottom left shows the total mass of the planet. As shown here, the giant planet accretes more than 300 Earth-masses
in approximately 3 Myr. The bottom right panel shows the total radius of the planet. Figure from [47] with permission.
physics that is involved in their interactions make it impossible for any simulation of planet
formation to include all necessary components and to be fully comprehensive. These simulations
are also constantly challenged by observations that reveal more characteristics of planet-forming
environments. For instance, during the formation of giant planets, the core-accretion model
requires the nebular gas to be available as the core of Jupiter grows and accrete gas from its
surrounding. The computational simulations presented in the original paper by Pollack et al
(1996; [45]) suggest that this time is approximately 10 Myr. In other words, in order for gas-
giant planets to form by the core-accretion model, the lifetime of the nebular gas has to be
comparable with this time. However, the observational estimates of the lifetimes of disks around
young stars suggest a lifetime of 0.1-10 Myr, with 3 Myr being the age for which half of stars
show evidence of disks [59, 60, 61, 62]. Any model of gas-giant planet formation has to be able
to form these objects in less than approximately 3 Myr.
Additionally, the simulations of the core-accretion model suggest that the core of Jupiter grows
to 10 Earth-masses. However, computational modeling of the interior of Jupiter and Saturn
point to values ranging from 0 to as large as 14 Earth-masses [63, 64]. It is unclear what the
actual masses of the cores of our gas-giant planets are, and if smaller than 10 Earth-masses, how
they accumulated their thick envelopes in a short time. We refer the reader to a review article
by Guillot (2005; [63]) for more details.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
12 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 11. Radial mixing of planetesimals and planetary embryos, and the formation of terrestrial planets. A Jupiter-sized
planet, not shown in the gure, is at 5.5 AU. The size of each object has been scaled with its mass assuming that it is a
perfect sphere. The color of each object corresponds to its water content (water/mass fraction). Red represents dry, light
green represents 1% water, and blue corresponds to 5% water content. The black circle in the middle of each object shows
its solid core. Figure from [56] with permission.
Several eorts have been made to overcome these diculties. As shown by Hubickyj et al
(2005; [46]) and Lissauer et al (2009; [47]), increasing the surface density of the nebula to higher
than that suggested by Pollack et al (1996; [45]) signicantly reduces the time of the giant
planet formation (Figure 10). Furthermore, an improved treatment of the grain physics as given
by Podolak (2003; [65]), Movshovitz & Podolak (2008; [66]), and Movshovitz et al (2010; [48])
indicates that the value of the grain opacity in the envelope of the growing Jupiter in the original
core-accretion model [45] is too high, and a lower value has to be adopted. This lower opacity has
led to a revised version of the core-accretion model in which the time of giant planet formation
is considerably smaller [46, 48]. Most recently, Bromley & Kenyon [67] have developed a new
hybrid N-body-coagulation code which enables this authors to form Saturn- and Jupiter-sized
planets in approximately 1 Myr.
An alternative mechanism, known as the disk instability model, addresses this issue by propos-
ing rapid formation of giant planets in a gravitationally unstable nebula [68, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73,
74, 75, 76, 77]. In this model, local gravitational instabilities in the solar nebula may result in
the fragmentation of the disk to massive clumps which subsequently contract and form gas-
giant planets in a short time (Figure 12). Calculations by Boss (2000; [68, 69]) and Mayer et al
(2002-4; [70, 72]) show that an unstable disk can break up into giant gaseous protoplanets in
approximately 1000 years. Although this mechanism presents a fast track to the formation of a
gas-giant planet, it suers from the lack of an ecient cooling process necessary to take energy
away from a planet-forming clump in a suciently short time before it disperses.
2.2 Application to the Formation of Super-Earths
As explained above, the current models of giant and terrestrial planet formation have been devel-
oped to explain the formation of the planets in our solar system. Since there are no super-Earths
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 13
Figure 12. Snapshots of the evolution of a protoplanetary disk in the disk instability model. As shown here, while the disk
evolves, spiral arms appear where the density of the gas is locally enhanced (bright colors correspond to high densities),
and clumps are formed. Figure from [70] with the permission of AAAS.
around the Sun, it may not be obvious whether these models can also explain the formation
of these objects. However, a deeper look at the ranges of the masses and sizes of these bodies
suggests that super-Earths might have formed in the same way as gas-giant planets. The key
is in the intermediate range of the masses of these objects. With masses ranging from a few
Earth-masses to slightly smaller than Uranus, super-Earths are basically as massive as the cores
of gas-giant planets. In fact some researchers consider super-Earths as giant planets failed
cores. We recall that according to the core-accretion model and the simulations of the interior
of Jupiter, this planet may have a core with a mass between zero and 14 Earth-masses [63, 64].
The extent to which the current models of giant planet formation can be used to explain the
formation of super-Earths varies from one system to another. The diversity of the currently
known super-Earth planetary systems, both in spectral types of their host stars and the orbital
dynamics of their planets (see Table 1), suggests that while in some systems (e.g., around M
stars) super-Earths might have formed in-place [78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83], in other systems (e.g.,
around G stars) the formation of these objects might have occurred while their orbital elements
were evolving [81, 82, 84]. In such systems, the larger than terrestrial masses of super-Earths,
combined with the fact that many of these objects are in short-period orbits, points to a formation
scenario in which super-Earths were formed at large distances (where more material was available
for their growth) and either were scattered to their current orbits as a result of interactions with
other cores and/or planets [84], or migrated to their current locations as they interacted with
the protoplanetary disk [82]. This mechanism naturally favors the core-accretion model of gas-
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
14 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 13. Graph of the core and envelope of a planet at dierent distances in a disk around a 0.4 solar-mass star. Black
circles represent cores and the large circles are their envelopes. The mass of the core (Mc) is given in Earth-masses and its
radius (Rc) is in centimeters. The total mass and radius of the planet are shown by Mt and Rt, respectively. As shown here,
in about 100 Myr, the planets envelope contracts and the planet reaches its nal size. Figure from [78] with the permission
of AAS.
giant planet formation, although attempts have also been made to explain the formation of
super-Earths via the disk instability scenario [85].
2.2.1 Formation of Super-Earths Around Low-Mass Stars: Core-Accretion
To determine whether super-Earths can form in-place around low-mass stars, Laughlin et al
(2004; [78]) simulated giant planet formation through the core-accretion model in disks around
stars with masses smaller than 0.5 solar-masses. These authors showed that around M stars,
this mechanism produces planets ranging from terrestrial-class to Neptune-sized (Figure 13).
The results of their simulations also indicated that the lower-than-solar masses of M stars (typ-
ically smaller than 0.4 solar-masses), which implies low masses and surface densities for their
circumstellar disks as well, results in less frequent collisions among planetesimals and planetary
embryos, and prolongs the growth of these objects to larger sizes. Consequently, the time of the
core growth around M stars will be several times longer than the time of the formation of Jupiter
around the Sun. During this time, the gaseous component of the circumstellar disk is dispersed,
leaving the slowly growing core with much less gas to accrete.
The short lifetime of the gas in circumstellar disks around M stars can be attributed to two
factors: 1) the high internal radiation of young M stars (these stars are almost as bright as solar-
type stars), and 2) external perturbations from other close-by stars. Since most stars are formed
in clusters [86], their circumstellar disks are strongly aected by the gravitational perturbations
and the radiations of other stars [87]. For M stars, this causes the circumstellar disk to receive
high amount of radiation from both the central star and external sources. The high amounts of
radiation combined with the low masses of M stars, which points to their small gravitational
elds, increases the eectiveness of the photo-evaporation of the gaseous component of the
circumstellar disk by up to two orders of magnitude. As a result, the majority of the gas leaves
the disk at the early stage of giant planet formation.
The slow growth of planetary embryos around M stars and the rapid dispersal of the nebular
gas suggest that no giant planet should exist in these systems and the planets around M stars
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 15
Figure 14. Top: The graph of the time evolution of the surface density of a disk around a 0.25 solar-mass star. The initial
mass of the disk is 0.065 times the mass of the central star. Each curve on this graph corresponds to the disk evolution at
that xed radius. Bottom: The graph of the mass of a planetary embryo at the indicated distance during the evolution of
the disk. As shown by the two panels, the inward migration of snow line increases ice condensation which in turn results in
an increase in the disk surface density, and formation of larger objects. The latter is more pronounced in the region between
2 and 8 AU. Figure from [79] with the permission of AAS.
have to be mainly super-Earths or smaller. While the observational evidence is in agreement
with the latter (e.g., the M star GL 581 is host to 4-6 planets with masses similar to that of
Neptune and smaller), it does not support the rst suggestion. Several giant planets have in
fact been discovered around M stars among which one can name GJ 876 with two planets with
masses of 0.6 and 1.9 Jupiter-masses on 30-day and 60-day orbits [88], and HIP 57050 with a
Saturn-mass planet in its habitable zone [89].
Eect of Stellar Evolution
The above-mentioned simulations do not take the eect of stellar evolution into account. As
opposed to young solar-type stars whose luminosities stay almost constant during the formation
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
16 Nader Haghighipour
of a planet (e.g. 10 to 100 Myr), the luminosity of a pre-main sequence low-mass star (e.g.,
0.5 solar-masses) fades by a factor of 10 to 100 during this time [90]. As a result, the internal
temperature of the circumstellar disk will decrease which causes the region known as snow line
(or ice condensation limit, the region beyond which water is in the permanent state of ice) to
move to close distances. The inward migration of the snow line results in an increase in the
population of icy materials (km-sized and larger planetesimals), which in turn increases the
eciency of the collisional growth of these objects to protoplanetary bodies (we recall that as
mentioned in section 2.1, sticking is more ecient among icy bodies). As shown by Kennedy et
al (2006; [79]), around a 0.25 solar-mass star, the moving snow line causes rapid formation of
planetary embryos within a few million years. Subsequent collisions and interactions among these
objects result in the formation of super-Earths in approximately 50500 million years (Figure
14).
Eect of Planet Migration
A common feature among the formation scenarios mentioned above is the implicit assumption
that planets are formed in-place. Although the post-formation migration has been presented as
a mechanism for explaining the close-in orbits of super-Earths, these scenarios do not include
the eect of the possible migration of still-forming planets (for instance, at the stage when cores
of giant planets are forming) on the collisional growth of protoplanetary bodies. They also do
not consider the possibility of the migration of planetary embryos during the accretion of these
objects. However, studies of the interactions of disks and planets have made it certain that planet
migration occurs and has profound eects on the formation of planetary systems and the nal
assembly of their planets and smaller constituents.
In our solar system, planetary and satellite migration has long been recognized as a major
contributor to the formation and orbital architecture of planets, their moons, and other minor
bodies. For instance, as shown by Greenberg (1972-3; [91, 92]), mean-motion resonances (i.e.,
commensurable orbital periods
1
) among the natural satellites of giant planets (e.g., Titan and
Hyperion, satellites of Saturn) might have been the results of the radial migration of these objects
due to their tidal interactions with their parent planets [93]. Similarly, the orbital architecture
of Galilean satellites and their capture in a three-body resonance has been attributed to the
migration of these objects rst during their formation while interacting with Jupiters circum-
planetary disk of satellitesimals [94], and subsequently by tidal forces after their formation [95].
The lack of irregular satellites between Callisto, the outermost Galilean satellite, and Themisto,
the innermost irregular satellite of Jupiter can also be explained by a dynamical clearing process
that occurred during the formation and migration of Galilean satellites [96].
The idea of the migration of planetary bodies was rst proposed by Fernandez & Ip (1984;
[97]). These authors suggested that after the dispersal of the nebular gas, giant planets may
drift from their original orbits due to the exchange of angular momentum with the planetesimal
debris disk, and scatter these objects to other regions of the solar system. This idea was later
utilized by Malhotra (1993-5; [98, 99]) to explain the peculiar (highly eccentric, inclined, and
long-term chaotic) orbit of Pluto, and by Malhotra (1996; [100]), and Hahn & Malhotra (2005;
[101]) to explain the dynamical structure of Kuiper belt objects.
Planetary migration has been used extensively to explain the existence of close-in Jupiter-like
planets. In fact, it was the detection of the rst hot Jupiter around the star 51 Pegasi [1] that
prompted scientists to revisit theories of planet migration in our solar system, and apply them
to extrasolar planets. At present, planet migration is well-developed and widely accepted as part
of a comprehensive formation mechanism. As mentioned in the Introduction, depending on the
physical and dynamical characteristics of planets and their circumstellar disks, migration occurs
1
It is necessary to emphasize that orbital commensurability is necessary for two planets to be in a mean-motion resonance,
however it is not sucient. Other constraints have to exist between the angular elements of their orbits as well. For more
details, the reader is referred to books on celestial mechanics.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 17
Figure 15. Graph of the formation of terrestrial planets during the migration of a Jupiter-sized body. Colors indicate water
content as in gure 7. Simulations include gas drag as well. As shown here, while the giant planet migrates inwards, many
protoplanetary bodies are either scattered out of the system, or their eccentricities are lowered due to the gas drag, and
they stay in orbits at larger distances. The collisions among the latter embryos may result in the formation of terrestrial
planets beyond the orbit of the giant body. Figure from [114] with the permission of AAS.
in dierent forms (e.g., Type I and Type II, see Figure 6). Numerous articles have been published
on this subject which unfortunately makes it impossible to cite them all here. We refer the reader
to papers by Nelson et al (2001;[102]), Masset & Snellgrove (2001; [103]), Papaloizou & Terquem
(2006; [104]) and articles by Chambers (2009; [18]) and Armitage (2010; [19]) for a review on this
topic and the eects of planet migration on the formation and dynamical evolution of planetary
systems.
The contribution of planet migration to the formation of close-in super-Earths may appear in
dierent ways. A fully formed migrating giant planet aects the dynamics of interior protoplan-
etary bodies by either increasing their orbital eccentricities and scattering them to larger dis-
tances, or causing them to migrate to closer orbits. The migrated protoplanets may be shepherded
by the giant planet into small close-in regions where they are captured in mean-motion reso-
nances. As shown by Zhou et al (2005; [105]), Fogg & Nelson (2005-9; [106, 107, 108, 109, 110]),
and Raymond et al (2008; [111]), around Sun-like stars, the shepherded protoplanets may also
collide and grow to terrestrial-class and super-Earth objects. Also, as shown by Mandell & Sig-
urdsson (2003; [112]), Raymond et al (2006; [113]), and Mandell et al (2007; [114]), in more
massive protoplanetary disks around such stars, the out-scattered protoplanets may collide and
grow to planetary-sized bodies (Figure 15).
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
18 Nader Haghighipour
Recent simulations by Haghighipour & Rastegar (2010; [115]) have shown that such accretion
of protoplanets during giant planet migration may not be ecient around low-mass stars. Sim-
ulating the dynamics of protoplanetary bodies at distances smaller than 0.2 AU around a 0.3
solar-mass star, these authors have shown that during the inward migration of one or several
giant planets (the latter involves migrating planets in mean-motion resonances), the majority of
the protoplanets leave the system and do not contribute to the formation of close-in Earth-sized
and/or super-Earth bodies. Their results suggest that the currently known small planets around
M stars might have formed at larger distances and were either scattered to their current close-in
orbits, or migrated into their orbits while captured in mean-motion resonance with a migrating
planet.
In a protoplanetary disk, the interactions among cores of giant planets and planetary embryos
may also result in the inward migration of the latter objects. While migrating, orbital crossing
and collisional merging of these bodies may result in their growth to a few super-Earths, espe-
cially in mean-motion resonances. Simulating the interactions of 25 protoplanetary objects with
masses ranging from 0.1 to 1 Earth-masses, Terquem & Papaloizou (2007; [84]) have shown that
a few close-in super-Earths may form in this way with masses up to 12 Earth-masses. The results
of the simulations by these authors suggest that in systems where merging of migrating cores
results in the formation of super-Earth and Neptune-like planets, such planets will always be
accompanied by giant bodies and most likely in mean-motion resonances. Similar results have
also been reported by Haghighipour & Rastegar (2010; [115]).
Interestingly, unlike the scenarios explained above, there are several planetary systems that
host small Naptune-sized objects and super-Earths but do not harbor giant planets (e.g., HD
69830, GL 581). The planets in these systems do not have a Jupiter-like companion that might
have facilitated their formation. Such systems seem to imply that a dierent mechanism may
be responsible for the formation of their super-Earth objects. Kennedy & Kenyon (2008; [82])
and Kenyon & Bromley (2009; [116]) suggested that the migration of protoplanetary embryos
may be the key in facilitating the close-in accretion of these bodies. Similar to giant planets,
planetary embryos can also undergo migration. Simulating the growth of planetary embryos in
a circumstellar disk with a density enhancement at the region of its snow line, these authors
have shown that during the collision and growth of planetary embryos, many of these objects
may migrate towards the central star. Around a solar-type star, the time of such migrations
for an Earth-sized planet at 1 AU is approximately 10
5
10
6
yearsmuch smaller than the time
of the chaotic growth of a typical moon- to Mars-sized embryos (10
8
years) [50]. This implies
that most of the migration occurs prior to the onset of the nal growth. Depending on their
relative velocities, the interaction of the migrated embryos may result in the growth, scattering,
and shepherding, as in the case of a migrating giant planet. Simulations by Kennedy & Kenyon
(2008; [82]) and Kenyon & Bromley (2009; [116]) have shown that super-Earth objects with
masses up to 8 Earth-masses may form in this way around stars ranging from 0.25 to 2 solar-
masses (Figure 16).
2.2.2 Formation of Super-Earths Around Low-Mass Stars: Disk Instability
As explained before, given the low masses of the circumstellar disks around M stars, the
existence of giant planets around these stars suggests that they might have formed at large
distances and migrated to their current orbits. This assumption is based on the fact that in a
planet-forming nebula, more material is available at outer regions which can then facilitate the
formation of a giant planet through the core-accretion model. The availability of more mass at
the outer distances in a disk prompted researchers to look into the possibility of explaining the
formation of super-Earths around M stars through the disk instability model. Recall that in
this scenario, clumps, formed in an unstable gaseous disk, collapse and form gas-giant planets
(e.g. [68, 70]). After the giant planets are formed, a secondary process is needed to remove their
gaseous envelopes. Simulations by Boss (2006; [85]) have shown that such collapsing clumps
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 19
Figure 16. Migration of planetary embryos around a (from top to bottom) 0.25, 0.5, and 1 solar-mass star. The outer
planets were initially 2, 3.2, and 6 Earth-masses, respectively. As the embryos migrate, they collide and grow to larger
objects. The numbers next to the lines in each panel correspond to the nal mass of that body in Earth-masses. Figure
from [82] with the permission of AAS.
can form around a 0.5 solar-mass star at a distance of approximately 8 AU. This author sug-
gests that, as most stars are formed in clusters and in high-mass star forming regions, intense
FUV/EUV radiations from near-by O stars may rapidly (within 1 Myr) photo-evaporate the
gaseous envelope around giant planets, leaving them with large super-Earth cores (Figure 17).
Similar mechanism has been suggested for the formation of Uranus and Neptune in our solar
system [117]. A subsequent migration, similar to that suggested by Michael et al (2011, [118]),
may then move these cores to close-in orbits.
The above-mentioned combination of the disk-instability and gas photo-evaporation presents
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
20 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 17. Formation of clumps (shaded regions) in a gravitationally unstable disk around a 0.5 solar-mass star, after 215
years. The outer edge of the disk is at 20 AU and its inner radius is 4 AU. The clumps densities are larger than 10
10
g/cm
3
. Figure from [85] with the permission of AAS.
a possible scenario for the formation of super-Earths at large distances and their migration to
their closer orbits. However, this mechanism does not seem to be able to explain the formation of
the close-in 7.5 Earth-masses planet of the M star GJ 876 and its current 2-day orbit. According
to the disk instability model, this object has to have 1) formed at a large distance where it also
developed a gaseous envelop, 2) migrated inwards while its atmosphere was photo-evaporated,
and nally 3) switched orbits with the two giant planets of the systema scenario that (without
switching orbits) may be applicable to the formation of the recently detected outermost super-
Earth planet of this system [88], but is very unlikely to have happened to the innermost body.
As evident from the review presented in this section, it is generally accepted that super-Earths
are formed through a combination of a core accumulation process and planetary migration.
Modeling the formation of these objects requires the simulation of the collisional growth of
planetary embryos, and their subsequent interactions with the protoplanetary disk. A realistic
model requires a global treatment of the disk and inclusion of a large number of planetesimals
and planetary embryos. In practice, such simulations are computationally expensive. To avoid
such complications, most of the current models of super-Earth formation include only small
numbers of objects (cores, progenitors, protoplanets, planetesimals, etc.). Recently McNeil &
Nelson (2010, [119]) have shown that in systems with a large number of bodies (e.g. several
thousand planetesimals and larger objects), the combination of the traditional core-accretion
and type-I planet migration may not produce objects larger than 3-4 Earth-masses in close-in
(e.g., 0.5 AU) orbits. Although the systems studies by these authors carry some simplifying
assumption, their results point to an interesting conclusion: while the combination of core-
accretion and planet migration seems to be a viable mechanism for the formation of close-in
super-Earths, the formation of these objects is still an open question, and a comprehensive
theory for their formation requires more sophisticated computational modeling.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 21
3 Habitability of Super-Earths
An important characteristic of super-Earths that dierentiates them from other planetary bodies
(i.e., terrestrial and giant planets) is the masses of these objects. The larger-than-terrestrial
masses of these planets imply that super-Earths have the capability of developing and retaining
atmospheres, and may also be able to have a dynamic interior. As super-Earths are formed (or
dynamically evolved) in a region of a protoplanetary disk where the gas has a short lifetime, the
amount of the gas accreted by these objects, or trapped in their interiors when they were fully
formed, is much smaller than those of gas-giant planets. It is therefore natural to expect super-
Earths to have thin to moderately thick atmospheres (e.g., see [120] and [121] for developments
on modeling the atmosphere of super-Earth GJ 1214b, and its observational constraints). Around
small and cool stars such as M dwarfs, where the liquid water habitable zone is at close distances,
the thin to moderate atmospheres of close-in super-Earths and their probable dynamic interior
make these objects prime candidates for habitability. Such close-in habitable super-Earths are
potentially detectable by both the ground- and space-based telescopes. In this section, these
unique characteristics of super-Earths are discussed in more detail.
It is important to note that the notion of habitability is dened based on the life as we
know it. Since Earth is the only habitable planet known to humankind, the orbital and physical
characteristics of Earth are used to dene a habitable planet. In other words, habitability is
the characteristic of an environment which has similar properties as those of Earth, and the
capability of developing and sustaining Earthly life.
The statement above implies that the fact that the only habitable planet we know is Earth
has strongly biased our understanding of the conditions required for life. From the astronomers
point of view, and owing to the essential role that water plays on life on Earth, the denition
of a habitable planet is tied to the presence of liquid water. However as simple this denition
might be, it has strong connections to a variety of complex interdependent processes that need
to be unraveled and understood to make predictions on which planets could be habitable. The
basic principle is that the surface temperature and pressure of a planet should allow for liquid
water. This is determined by the amount of irradiation that the planet receives from the star,
and the response of the planets atmosphere. The latter delicately depends on the composition
of the planet, and that in turn determines the heat transport mechanism, cloud presence, and
many other atmospheric properties.
The irradiation from the star is contingent on the type of the star and the planets orbital
parameters. The atmospheric composition, on the other hand, depends on the in-gassing, out-
gassing, and escape histories of the planet. The in-gassing and out-gassing accounts are intrin-
sically connected to the interior dynamics of the planet, while atmospheric escape is related to
a variety of thermal and non-thermal processes, which themselves are linked to the presence of
a magnetic eld. It is not clear how delicate the balance between these dierent processes could
be. Nor is it evident if there are dierent pathways that could yield a habitable planet. However,
the fact that Earth has succeeded in developing life indicates that our planet might have followed
one, perhaps of many evolutionary paths that resulted naturally in a complex system by the
series of steps and bifurcations that it encountered. It is important to note that the complexity
and interdependence of these processes cannot be taken as evidence for the uniqueness of life on
Earth. The road ahead is to understand which planetary characteristics are indispensable, which
are facilitating, and which are a byproduct of evolution. For that purpose, and in order to assess
the possibility that a planet (e.g., a super-Earth) may be habitable, a deep understanding of
these processes (i.e. interior composition and dynamics, planets magnetic eld, and atmospheric
characteristics) is required.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
22 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 18. Graph of the mass-radius relationship for extrasolar planets OGLE-TR-10b [123], HD 209458b [125], OGLE-TR-
56b [126], OGLE-TR-132b [127], OGLE-TR-111b [128], OGLE-TR-113b [129, 130], TrES-1 [131]. The dotted lines represent
curves of constant densities. Jupiter and Saturn are also shown. Figure from [123] with the permission of AAS.
3.1 Interior
There are at least three aspects of the interior of a super-Earth that relate to its possible
habitability: its composition, the manifestation of plate tectonics, and the presence of a magnetic
eld.
3.1.1 Composition
As water is the most essential element for habitability, one might expect that it will have
a signicant contribution to the total mass of a habitable planet. However, on Earth, water
constitutes less than 0.1% of Earths mass which places Earth among the rocky planets of our
solar system. This suggests, in order to study the habitability of extrasolar planets, it is important
to distinguish planetary type, and identify rocky planets with some liquid water.
Unfortunately at the moment, the type of data available to infer the composition of extrasolar
planets is limited. The rst generation of data comprises masses and radii obtained from radial
velocity and transit photometry searches. Neither of these quantities alone can lead to a denitive
determination of the composition of a planet. However, for those planets whose masses and radii
are known, a relationship between these quantities (known as the mass-radius relationship) can
help to gain an insight on the possible materials that contributed to the formation of these
objects.
Among the currently known extrasolar planets, the knowledge of both mass and radius is
limited to only a small number of these bodies. The majority of these planets are Jupiter-like
with masses larger than 0.3 Jupiter-masses. To the zeroth order of approximation, one can
assume that these planets are perfectly spherical and have uniform interiors
1
. The mass-radius
relationship in this case will be of the simple form R M
1/3
. Figure 18 shows a few of these
extrasolar planets in a mass-radius diagram [see also gure 4 of Seager et al (2007, [122])]. The
1
The mass and radius of a spherical body with uniform density are related as M = (4/3)R
3
, where R is the radius and
M is the mass of the object.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 23
Figure 19. Left: Graph of the density of planets with masses ranging from 1 to 10 Earth-masses. The core of each planet
constitutes 32.59% of its mass. Each planet has 10% iron in its mantle and 30% Ferromagnesiowustite in its lower mantle.
Right: Mass-radius power law for planets with ten dierent mineral compositions. The star denotes Earth. Note that the
x-axis is logarithmic. See [132] for more details. Figure from [133] with permission.
masses of these objects are in the range of 0.5 to 1.5 Jupiter-masses. The gure shows some
curves of constant density as well. As shown here, the assumption of a uniform interior places
these objects close to the curves of constant density ranging from 0.4 to 1.3 g cm
3
[123]. As a
point of comparison, Jupiter and Saturn are also shown. For more details, we refer the reader
to the paper by Seager et al (2007, [122]) on the mass-radius relationship in massive extrasolar
planets, and to the article by Sotin et al (2007, [124]) where these authors discuss the mass-radius
relationship of ocean planets.
Despite the apparent agreement between the values of the densities of the giant planets in
Figure 18 and the assumption of a uniform interior, this assumption is not valid for super-Earth
objects. As known from Earth, the large amount of internal pressure in terrestrial planets
1
causes the interiors of these objects to not have a uniform composition. As a result, the mass-
radius relationship for these planets deviates from the 1/3 power-law. Valencia et al (2006, 2007;
[132, 133]) studied these deviations for objects with masses of 1 to 10 Earth-masses. Scaling Earth
to larger sizes and assuming a layered structure with dierent values of density, temperature, and
pressure for each layer, these authors modeled the composition of super-Earths by integrating
the equation of state of each layer for dierent combinations of components such as iron, silicate,
magnesium, alloys, and water. The results of their simulations show that super-Earths may be
mainly composed of iron cores, silicate mantles, and water/ices (H
2
O and ammonia, methane in
minor proportions). These authors suggested that the mass-radius relationship for super-Earths
may be of the form R A(R) M

where the coecient A(R) has dierent values for dierent


compositions, and the exponent varies in a small range between 0.262 and 0.274 (Figure 19).
Although the results of the simulations by Valencia et al (2006, 2007; [132, 133]) portray a
general picture of the components of which super-Earths might have formed, the mere knowledge
of the mass and radius of these objects is not sucient to determine their actual compositions.
Since the above-mentioned mass-ratio relation is model-dependent, many combinations of dif-
ferent components may result in the same mass and radius. In other words, the mass-radius
relationship suers from a degeneracy that stems from the existing trade-os between compo-
nents with dierent densities (iron cores, silicate mantles, water/icy layers, hydrogen envelope)
[134]. This degeneracy does not allow for the denite determination of the composition of super-
Earths.
Despite this degeneracy, it may still be possible to attribute a set of probable compositions to
a super-Earth once its radius is determined from observation. Integrating the equation of state
1
In case of super-Earths, this pressure may amount to approximately 60 Mbars
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
24 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 20. Ternary Diagrams for a 5 Earth-mass planet (e.g., GL 581 c) showing its possible compositions and dierent
radii. Each diagram has three axes indicating the amount of water, iron (core), and silicate (mantle). Each point inside a
diagram corresponds to a unique combination of the three end-members. The vertices correspond to a 100% composition,
and the opposite line corresponds to 0% of a particular component. A few examples are shown in the top panel. Many
dierent combinations of the three end-member components for a given mass can have the same radius. The bottom panel
shows this in more detail. Labels on isoradius curves are radii in km. A ternary diagram exists for each value of planetary
mass. The color bar spans the range of sizes of rocky and icy super-Earths from 1 Earth-mass pure iron planet (of 5000
km), to a 10 Earth-masses snowball planet (16000 km). Figure from [135] with the permission of AAS.
for dierent combinations of silicate, iron, and water, and for dierent values of the radius of a
super-Earth with a known mass, Valencia et al (2007; [135]) have developed an archive that can
be used for this purpose. Figure 20 shows the results of one of their simulations. Known as a
ternary diagram, each panel of this gure shows the connection between dierent combinations of
a 5 Earth-mass super-Earth and its radius. Each vertex of a triangle represents an object with a
100% composition of the vertexs material. Each side depicts the amount of the two components
on its two vertices that compose the planet. A point inside the triangle uniquely species a
composition and its corresponding radius. As shown by the bottom panel, super-Earths with
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 25
1 2 3 4 5 6 8 10 15 20
30000
6000
8000
10000
12000
20000
Mass [M
Earth
]
R
a
d
i
u
s

[
k
m
]
CoRoT-7b
M
g
-silicate p
lan
et
Earth-like
M
g
-silicate m
antle 37%
, core 63%
Iron planet
Uranus
Neptune
U
n
d
ifferen
tiated
Earth
-like
Figure 21. Mass-Radius relations for rocky super-Earths. The shaded area shows the data for CoRoT-7b. Five dierent
compositions are shown. Orange: a Mg-Si planet (or super-Moon planet) has little or no content of iron; Green: an Earth-
like composition (dierentiated planet with 33% core, 67% mantle, and 0.1 molar iron fraction in the mantle); Blue:
undierentiated planet with the same elemental bulk composition as Earth (Fe/Si = 2); Pink: A super-Mercury composition;
Black: a pure iron composition. The pure Mg-Si and pure Fe compositions correspond to the lightest and densest rocky
compositions, although they are highly unlikely given that Mg, Si, and Fe condense at similar temperatures. Compositions
with increasing amounts of iron lie progressively below the Mg-Si planet composition. Any mass-radius combination that
lies above the Mg-Si planet line necessarily implies a volatile content. Figure from [136] with permission from A&A.
similar masses but dierent compositions may have identical radii.
Using a ternary diagram, it is possible to identify the extreme sizes that a planet might have.
For instance, from Figure 20, the maximum value of the radius of a 5 Earth-masses super-Earth
corresponds to a planet that is formed entirely of pure ice and water (left corner of the ternary
diagram). A radius larger than that of such a snowball planet would indicate the presence of
an atmosphere which could probably be made of hydrogen/helium. The minimum value of the
radius of a super-Earth, on the other hand, corresponds to a planet that is made of pure iron
or heavy alloys (right corner of the ternary diagram). There is also a maximum size for a rocky
planet corresponding to a pure silicate composition devoid of an iron core. Any radius above
this critical size would indicate the presence of volatiles. By volatiles we refer to water and other
ices (ammonia, methane), as well as hydrogen and helium. The progression of the radius from
the dry side (mantle-core connection) to the wet side suggests that for a given planet, there is a
threshold radius beyond which the planet contains a substantial amount of water (e.g., an ocean
planet). This threshold corresponds to the largest isoradius curve that intersects the terrestrial
side of the ternary diagram. For a 5 Earth-mass super-Earth, as shown in the lower panel of
Figure 20, this radius is equal to 10400 km (not shown in the gure) [135].
As mentioned earlier, in order to obtain an insight into possible scenarios for the composition
of a super-Earth, the values of its mass and radius have to be known. Among the currently
known super-Earths, CoRoT-7b [5] and GJ 1214b [6] are two planets for which these values
have been determined. The knowledge of the orbital elements and mass-radius of these planets
has made it possible to obtain a better understanding of the compositions of these bodies. For
instance, as shown by Valencia et al (2010; [136]), and following the numerical modeling of
Valencia et al (2006, 2007; [132, 133]), the best t to the size and mass of CoRoT-7b points
to a composition with 3% water vapor above a rocky interior. Within a one-sigma uncertainty,
the composition could range from at most 10% vapor to an Earth-like composition with 67%
silicate mantle and 33% iron core (Figure 21, also see Swift et al 2010 [137]). In addition, given
its proximity to its Sun-like star, CoRoT-7b is highly irradiated. Such strong irradiation causes
signicant atmospheric and mass loss [138]. Given that the evaporating ow of an exoplanet has
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
26 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 22. Artistic illustration of conduction cells in Earths mantle.
already been observed as in the case of the transiting planet HD 209458b [139], in the future, it
might be possible to detect the nature of the evaporating ow of CoRoT-7b as either silicate- or
vapor-based, since the limiting factor is not the size of the planet but the star brightness.
3.1.2 Plate Tectonics
Given the similarity between the formation of super-Earths and terrestrial planets, it is ex-
pected that these objects are formed hot, and have hot interiors. As in Earth, the internal heat
of these bodies may be due to the radioactivity of unstable elements, as well as processes such
as the impact of planetesimals and planetary embryos during the formation of these objects,
their gravitational contraction during their accretional growth, and frictional heating due to the
settling of heavy elements in their cores (the dierentiation process).
Although the actual composition of super-Earths is unknown, those that are potentially hab-
itable are expected to be mainly made of rocks. As the surface layers of these planets cool from
above and form a crust, the heat generated by the above-mentioned processes will be trapped
inside and produce large convection cells within the mantles of these bodies
1
. These convection
cells cycle hot material through the mantle and gradually cool the planet. The cooling of the
mantle through convection also controls the cooling of the core. Figure 22 shows an artistic
conception of this process.
Convection may operate in two dierent modes: mobile and non-mobile. In the non-mobile
mode, the material cycled by convection cells forms a rigid and immobile layer at the surface
of the mantle known as stagnant-lid [140, 141, 142]. During stagnant-lid convection, the surface
plate thickens with time and acts as a lid to the interior. Compared to the mobile mode, the
stagnant-lid regime is an inecient mode of cooling a planet. The interior heat in this mode may
transfer out through volcanism as in the moon of Jupiter, Io [142], or may gradually be trans-
ported by the lid through conduction. In the mobile mode, on the other hand, the lithosphere
or plate actively participates in convection by being formed at mid-ocean ridges and subducted
at trenches. Known as plate tectonics, this mechanism allows for a more ecient heat and chem-
ical transport from the interior to the surface of the planet (Figure 22). The recently suggested
remote detection of volcanism on exoplanets by Kaltenegger et al (2010, [143]) may be useful in
identifying possible modes of cooling of a planet and to determine if the planet undergoes plate
tectonics.
1
The internal heat of a planet is transported out through both conduction and convection. However, because rock is a poor
conductor, the amount of the heat transported through conduction is negligibly small.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 27
The mode of convection (stagnant-lid with volcanic activity like Io or without profuse vol-
canism vs. plate tectonics) has a profound eect on the thermal evolution (and consequently
the habitability) of a rocky planet. Among the terrestrial planets in our solar system, Earth is
the only one with an active plate tectonics. While Venus has a similar mass, its heat has been
transported out through a stagnant-lid process for at least 500 Myr. Mars, with its small size,
also has stagnant-lid convection, although it might have had plate tectonics sometime in the
past [140].
The reason for plate tectonics on Earth and not on other solar system objects is still under
debate. It is widely accepted that this mechanism has played an important role in the geophysical
evolution of our planet, and is associated with its geochemical cycles. As a result, plate tectonics
has been recognized as an important mechanism for the habitability of Earth [144]. However,
whether this process exists (or should exist) in any habitable planet is unknown. Although it
seems natural to assume that, similar to Earth, any habitable planet has to have a dynamic
interior and maintain plate tectonics, it is not clear whether that is entirely true. In regard to
super-Earths, as explained below, the matter is even more complicated.
The subject of plate tectonics on rocky super-Earths is controversial. Much research has been
done on this topic and depending on the approach to mantle convection, results point to two
dierent schools of thought: favoring plate tectonics based on scaling mantle convection in Earth
to larger planets, and favoring a stagnant-lid regime based on numerical modeling of convection
in the mantles of super-Earth objects.
On the scaling mantle convection, Valencia et al (2007, 2009; [145, 146]) proposed that massive
terrestrial planets would have more favorable conditions for subduction, which is an essential
part of plate tectonics. In their model, these authors used a parameterized convection scheme
described in terms of the surface heat ux, and included the eects of compression in the structure
parameters (mantle thickness, gravity, etc). They concluded that while faults strength increases
with mass, the convective stresses increase even more, so that deformation can happen more
easily in massive planets. This is due to the canceling eect between increasing the gravity
and decreasing the thickness of the plate which causes the pressure-temperature regime of the
plate to be almost invariant with size. Valencia et al. (2007, 2009; [145, 146]) also suggested that
unlike small planets such as Earth, where plate tectonics would depend on the presence of water,
larger terrestrial planets have suciently large convective stresses and would not need weakening
agents to lower their yield stress in deformation. This implies that the one Earth-mass regime
seems to be the lower threshold for active-lid tectonics.
Another approach to plate tectonics in super-Earths is given by ONeill & Lenardic (2007;
[147]). These authors suggested that at most, massive Earth-analogs would be in an episodic
regime in which episodes of plate tectonics and stagnant-lid occur at dierent times. They
assumed that planets are in a mixed heated state with dierent proportions of radioactive to basal
heating for each planet, and adapted the numerical model of Moresi & Solomatov (1998; [148]),
which has been developed to reproduce plate tectonics on Earth, to model mantle convection
in super-Earths. Despite that Valencia et al (2007, 2009; [145, 146]) and ONeill & Lenardic
(2007; [147]) agree on considering the Byerlee criterion (an empirical relation to determine the
minimum amount of stress that is required to fracture a planets crust along its faults, [149])
for plate boundary creation and the need for convection-induced stresses, results by ONeill &
Lenardic (2007; [147]) conclude that owing to higher gravity, faults are locked due to increased
pressure and thus deformation is halted.
Other recent studies on this topic have arrived at dierent results. For instance, Tackley
& van Heck (2009; [150]) used numerical modeling and constant density scaling, and show
that planets that are internally heated as well as those heated from below (and maintain a
temperature dierence between top and bottom), are more likely to have plate tectonics as in
Earth. Sotin & Schubert (2009; [151]) have also attempted to explain the dierence between the
results obtained by Valencia et al. (2007, 2009; [145, 146]) and ONeill & Lenardic (2007; [147]).
Utilizing a parameterized convection approach and using the results of their structure-scaling
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
28 Nader Haghighipour
model, these authors have shown that despite an overestimate of the ratio of the driving to
resistive forces in the model by Valencia et al (2007; [145]), this ratio is weakly dependent on
the size of a terrestrial planet, and other compositional and/or geophysical properties may have
to be considered in order to determine the probability of the occurrence of plate tectonics in
super-Earths. Sotin & Schubert (2009; [151]) also considered a 3D spherical scaling and assumed
an increase in the heat ux of a planet with increasing its size, and showed that planets such as
super-Earths may be marginally in the plate-tectonic regime.
In conclusion, whether plate tectonics occur in super-Earths or not is still under debate.
Although there seems to be better qualitative agreements between models, there are still dis-
crepancies that have to be resolved.
3.1.3 Magnetic Fields
One important characteristic of Earth, that is a consequence of having a molten dynamic iron
core and an active and on-going plate tectonics, is its magnetic eld. Earths magnetic eld
plays an important role in its habitability. It protects our planet from harmful radiations and
maintains its atmospheric composition by preventing non-thermal escape of dierent elements
and components [152, 153, 154]. As such, the presence of a magnetic eld has been considered
essential for habitability.
Whether and how magnetic elds are developed around super-Earths is an active topic of
research. In general, in order for a magnetic eld to be in place around an Earth-like planet, a
dynamo action has to exist in the planets core. In order for this dynamo to develop and sustain,
the planet has to have a core of liquid iron (or an alloy [155]) with a vigorous and on-going
convection process. The latter can be sustained by maintaining a temperature dierence across
core-mantle boundary which itself depends on the eciency of transporting heat and cooling
the planet. On Earth, the core has cooled enough as to yield a freezing inner core which releases
latent heat into the liquid outer core that drives Earths dynamo. Also, thanks to plate tectonics,
the mantle is cooling eectively to allow for the core to sustain it super-adiabaticity (the hotter
part of the core becomes less dense and rises to the cooler part in a fast pace). We refer the
reader to Planetary Magnetism, a special issue of Space Science Review by Christensen et al
[156] for a complete review of the current state of research on planetary magnetism.
The appearance of a magnetic eld around a super-Earth and its lifetime are dierent from
those of Earth. Studies of the internal heating and cooling of these objects suggest that large
super-Earths will not be able to develop magnetic elds. Modeling the internal evolution of hot
super-Earths (i.e. super-Earths in close-in orbits) and studying their cooling histories, Tachinami
et al (2009; [157]) have shown that planets more massive than 5 Earth-masses would not be able
to develop a dynamo for most of their evolution
1
. Recent study by Gaidos et al [158] lowers
this limit to 2 Earth-masses. As shown by these authors, planets larger than 1.5-2 Earth-masses
with stagnant lids do not generate a dynamo. Only if in these planets, the cooling of the core is
supported by a mobile lid, they can produce magnetic elds that may last a long time. Figure
23 shows the results of some the simulations by these authors. As shown here, CoRoT-7b might
have maintained a magnetic eld for the duration of its lifetime.
Stamenkovic et al (2010; [159]) and Stamenkovic & Breuer (2010; [160]) have also indicated
that the possibility of developing a magnetic eld decreases as the planets mass becomes larger.
These authors studied the thermal evolution of planetary bodies with masses ranging from 0.1
to 10 Earth-masses, and showed that when a pressure-dependent viscosity is included in their
models, results suggest that mantle convection and the growth of a low-lid in the core-mantle
boundary will be ineective. According to these authors, the heat-transport through convection
will eventually cease and the cooling of the core will be only through conduction. Since conduction
1
The melting curve of iron shows a steep increases with pressure. s a result, in order for large planets to have a molten core,
the temperature in the core has to rise to values of the order 10
4
K. These values are too high to be reached
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 29
Figure 23. Averaged surface magnetic elds of super-Earths. PT and SL in the graph of a 1 Earth-mass planet stand for
plate tectonics and stagnant lid. The temperature of each graph corresponds to the eective surface temperature of the
planet. As shown here, planets larger than 2.5 Earth-masses with stagnant lids do not develop magnetic elds. For those
with plate tectonics, the lifetime of the magnetic eld decrease as the mass of the planet increases. Note that for simulations
of CoRoT-7b, the surface temperature of the planet was set to 1810 K [5]. Figure from [158] with the permission of AAS.
is not an eective way to transport heat from the core, the thermally generated magnetic eld
will be strongly suppressed. The results of the simulations by Stamenkovic et al (2010; [159])
and Stamenkovic & Breuer (2010; [160]) also suggest that the scaling laws, as used by Valencia
et al (2007; [145]) and ONeill & Lenardic (2007; [147]), cannot be used for pressure-dependent
viscosity models such as those for studying the interior of super-Earths.
3.2 Atmosphere
The presence of an atmosphere around a terrestrial planet has profound eects on its capability
in developing and maintaining life. While the chemical properties of the atmosphere point to
the planets possible biosignatures [161, 162, 163] as well as the materials of which the planet is
formed (the latter can be used to infer information about the origin of the planet, its formation
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
30 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 24. Habitable zones of stars with dierent masses based on the model by Kasting et al (1993; [164]).
mechanism, as well as its orbital evolution and interior dynamics), its greenhouse eect prevents
the planet from rapid cooling, and its cloud circulations enable the planet to maintain global
uniformity in its surface temperature. As such, the planets atmosphere plays an important role
in the determination of the habitable zone of its central star.
In general, the habitable zone of a star is dened as a region where an Earth-sized planet can
maintain liquid water on its surface [164] (Figure 24). In the absence of planetary atmosphere, the
width of this region is small and the locations of its inner and outer boundaries are determined
by the amount of the radiation that planet receives from the central star. When the planet is
surrounded by an atmosphere, the greenhouse eect causes these boundaries to move to larger
distances. In this case, the outer edge of the habitable zone is dened as a distance beyond
which CO
2
clouds can no longer keep the surface of the planet warm and runaway glaciation
may occur. Correspondingly, the inner edge of the habitable zone is dened as a distance closer
than which runaway greenhouse eect may increase the surface temperature and pressure of the
planet to values higher than those accommodating life [165, 166, 167].
Whether or not a super-Earth can have an atmosphere, and what the chemical composition
of this atmosphere would be are directly linked to the properties of the environment where
the super-Earth was formed, and its subsequent interior dynamics and orbital evolution. As
explained in section 2, the fact that super-Earths are smaller than giant planets suggests that
these objects might have either formed in the low-mass and gas-poor region of a protoplanetary
disk, or were formed in its outer regions where the disk is more massive and the lifetime of the
gas is longer, but were scattered to the inner orbits before they accreted a large amount of gas.
As a result, one can think of three mechanisms for the formation of an atmosphere around a
super-Earth:
direct accretion of the gas from circumstellar disk,
out-gassing during the formation of the planet, and
out-gassing due to the planets active interior and plate tectonics.
Dierent mechanisms of the formation of an atmosphere, combined with dierent scenarios for
the formation of super-Earths lead to a range of atmospheres with dierent masses and elemental-
abundances. For instance, as shown by Elkins-Tanton & Seager (2008; [168]), a super-Earth
accreted from planetesimals of dierent primitive and dierentiated chondritic and achondritic
meteorites can out-gas an atmosphere with an initial mass ranging from approximately 1% to a
few percent of the total mass of the planet (in some extreme cases the mass of the atmosphere
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 31
Figure 25. Graph of thermal velocity of dierent elements (solid lines) and escape velocities of planets (shown by symbols)
in terms of temperature. Planets of solar system are shown by their initials. The triangles represent a 10 Earth-masses
planet with similar dierentiated composition as Earth, and the squares represent a 10 Earth-masses planet with 25% water
in the outer layer, 52.5% silicate mantle, and 22.5% iron core [122]. The exobase temperatures at 1000 K and 10,000 K
correspond to those of super Earths in close-in orbits around M dwarfs and Sun-like stars, respectively. As shown here, a
planet will retain all gases that have thermal velocities below its escape velocity. Figure from [168] with the permission of
AAS.
may even increase to over 20% of the planets total mass). Considering an object with a mass of
1 to 30 Earth-masses, these authors have shown that this atmosphere may be primarily made of
water, hydrogen, and/or carbon compounds that include oxygen. The abundance of helium in
such an atmosphere will be very small, and its nitrogen concentration will be equivalent to the
amount of nitrogen in Earths atmosphere.
Although the initial mass and elemental abundance of an out-gassed atmosphere is driven by
the material of which the planet is formed and by planets geochemical and geodynamical history,
its nal chemical composition is determined by a series of processes such as thermal and non-
thermal atmospheric escapes, interactions of molecules with the light of the star (photolysis),
and the rates of such chemical interactions. Among these processes, atmospheric escape plays
a more important role. Molecules such as hydrogen, for instance, may undergo hydrodynamics
escape and carry o larger elements with them. This process may, however, be counterbalanced
by the surface gravity of the planet. The gravitational attraction of a massive planet may prevent
molecules from escaping its atmosphere, or at least slow down the rate of their escape. In regard
to super-Earths, the latter implies that super-Earths more massive than Earth should be able
to retain hydrogen in their atmospheres and avoid its erosion through (thermal) atmospheric
escape. Figure 25 shows this by comparing a planets escape velocity with the thermal velocity
of dierent elements in the models studied by Elkins-Tanton & Seager (2008; [168]). As shown
here, a 10 Earth-mass planet in a short period orbit around a Sun-like star or an M dwarf can
retains its hydrogen and prevents it from thermal escaping. Simulations by these authors also
suggested that the initial amount of hydrogen in the out-gassed atmosphere of a (massive) super-
Earth may not exceed 6% implying that if more hydrogen is detected around a super-Earth, it
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
32 Nader Haghighipour
must have come through other processes (e.g., as shown by Alibert et al [169], a 10 Earth-mass
planet, similar to that in a 0.08 AU orbit around the star HD 69830, may retain equivalent
to 2 Earth-masses of H/He while migrating to a short-period orbit and subject to atmospheric
evaporation).
Other processes that erode an atmosphere include intense radiation from the central star
(e.g, extreme ultraviolet) [170], stellar wind, and coronal mass ejection [171]. Around M stars,
in particular, these processes are strong, and compared to solar-type stars, they last longer
[172, 173]. As a result, many authors have assumed that close-in super-Earths around M stars
may have small to no atmospheres [122, 124, 132, 133, 135, 171, 174, 175, 176].
Whether massive super-Earths, or those subject to small stellar radiations can have hydrogen-
rich atmospheres, and how to identify the signature(s) of such an atmosphere have been subjects
of active research for the past few years. The majority of these studies rely on the computational
simulations of the accumulation and erosion of a gaseous envelope around an Earth-sized or larger
body in order to estimate the amount of hydrogen that may exist in the atmosphere of a super-
Earth. These simulations themselves require detailed modeling of processes such as atmospheric
escape, photochemistry, and the pressure/temperature distribution in the lower part of planets
atmosphere (near the surface of the planet). Since dierent models use dierent assumptions on
the formation, evolution, and interior dynamics of a super-Earth, the results of these simulations
are dierent. Some point to a hydrogen-rich atmosphere, whereas some suggest moderate to
low levels of H/He, and some even present the possibility of other chemical compositions. An
interesting case that has been studied by several researchers is the case of the transiting super-
Earth GJ 1214b. The larger-than-Earth radius of this planet (2.7 Earth-radii) combined with
its low density ( 1870 kg m
3
) [6] suggests that this planet has to be surrounded by a gaseous
envelope. As shown by Miller-Ricci & Fortney (2010; [120]), a hydrogen-rich atmosphere around
this super-Earth may not be unrealistic, and can produce up to 0.3% variations (as a function
of the wavelength) in the depth of the primary transit of this body compared to the background
light of its parent M star. As shown by Rogers & Seager (2010a; [177]), on the other hand,
a hydrogen-rich atmosphere may not be the only possibility. Analyzing the bulk composition
of GJ 1214b using the models developed by the same authors [178], Rogers & Seager (2010a;
[177]) considered three possible scenarios for the accumulations of an atmosphere around this
planet; accreting gas from the protoplanetary nebula, ice sublimation, and out-gassing. These
authors have shown that if GJ 1214b accreted its gaseous envelope from the primordial nebula,
its interior would be primarily composed of iron, silicate, and ice, and its gaseous envelope would
contain primordial H/He with a mass equivalent to 0.01% to 5% of the total mass of the planet.
An atmosphere formed mainly from ice sublimation, on the other hand, would contain a massive
amount of water, equal to at least 47% of the planets mass. Such an atmosphere would be able
to account for the measured values of mass and radius of GJ 1214b without requiring a layer
of H/He. Finally, an out-gassed atmosphere would have to be rich in hydrogen in order to be
able to account for the observed value of the planets radius. Observational uncertainties on the
measurements of the radius of the star GJ 1214, on the other hand, have put strong constraints
on the predictions of these models. As suggested by Charbonneau et al (2009, [6]), the M star
GJ 1214 may be 15% smaller in radius which suggest that the radius of GJ 1214b will be also
smaller with the same amount, removing the necessity for a large atmosphere to explain its
observed radius [6].
As shown in this section, the uncertainties in the internal composition of super-Earths result
in dierent models for the atmospheres of these objects. A test of the validity of these models can
come from the observation of the transmission and/or emission features in the spectra of these
bodies. As suggested by Miller-Ricci et al (2009; [179]), super-Earths with massive hydrogen
atmospheres will show strong water features in their emission spectra whereas those that lack
hydrogen show signatures of CO
2
. Also, a hydrogen-dominated atmosphere will show signicant
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 33
spectral lines in its transmission spectrum since such an atmosphere has a large scale height
1
.
Recent observations of GJ 1214b have not been able to detect such transmission features in the
planets spectrum implying that GJ 1214b does not have a cloud-free hydrogen-rich atmosphere.
The lack of features in the transmission spectrum of this planet seems to instead point to a
dense steam atmosphere [121].
In conclusion, it would not be unrealistic to assume that super-Earths carry gaseous envelopes.
Around low-mass stars, some of such atmosphere-bearing super-Earths may even have stable
orbits in the habitable zones of their host stars. As we explain in the next section, many of
such habitable super-Earths are potentially detectable by dierent observational techniques.
The recently detected super-Earth GL 581 g [2] with its possible atmospheric circulation [180] in
the habitable zone of its host star may in fact be one of such planets. More advanced telescopes
are needed to identify the biosignatures of these bodies and the physical and compositional
characteristics of their atmospheres.
4 Detection of Super-Earths
4.1 Radial Velocity Technique
Although the current sensitivity of the radial velocity technique has reached a level that allows
for the detection of super-Earths around solar-mass stars, low-mass stars such as M dwarfs
present the most promising targets for searching for Earth-sized planets and super-Earths. This
is primarily due to the fact that as the least massive stars, M dwarfs show the greatest reex
acceleration due to an orbiting planet. Also, simulations of planet formation suggest that planets
formed around M dwarfs are generally smaller than gas-giants and more probably in close-in
orbits (note that Jovian-type planets have in fact been detected around M stars. Also note that
precision Doppler surveys are optimally sensitive to small orbits). It is therefore not surprising
that during the past few years, 23 extrasolar planets have been detected around 17 M stars.
More than half of these planets are of the size of Neptune or smaller and the majority of them
are in close-in orbits with orbital periods as small as 1.3 days (e.g., HD 41004 B b, [181]).
There are currently several radial velocity surveys that search for super-Earths around M stars.
Among these surveys, the Lick-Carnegie Exoplanet Survey [2, 89, 182], the M2K Planet Search
Project [183, 184], and the HARPS Search for Southern Extrasolar Planets [185, 186, 187]
1
have
been successful in detecting several prominent super-Earths.
4.2 Transit Photometry
Similar to Doppler spectroscopy, transit photometry also shows great sensitivity to large planets
in close-in orbits. Since in this technique, the decrease in the light of a star is the quantity that
leads to the detection of a planetary companion, low-mass stars such as M dwarfs present more
favorable targets for searching for transiting super-Earths.
There are currently several transit photometry surveys that use ground- and space-based
telescopes to search for Earth-like planets and super-Earths
2
. Among the ground-based surveys,
the MEarth project
3
, a robotically controlled set of eight 40 cm telescopes at the F. L. Whipple
Observatory on Mt. Hopkins in Arizona, has been able to detect the rst super-Earth transiting
an M star (GJ 1214b, a 5.69 Earth-mass planet around the M dwarf GJ 1214) [6, 188, 189, 190]. In
space, the two telescopes CoRoT
4
and Kepler
5
have succeeded in detecting several super-Earths
1
Transmission features in a planets spectrum are direct indication of the scale height of its atmosphere
1
http://www.eso.org/sci/facilities/lasilla/instruments/harps/
2
We refer the reader to exoplanet.eu and exoplanets.org for more details.
3
https://www.cfa.harvard.edu/zberta/mearth/
4
http://smsc.cnes.fr/COROT/index.htm
5
http://kepler.nasa.gov/
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
34 Nader Haghighipour
Figure 26. Variation of transit timing. The perturbation of an unseen planet causes the center of transit in the observed
(perturbed) system to shift from its one-planet theoretical value (black).
[10, 11] and are continuing their progress.
4.3 Transit Timing Variation Method (TTV)
The detection of the dimming of the light of a star due to a transiting planet requires monitoring
the star for a long time. Given the complexities in extracting information about a possible
planetary companion from transit photometry data, and the fact that even for planets as large
and as close as hot Jupiters, the dimming is only a few percent, it is not surprising that until
recently, in almost all currently known transiting systems, the number of the detected planets was
only one. This is, however, unlike what the simulations of planet formation suggest. In general,
models of giant and terrestrial planet formation around dierent stars indicate that planets tend
to form in multiples. In other words, many of the currently known transiting systems may in
fact harbor additional bodies [191]. Among these (unseen) planets, those that are close to the
orbit of the transiting one will perturb its orbit and cause variations in the time and duration of
its transits (Figure 26). Examples of such variations can also be observed in the transit timing
of the terrestrial planets of our solar system [192].
Measurements of the variations in the time of transit may be used to infer the existence of the
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
Contemporary Physics 35
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
10
5
0
5
10
Transit Number
O

s
e
c

0 50 100 150 200


200
100
0
100
200
Transit Number
O

s
e
c

Figure 27. Graphs of transit timing variations for a transiting Jupiter-mass planet in a 3-day (0.0407 AU) circular orbit
around a solar-mass star. The planet is perturbed by an Earth-sized object at 0.06 AU (top) and 0.0257 AU (bottom) where
it is in an interior 2:1 MMR with the transiting planet. The orbit of the Earth-sized planet has an eccentricity of 0.1. The
quantity OC represents (Observed Calculated). Figure from [197].
perturbing planet. As shown by [192, 193, 194, 195, 196], in a system consisting of a transiting
Jupiter-like planet and a small Earth-like perturber, the perturbations due to the small planet
create variations in the transit timing of the hot Jupiter. The top panel of Figure 27 shows such
variations for a Jupiter-sized planet in a 3-day orbit (semimajor axis of 0.047 AU) around a
solar-mass star [197]. The perturber in this case is Earth-sized and in an exterior orbit with a
semimajor axis of 0.06 AU and eccentricity of 0.1. The amplitude of the variations in transit
timing is approximately 10 seconds.
Since the deviations of the orbit of a transiting planet from pure Keplerian is caused by the
gravitational force of the perturbing body, the geometrical arrangement of the orbits of these
two planets signicantly aects their mutual interactions and the amplitude of the transit timing
variations (TTVs). When the two planets are in or near a mean-motion resonance, the TTV
signal is greatly enhanced. This can be seen in the bottom panel of Figure 27 where the TTVs
are shown for the same transiting planet as in the upper panel, but now the transiting planet and
the perturber are in an interior 2:1 mean-motion resonance (the orbital period of the perturber
is 1.5 days) [197]. A comparison between the two panels indicates that the signal in the resonant
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
36 Nader Haghighipour
system is more than 20 times stronger. This signal is, for instance, within the range of the
detection sensitivity of Kepler space telescope. As shown by Ford et al (2011, [198]), the median
transit timing uncertainty for Kepler is approximately 10 minutes (in the system of Kepler 9
where two Saturn-sized planets are in a near 2:1 mean-motion resonance, the amplitude of the
TTVs of the inner planet reaches to 50 minutes) and its minimum detection capability is 20
seconds. Recently Payne et al (2010, [199]) and Haghighipour & Kirste (2011, [200]) studied
the variation of transit timing for two-planet systems around stars with dierent masses and
identied regions of the parameter-space for which the amplitudes of TTVs can be detected by
Kepler space telescope.
Although a perturber may be able to create large disturbances in the motion of a transiting
planet, extracting information about its orbital and physical characteristics from the measure-
ments of the variations in the duration and intervals of transits is an extremely complicated
task. In general, observational measurements of TTVs are compared with the TTVs obtained
from numerical simulations of dierent planetary systems [199, 200] and/or those calculated an-
alytically [201, 202]. The goodness-of-t is then used to determine the most probable planetary
system. Unfortunately, as one can imagine, both these approaches suer from strong degeneracy
(dierent combinations of mass and orbital elements may produce similar results). Follow-up ob-
servations, in particular with radial velocity technique, will be necessary to conrm the detection
and determine the mass and orbital parameters of the perturber.
Despite these diculties, Kepler has been able to detected several super-Earths using the
transit timing variations method [11] (see Table 1). The study by Ford et al [198], in which
the transit timing of more than 1200 potential planetary candidates in Keplers target list were
analyzed, suggests that as this telescope continues its successful operation, several tens of such
TTV-detected super-Earths will be identied in the near future.
4.4 Microlensing
While the radial velocity, transit photometry, and TTV methods are more sensitive to detect-
ing planets in close-in orbits, microlensing is capable of detecting planets in large distances.
This technique has been recognized as one of the most promising detection methods for nding
low-mass planets beyond the snow line, as well as super-Earths that reside further from their
host stars [203]. Microlensing also has the unique capability of discovering what is known as
free-oating planets. Many of these planets are Earth-sized or super-Earths
1
. The Wide-Field
Infrared Survey Telescope (WFIRST)
2
, NASAs future large space mission, will use microlensing
to search for extrasolar planets. This mission has been recognized as the top-ranked large space
mission for the next decade in the New Worlds, New Horizon Decadal Survey of Astronomy
and Astrophysics
3
. There are currently 7 dierent active microlensing search projects among
which MicroFUN (Microlensing Follow-Up Network)
4
, MOA (Microlensing Observations in As-
trophysics)
5
, OGLE (Optical Gravitational Lensing Experiment)
6
, PLANET(Probing Lensing
Anomalies NETwork)
7
, and Robonet
8
have been successful in detecting several planets.
1
As the simulations of planet formation indicate, migrating planets, in particular the giant ones, cause the orbits of many
smaller bodies such as Earth-sized planets and super-Earths to become unstable. These objects may be ejected from their
systems and freely oat in space.
2
http://wrst.gsfc.nasa.gov/
3
http://sites.nationalacademies.org/bpa/BPA 049810
4
http://www.astronomy.ohio-state.edu/microfun/
5
http://www.phys.canterbury.ac.nz/moa/
6
http://ogle.astrouw.edu.pl/
7
http://planet.iap.fr/
8
http://robonet.lcogt.net/
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
REFERENCES 37
Acknowledgments
This manuscript is the result of discussions as well as oral and poster presentations in two NAI
(NASA Astrobiology Institute) supported events: A workshop on the habitability of super-Earths
held at the Aspen Center for Physics in August 2008, and a session entitled Building Habitable
Planets held at the Goldschmidt 2009 conference. I am indebted to D. Valencia for her invaluable
contribution to this manuscript and for her constructive comments and suggestions. I am also
thankful to E. Agol, S. Gaudi, L. Kaltenegger, S. Kenyon, as well as R. Joseph and a second
(anonymous) referee for their critically reading of the original draft of this paper and for their
valuable suggestions that greatly improved this manuscript. Supports are also acknowledged from
NASA Astrobiology Institute under Cooperative Agreement NNA04CC08A at the Institute for
Astronomy, University of Hawaii, and NASA EXOB grant NNX09AN05G.
References
[1] M. Mayor, and D. Queloz, A Jupiter-mass companion to a solar-type star, Nature 378 (1995), pp. 355-359.
[2] S. S. Vogt, R. P. Butler, E. J. Rivera, N. Haghighipour, G. W. Henry, and M. H. Williamson, The Lick-Carnegie
Exoplanet Survey: A 3.1 M

Planet in the Habitable Zone of the Nearby M3V Star Gliese 581, Astrophys. J., 723
(2010), pp. 954-965.
[3] A. Wolszczan, and D. A. Frail, A planetary system around the millisecond pulsar PSR1257 + 12, Nature 355 (1992),
pp. 145147.
[4] D. Charbonneau, T. M. Brown, D. W. Latham, and M. Mayor, Detection of Planetary Transits Across a Sun-like Star,
Astrophys. J. 529 (2000), pp. L45-L48.
[5] A. L`eger et al., Transiting Exoplanets From the CoRoT Space Mission. VIII. CoRoT-7b: The First Super-Earth With
Measured Radius, Astron. Astrophys. 506 (2009), pp. 287-302.
[6] D. Charbonneau et al., A Super-Earth Transiting a Nearby Low-Mass Star, Nature 462 (2009), pp. 891-894.
[7] G. Tinetti et al., Water vapor in the atmosphere of a transiting extrasolar planet, Nature 448 (2007), pp. 169-171.
[8] A. Gould et al., Microlens OGLE-2005-BLG-169 Implies That Cool Neptune-like Planets Are Common, Astrophys.
J. 644 (2006), pp. L37-L40.
[9] J.-P. Beaulieu et al.,Discovery of a cool planet of 5.5 Earth-masses through gravitational microlensing, Nature 439
(2006), pp. 437-440.
[10] M. J. Holman, et al Kepler-9: A System of Multiple Planets Transiting a Sun-Like Star, Conrmed by Timing Vari-
ations, Science, 330 (2010), pp. 51-54.
[11] J. J. Lissauer et al A closely packed system of low-mass, low-density planets transiting Kepler-11, Nature, 470 (2011),
pp. 53-58.
[12] P. Kalas, J. R. Graham, E. Chiang, M. P. Fitzgerald, M. Clampin, E. S. Kite, K. Stapelfeldt, C. Marois, J. Krist,
Optical Images of an Exosolar Planet 25 Light-Years from Earth, Science 322 (2008) Vol. 322. no. 5906, pp. 1345-1348.
[13] M. C. Marois, B. Macintosh, T. Barman, B. Zuckerman, I. Song, J. Patience, D. Lafreni`ere, and R. Doyon, Direct
Imaging of Multiple Planets Orbiting the Star HR 8799, Science 322 (2008), pp. 1348-1352.
[14] M. C. Marois, B. Zuckerman, Q. M. Konopacky, B. Macintosh, and T. Barman, Images of a Fourth Planet Orbiting
HR 8799, Nature, 468 (2010), pp. 1080-1083.
[15] D. Queloz, et al The CoRoT-7 Planetary System: Two Orbiting Super-Earths, Astron. Astrophys. 506 (2009), pp.
303-319
[16] A. P. Hatzes, R. Dvorak, G. Wuchterl, P. Guterman, M. Hartmann, M. Fridlund, D. Gandol, E. Guenther, and M.
P

atzold, An Investigation into the Radial Velocity Variations of CoRoT-7, Astron. Astrophys. 520 (2010), pp. 93-108.
[17] A. P. Hatzes, et al, Oon the Mass of CoRoT-7b, arXiv:1105.3372v1 (2011)
[18] J. E. Chambers, Planetary Migration: What Does It Mean for Planet Formation?, Ann. Rev. Earth. Planet. Sci. 37
(2009), pp. 321-344.
[19] P. J. Armitage, Lecture Notes on the Formation and Early Evolution of Planetary Systems, In: Astrophysics of Planet
Formation (2010), Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK
[20] M. V. Smoluchowski, Drei Vortrage uber Diusion, Brownsche Bewegung und Koagulation von Kolloidteilchen, Physik.
Zeit. 17 (1916), pp. 557-585.
[21] C. Dominik and A. G. G. M. Tielens, The Physics of Dust Coagulation and the Structure of Dust Aggregates in Space,
Astrophys. J. 480 (1997), pp. 647-673.
[22] J. Blum, G. Wurm, T. Poppe, and L.-O. Heim, Aspects of Laboratory Dust Aggregation With Relevance to the For-
mation of Planetesimals, Earth Moon & Planets 80 (1998), pp. 285-309.
[23] G. Wurm, and J. Blum, Experiments on Preplanetary Dust Aggregation, Icarus 132 (1998), pp. 125-136.
[24] J. Blum, and G. Wurm, Experiments on Sticking, Restructuring, and Fragmentation of Preplanetary Dust Aggregates,
Icarus 143 (2000), pp. 138-146.
[25] M. Krause, and J. Blum, Growth and Form of Planetary Seedlings: Results from a Sounding Rocket Microgravity
Aggregation Experiment, Phys. Rev. Let. 93 (2004), pp. 021103.
[26] J. Blum, Dust agglomeration, Adv. Phys. 55 (2006), pp. 881-947.
[27] K. Wada, H. Tanaka, T. Suyama, H. Kimura, and T. Yamamoto, Numerical Simulation of Dust Aggregate Collisions.
I. Compression and Disruption of Two-Dimensional Aggregates, Astrophys. J. 661 (2007), pp. 320-333.
[28] J. Blum, et al., Growth and Form of Planetary Seedlings: Results from a Microgravity Aggregation Experiment, Phys.
Rev. Lett. 85 (2000), pp. 2426-2429.
[29] J. Blum, and G. Wurm, The Growth Mechanisms of Macroscopic Bodies in Protoplanetary Disks, Ann. Rev. Astron.
Astrophys. 46 (2008), pp. 21-56.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
38 REFERENCES
[30] D. Paszun, and C. Dominik, The Inuence of Grain Rotation on the Structure of Dust Aggregates, Icarus 182 (2006),
pp. 274-280.
[31] S. J. Weidenschilling, Aerodynamics of Solid Bodies in the Solar Nebula, Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. 180 (1977), pp.
57-70.
[32] G. Wurm, J. Teiser, A. Bischo, H. Haack, and J. Roszjar, Experiments on the Photophoretic Motion of Chondrules
and Dust Aggregates-Indications for the Transport of Matter in Protoplanetary Disks, Icarus 208 (2010), pp. 482-491.
[33] A. Johansen, J. S. Oishi, M.-M. Mac Low, H. Klahr, Hubert; T. Henning, and A. Youdin, Rapid planetesimal formation
in turbulent circumstellar disks, Nature 448 (2007), pp. 1022-1025.
[34] J. N. Cuzzi, R. C. Hogan, and K. Shari, Toward Planetesimals: Dense Chondrule Clumps in the Protoplanetary
Nebula, Astrophys. J. 687 (2008), pp. 1432-1447.
[35] S. J. Weidenschilling, Particles in the nebular midplane: Collective eects and relative velocities, Meteorit. Planet. Sci.
45 (2010), pp. 276-288.
[36] E. Chiang, and A. N. Youdin, Forming Planetesimals in Solar and Extrasolar Nebulae, Ann. Rev. Earth. Planet. Sci
38 (2010), pp. 493-522.
[37] V. S. Safronov, Evolution of Protoplanetary Cloud and Formation of the Earth and Planets, Nauka, Moscow (1969)
[38] R. Greenberg, W. K. Hartmann, C.R. Chapman, and J. F. Wacker, Planetesimals to PlanetsNumerical Simulations
of Collisional Evolution, Icarus 35 (1978), pp. 1-26.
[39] G. W. Wetherill, and G. R. Stewart, Accumulation of a Swarm of Small Planetesimals, Icarus 77 (1989), pp. 330-357.
[40] G. W. Wetherill, and G. R. Stewart, Formation of Planetary EmbryosEects of Fragmentation, Low Relative Velocity,
and Independent Variation of Eccentricity and Inclination, Icarus 106 (1993), pp. 190-209.
[41] E. Kokubo, and S. Ida, On Runaway Growth of Planetesimals, Icarus 123 (1996) pp. 180-191.
[42] S. Ida, and J. Makino, Scattering of planetesimals by a protoplanet-Slowing down of runaway growth, Icarus 106 (1993),
p. 210-227.
[43] S. J. Weidenschilling, D. Spaute, D. R. Davis, F. Marzari, and K. Ohtsuki, Accretional Evolution of a Planetesmial
Swarm, Icarus 128 (1997), pp. 429-455.
[44] E. Kokubo, and S. Ida, Formation of Protoplanets from Planetesimals in the Solar Nebula, Icarus 143 (2000) pp.
15-27.
[45] J. B. Pollack, O. Hubickyj, P. Bodenheimer, J. J. Lissauer, M. Podolak, and Y. Greenzweig, Formation of the Giant
Planets by Concurrent Accretion of Solids and Gas, Icarus 124 (1996), pp. 62-85.
[46] O. Hubickyj, P. Bodenheimer, and J. J. Lissauer, Accretion of the Gaseous Envelope of Jupiter Around a 5-10 Earth-
Mass Core, Icarus 179 (2005), pp. 415-431.
[47] J. J. Lissauer, O. Hubickyj, G. D

Angelo, and P. Bodenheimer, Models of Jupiters Growth Incorporating thermal and


hydrodynamic Constraints, Icarus 199 (2009), pp. 338-350.
[48] N. Movshovitz, P. Bodenheimer, M. Podolak, and J. J. Lissauer, Formation of Jupiter Using Opacities Based on
Detailed Grain Physics, Icarus 209 (2010), pp. 616-624.
[49] B. C. Bromley, and S. J. Kenyon, Terrestrial Planet Formation. I. The Transition from Oligarchic Growth to Chaotic
Growth, Astron. J. 131 (2006), pp. 1837-1850.
[50] P. Goldreich, Y. Lithwick, and R. Sari, Final Stages of Planet Formation, Astrophys. J. 614 (2004), pp. 497-507.
[51] E. Kokubo, and S. Ida, Orbital evolution of protoplanets embedded in a swarm of planetesimals, Icarus 114 (1995), pp.
247-257.
[52] E. Kokubo, and S. Ida, Orbital Oligarchic Growth of Protoplanets, Icarus 131 (1998), pp. 171-178.
[53] A. Morbidelli, J. Chambers, J. I. Lunine, J. M. Petit, F. Robert, G. B. Valsecchi, G. B., and K. E. Cyr, Source Regions
and Time Scales for the Delivery of Water to Earth, Meteor. Planet. Sci. 35 (2000), pp. 1309-1320.
[54] J. E. Chambers, and G. W. Wetherill, Planets in the asteroid belt, Meteorit. Planet. Sci. 36 (20010, pp. 381-399.
[55] D. P. OBrien, A. Morbidelli, and H. F. Levison, Terrestrial Planet Formation with Strong Dynamical Friction, Icarus
184 (2006), pp. 39-58.
[56] S. N. Raymond, T. Quinn, and J. I. Lunine, High Resolution Simulations of the Final Assembly of Earth-like Planets
I: Terrestrial Accretion and Dynamics, Icarus (2006) 183, pp. 265-282.
[57] E. Kokubo, J. Kominami, and S. Ida, Formation of Terrestrial Planets from Protoplanets. I. Statistics of Basic
Dynamical Properties, Astrophys. J. 642 (2006), pp. 1131-1139.
[58] E. Kokubo, and S. Ida, Formation of Terrestrial Planets from Protoplanets. II. Statistics of Planetary Spin, Astrophys.
J. 671 (2007), pp. 2082-2090.
[59] S. E. Strom, S. Edwards, and M. F. Skrutskie, Evolutionary Time scales For Circumstellar Disks Associated With
Intermediate- and Solar-Type Stars, In: E. H. Levy and J. I. Lunine (Eds) Protostars and Planets III (1993), Univ. of
Arizona Press, Tucson, pp. 837-866.
[60] K. E. Haisch Jr., E. A. Lada, and C. J. Lada, Disk Frequencies and Lifetimes in Young Clusters, Astrophys. J. Lett.
553 (2001), pp. L153-L156.
[61] C. H. Chen, and I. Kamp, Are Giant Planets Forming Around HR 4796A?, Astrophys. J. 602 (2004), pp. 985-992.
[62] M. Maercker, M. G. Burton, and WC.M. right, L-band (3.5 m) IR-excess in Massive Star Formation. II. RCW
57/NGC 3576, Astron. Astrophys. 450 (2006), pp. 253-263.
[63] T. Guillot, THE INTERIORS OF GIANT PLANETS: Models and Outstanding Questions, Ann. Rev. Earth. Planet.
Sci. 33 (2005), pp. 493-530.
[64] B. Militzer, W. B. Hubbard, J. Vorberger, I. Tamblyn, S. A. Bonev, A Massive Core in Jupiter Predicted from First-
Principles Simulations, Astrophys. J. 688 (2008), pp. L45-L48.
[65] M. Podolak, The Contribution of Small Grains to the Opacity of Protoplanetary Atmospheres, Icarus 165 (2003), pp.
428-437.
[66] N. Movshovitz, and M. Podolak, The Opacity of Grains in Protoplanetary Atmospheres, Icarus 194 (2008), pp. 368-378.
[67] B. C. Bromley, and S. J. Kenyon, A New Hybrid N-body-coagulation Code for the Formation of Gas Giant Planets,
Astrophys. J. 731, id.101 (2011)
[68] A. P. Boss, Possible Rapid Gas-Giant Planet Formation in the Solar Nebula and Other Protoplanetary Disks, Astro-
phys. J. 536 (2000), pp. L101-L104.
[69] A. P. Boss, Formation of Extrasolar Giant Planets: Core-Accretion or Disk Instability?, Earth Moon Planets 81 (2000),
pp. 19-26.
[70] L. Mayer, T. Quinn, J. Wadsley, and J. Stadel, Formation of Giant Planets by Fragmentation of Protoplanetary Disks,
Science 298 (2002), pp. 1756-1759.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
REFERENCES 39
[71] A. P. Boss, Rapid Formation of Outer Giant Planets by Disk Instability, Astrophys. J. 599 (2003), pp. 577-581.
[72] L. Mayer, T. Quinn, J. Wadsley, J. Stadel, The Evolution of Gravitationally Unstable Protoplanetary Disks: Fragmen-
tation and Possible Giant Planet Formation, Astrophys. J. 609 (2004), pp. 1045-1064.
[73] R.H. Durisen, A. P. Boss, L. Mayer, A. F. Nelson, T. Quinn, and W. K. M. Rice, Gravitational Instabilities in Gaseous
Protoplanetary Disks and Implications for Giant Planet Formation, In: K. K. B. Reipurth, D. Jewitt, ed., Protostars
and Planets V (2007), pp. 607-622.
[74] L. Mayer, G. Lufkin, T. Quinn, and J. Wadsley, Fragmentation of Gravitationally Unstable Gaseous Protoplanetary
Disks with Radiative Transfer, Astrophys. J. 661 (2007), pp. L77-L80.
[75] A. C. Boley, The Two Modes of Gas-Giant Planet Formation, Astrophys. J. 695 (2009), pp. L53-L57.
[76] A. C. Boley, T. Hayeld, L. Mayer, and R. H. Durisen, Clumps in the Outer Disk by Disk Instability: Why They Are
Initially Gas-Giants and the Legacy of Disruption, Icarus 207 (2010) pp. 509-516.
[77] K. Cai, M. K. Pickett, R. H. Durisen, and A. M. Milne, Giant Planet Formation by Disk Instability: A Comparison
Simulation with an Improved Radiative Scheme, Astrophys. J. 716 (2010), pp. L176-L180.
[78] G. Laughlin, P. Bodenheimer, and F. C. Adams, The Core-Accretion Model Predicts Few Jovian-Mass Planets Orbiting
Red Dwarfs, Astrophys. J. 612 (2004), pp. L73-L76.
[79] G. M. Kennedy, S. J. Kenyon, and B. C. Bromley, Planet Formation Around Low-Mass Stars: The Moving Snow Line
and Super-Earths, Astrophys. J. 650 (2006), pp. L139-L142.
[80] G. M. Kennedy, S. J. Kenyon, and B. C. Bromley, Planet Formation Around M Stars: The Moving Snow Line and
Super-Earths, Astrophys. Space. Sci. 311 (2007), pp. 9-13.
[81] G. M. Kennedy, and S. J. Kenyon, Planet Formation around Stars of Various Masses: The Snow Line and the
Frequency of Giant Planets, Astrophys. J. 673 (2008), pp. 502-512.
[82] G. M. Kennedy, and S. J. Kenyon, Planet Formation Around Stars of Various Masses: Hot Super-Earths, Astrophys.
J. 682 (2008), pp. 1264-1276.
[83] S. Ida, and D. N. C. Lin, Toward a Deterministic Model of Planetary Formation. V. Accumulation Near the Ice Line
and Super-Earths, Astrophys. J. 685 (2008), pp. 584-595.
[84] C. Terquem, and J. C. B Papaloizou, Migration and the Formation of Systems of Hot Super-Earths and Neptunes,
Astrophys. J. 654 (2007), pp. 1110-1120.
[85] A. P. Boss, Rapid Formation of Super-Earths around M Dwarf Stars, Astrophys. J. 644 (2006), pp. L79-L82.
[86] C. J. Lada, and E. A. Lada, Embedded Clusters in Molecular Clouds, Ann. Rev. Astron. Astrophys. 41 (20003), pp.
57-115.
[87] F. C. Adams, D. Hollenbach, G. Laughlin, and U. Gorti, Photoevaporation of Circumstellar Disks Due to External
Far-Ultraviolet Radiation in Stellar Aggregates, Astrophys. J. 611 (2004) pp. 360-379.
[88] E. J. Rivera, Eugenio, G. Laughlin, R. P. Butler, S. S. Vogt, N. Haghighipour, S. Meschiari, The Lick-Carnegie
Exoplanet Survey: A Uranus-Mass Fourth Planet for GJ 876 in an Extrasolar Laplace Conguration, Astrophys. J.
719 (2010), pp. 890-899.
[89] N. Haghighipour, S. S. Vogt, R. P. Butler, E. J. Rivera, G. Laughlin, S. Meschiari, and G. W. Henry, The Lick-Carnegie
exoplanet Survey: A Saturn-Mass Planet in the Habitable Zone of the Nearby M4V star HIP 57050, Astrophys. J. 715
(2010), pp. 271-276.
[90] C. Hayashi, Structure of the Solar Nebula, Growth and Decay of Magnetic Fields and Eects of Magnetic and Turbulent
Viscosities on the Nebula, Prog. Theor. Phys. Suppl.,70 (1981), pp. 35-53.
[91] R. J. Greenberg, C. C. Counselman, and I. I. Shapiro, Orbit-Orbit Resonance Capture in the Solar System, Science
178 (1972), pp. 747-749.
[92] R. J. Greenberg, Evolution of Satellite Resonances by Tidal Dissipation, Astron. J. 78 (1973), pp. 338-346.
[93] P. Goldreich, An Explanation of the Frequent Occurrence of Commensurable Mean Motions in the Solar System, Mon.
Not. Roy. Astro. Soc. 130 (1965), pp. 159-181.
[94] R. M. Canup, and W. R. Ward, Formation of the Galilean Satellites: Conditions of Accretion, Astron. J. 124 (2002),pp.
3404-3423.
[95] S.J. Peale, and M. H. Lee, A Primordial Origin of the Laplace Relation Among the Galilean Satellites, Science 298
(2002), pp. 593-597.
[96] N. Haghighipour, and D. Jewitt, A Region Void of Irregular Satellites around Jupiter, Astron. J. 136 (2008), pp.
909-918.
[97] J. A. Fernandez, and W. -H. Ip, Some Dynamical Aspects of the Accretion of Uranus and Neptune - The Exchange of
Orbital Angular Momentum With Planetesimals, Icarus 58 (1984), pp. 109-120.
[98] R. Malhotra, The Origin of Plutos Peculiar Orbit Nature 365 (1993), pp. 819-821.
[99] R. Malhotra, The Origin of Plutos Orbit: Implications for the Solar System Beyond Neptune, Astron. J. 110 (1995),
pp. 420-429.
[100] R. Malhotra, The Phase Space Structure Near Neptune Resonances in the Kuiper Belt, Astron. J. 111 (1996), pp.
504-516.
[101] J. M. Hahn, and R. Malhotra, Neptunes Migration into a Stirred-Up Kuiper Belt: A Detailed Comparison of Simu-
lations to Observations, Astron. J. 130 (2005), pp. 2392-2414.
[102] R. P. Nelson, J. C. B. Papaloizou, F. Masset, and W. Kley, The Migration and Growth of Protoplanets in Protostellar
Discs, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 318 (2001), pp. 18-36.
[103] F. Masset, and M. Snellgrove, Reversing Type II Migration: Resonance Trapping of a Lighter Giant Protoplanet,
Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 320 (2001), pp. L55-L59.
[104] J. C. B. Papaloizou, and C. Terquem, Planet Formation and Migration, Rept. Prog. Phys. 69 (2006), pp. 119-180.
[105] J.-L. Zhou, S. J. Aarseth, D. N. C. Lin, and M. Nagasawa, Origin and Ubiquity of Short-Period Earth-like Planets:
Evidence for the Sequential Accretion Theory of Planet Formation, Astrophys. J. 631 (2005), pp. L85-L88.
[106] M. J. Fogg, and R. P. Nelson, Oligarchic and Giant Impact Growth of Terrestrial Planets in the Presence of Gas-Giant
Planet Migration, Astron. Astrophys. 441 (2005), pp. 791-806.
[107] M. J. Fogg, and R. P. Nelson, On the Possibility of Terrestrial Planet Formation in Hot-Jupiter Systems, Inter. J.
Astrobio. 5 (2006), pp. 199-209.
[108] M. J. Fogg, and R. P. Nelson, On the Formation of Terrestrial Planets in Hot-Jupiter Systems, Astron. Astrophys.
461 (2007), pp. 1195-1208.
[109] M. J. Fogg, and R. P. Nelson, The Eect of Type I Migration on the Formation of Terrestrial Planets in Hot-Jupiter
Systems, Astron. Astrophys. 472 (2007), pp. 1003-1015.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
40 REFERENCES
[110] M. J. Fogg, and R. P. Nelson, Terrestrial Planet Formation in Low-Eccentricity Warm-Jupiter Systems, Astron.
Astrophys. 498 (2009), pp. 575-589.
[111] S. N. Raymond, R. Barnes, and A. M. Mandell, Observable Consequences of Planet Formation Models in Systems
With Close-in Terrestrial Planets, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 384 (2008), pp. 663-674.
[112] A. M. Mandell, and S. Sigurdsson, Survival of Terrestrial Planets in the Presence of Giant Planet Migration, Astro-
phys. J. 599 (2003), pp. L111-L114.
[113] S. N. Raymond, A. M. Mandell, and S. Sigurdsson, Exotic Earths: Forming Habitable Worlds with Giant Planet
Migration, Science 313 (2006), pp. 1413-1416.
[114] A. M. Mandell, S. N. Raymond, and S. Sigurdsson, Formation of Earth-like Planets During and After Giant Planet
Migration, Astrophys. J. 660 (2007), pp. 823-844.
[115] N. Haghighipour, and S. Rastegar, Implications of the TTV-Detection of Close-In Terrestrial Planets Around M Stars
for Their Origin and Dynamical Evolution, in Detection and Dynamics of Transiting Exoplanets (ed. F. Bouchy, R.
F. Diaz, C. Moutou), 2010
[116] S. J. Kenyon, and B. C. Bromley, Rapid Formation of Icy Super-Earths and the Cores of Gas-Giant Planets, Astro-
phys. J. 690 (2009), pp. L140-L143.
[117] A. P. Boss, G. W. Wetherill, and N. Haghighipour, Rapid Formation of Ice Giant Planets, Icarus 156 (2002), 291-295.
[118] S. Michael, R. H. Durisen, and A. C. Boley, Migration of Gas Giant Planets in Gravitationally Unstable Disks,
arXiv:1106.1617 (2011)
[119] D. S. McNeil, and R. P. Nelson, On the Formation of Hot Neptunes and Super-Earths, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc.
401 (2010), pp. 1691-1708.
[120] E. Miller-Ricci, and J. J. Fortney, The Nature of the Atmosphere of the Transiting Super-Earth GJ 1214b, Astrophys.
J. 716 (2010), pp. L74-L79.
[121] J. L. Bean, E. Miller-Ricci Kempton, and D. Homeier, A Ground-Based Transmission Spectrum of the Super-Earth
Exoplanet GJ 1214b, Nature 468 (2010), pp. 699-672.
[122] S. Seager, M. Kuchner, C. A. Hier-Majumder, and B. Militzer, Mass-Radius Relationship for Solid Exoplanets, 669
(2007), pp. 1279-1297.
[123] M. Konacki, G. Torres, D. D. Sasselov, and S. Jha, A Transiting Extrasolar Giant Planet Around the Star OGLE-
TR-10, The Astrophys. J. 624 (2005), pp. 372-377.
[124] C. Sotin, O. Grasset, and A. Mocquet, Mass-Radius Curve for Extrasolar Planets and Ocean Planets, Icarus, 191
(2007), pp. 337-351.
[125] T. M. Brown, D. Charbonneau, R. L. Gilliland, R. W. Noyes, and A. Burrows, Hubble Space Telescope Time-Series
Photometry of the Transiting Planet of HD 209458, Astrophys. J. 552 (2001), pp. 699-709.
[126] G. Torres, M. Konacki, D. D. Sasselov, and S. Jha, New Data and Improved Parameters for the Extrasolar Transiting
Planet OGLE-TR-56b, Astrophys. J. 609 (2004), pp. 1071-1075.
[127] C. Moutou, F. Pont, F. Bouchy, and M. Mayor, Accurate Radius and Mass of the Transiting Exoplanet OGLE-TR-
132b, Astron. Astrophys. J. 424 (2004), pp. L31-L34.
[128] F. Pont, F. Bouchy, D. Queloz, N. C. Santos, C. Melo, M. Mayor, and S. Udry, The Missing Link: A 4-day Period
Transiting Exoplanet Around OGLE-TR-111, Astron. Astrophys. J. 426 (2004), pp. L15-L18.
[129] F. Bouchy, F. Pont, F., N. C. Santos, C. Melo, M. Mayor, Q. Queloz, and S. Udry, Two Mew Very Hot Jupiters
Among the OGLE Transiting Candidates, Astron. Astrophys. 421 (2004), pp. L13-L16.
[130] M. Konacki, G. Torres, D. D. Sasselov, G. Pietrzy` nski, A. Udalski, S. Jha, M. T. Ruiz, W. Gieren, D. Minniti, Dante,
The Transiting Extrasolar Giant Planet Around the Star OGLE-TR-113, Astrophys. J. 609 (2004), pp. L37-L40.
[131] A. Sozzetti, D. Yong, G. Torres, D. Charbonneau, D. W. Latham, C. Allende Prieto, T. M. Brown, B. W. Carney,
J. B. Laird, High-Resolution Spectroscopy of the Transiting Planet Host Star TrES-1, Astrophys. J. 616 (2004), pp.
L167-L170.
[132] D. Valencia, R. J. O

Connell, and D. D. Sasselov, Internal Structure of Massive Terrestrial Planets, Icarus 181 (2006),
pp. 545-554.
[133] D. Valencia, D. D. Sasselov, and R. J. O

Connell, Radius and Structure Models of the First Terrestrial Super-Earth


Planets, Astrophys. J. 656 (2007), pp. 545-551.
[134] E. R. Adams, S. Seager, L. Elkins-Tanton, Ocean Planet or Thick Atmosphere: On the Mass-Radius Relationship for
Solid Exoplanets with Massive Atmospheres, Astrophys. J. 673 (2008), pp. 1160-1164.
[135] D. Valencia, D. D. Sasselov, and R. J. O

Connell, Detailed Models of Super-Earths: How well Can We Infer Bulk


Properties?, Astrophys. J. 665 (2007), pp. 1413-1420.
[136] D. Valencia, M. Ikoma, T. Guillot, and N. Nettelmann, Composition and Fate of Short-Period Super-Earths. The
Case of CoRoT-7b, Astron. Astrophys. 516 (2010), id.A20.
[137] D. C. Swift, J. Eggert, D. G. Hicks, S. Hamel, K. Caspersen, E. Schwegler, G. W. Collins, and G. J. Ackland,
Mass-Radius Relationships for Exoplanets, (arXiv:1001.4851)
[138] B. Jackson, N. Miller, R. Barnes, S. N. Raymond, J. J. Fortney, and R. Greenberg, The Roles of Tidal Evolution and
Evaporative Mass Loss in the Origin of CoRoT-7 b, to appear in Mon. Not. Roy. Ast. Soc. (2010), 407, pp. 910-922.
[139] A. Vidal-Madjar, A. Lecavelier des Etangs, J.-M. Dsert, G. E. Ballester, R. Ferlet, G. Hebrard, and M. Mayor, An
Extended Upper Atmosphere Around the Extrasolar Planet HD209458b, Nature 422 (2003), 143-146
[140] A. Lenardic, F. Nimmo, and L. Moresi, Growth of the Hemispheric Dichotomy and the Cessation of Plate Tectonics
on Mars, J. Geophys. Res. 109 (2004), E02003.
[141] C.C. Reese, V.S. Solomatov, and J.R. Baumgardner, Scaling Laws for Time-Dependent Stagnant-Lid Convection in
a Spherical Shell, Phys. Earth. Planet. Inter. 149 (2005), pp. 361-370.
[142] A. Loddoch, C. Stein, and U. Hansen, Temporal Variations in the Convective Style of Planetary Mantles, Earth
Planet. Sci. Let. 251 (2006), pp. 79-89.
[143] L. Kaltenegger, W. G. Henning, and D. D. Sasselov, Detecting Volcanism on Extrasolar Planets, Astron. J. 140 (2010),
pp. 1370-1380.
[144] J. C. G. Walker, P. B. Hays, J. F. Kasting, A Negative Feedback Mechanism for the Long-Term Stabilization of the
Earths Surface Temperature, J. Geophys. Res. 86 (1981), pp. 9776-9782.
[145] D. Valencia, R. J. O

Connell, and D. D. Sasselov, Inevitability of Plate Tectonics on Super-Earths, Astrophys. J. 670


(2007) pp. L45-L48.
[146] D. Valencia, and R. J. O

Connell, Convection Scaling and Subduction on Earth and Super-Earths, Earth Planet. Sci.
Lett. 286 (2009), pp. 492-502.
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
REFERENCES 41
[147] C. ONeill, and A. Lenardic, Geological Consequences of Super-Sized Earths, Geophys. Res. 34 (2007), L19204
[148] L. Moresi, and V. Solomatov, Mantle Convection With a Brittle Lithosphere: Thoughts on the Global Tectonic Styles
of the Earth and Venus, Geophys. J. Int. 133 (1998), pp. 669-682.
[149] J. D. Byerlee, Friction of Rocks, Pure Appl. Geophys. 116 (1978), pp. 615-626.
[150] P.J. Tackley, and H. van Heck, Mantle Convection, Stagnant Lids and Plate Tectonics on Super-Earths, Geochim.
Cosmoch. Acta Suppl. 73 (2009), p. A1303.
[151] C. Sotin, and G. Schubert, Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics on Earth-Like Exoplanets, Americ. Geo. U. Fall
Meeting 2009, abstract P42B-02.
[152] J.-M. Griessmeier, A. Stadelmann, T. Penz, H. Lammer, F. Selsis, I. Ribas, E. F. Guinan, U. Motschmann, H. K.
Biernat, and W. W. Weiss, The Eect of Tidal Locking on the Magnetospheric and Atmospheric Evolution of Hot
Jupiters, Astron. Astrophys., 425 (2004), pp. 753-762.
[153] R. Lundin, H. Lammer, and I. Ribas, Planetary Magnetic Fields and Solar Forcing: Implications for Atmospheric
Evolution, Sp. Sci. Rev., 129 (2007), pp. 245-278.
[154] V. Dehant, H. Lammer, Y. N. Kulikov, J.-M. Griessmeier, D. Breuer, O. Verhoeven,

O. Karatekin, T. van Hoolst, O.
Korablev, and P. Lognonne, P., Planetary Magnetic Dynamo Eect on Atmospheric Protection of Early Earth and
Mars, Sp. Sci. Rev., 129 (2007), pp. 279-300.
[155] D. J. Stevenson, Planetary Magnetic Fields: Achievements and Prospects, Sp. Sci. Rev., 152 (2010), pp. 651-664
[156] U. R. Christensen, A Balogh, D. Breuer, and K.-H. Glassmeier, Planetary Magnetism, Special issue of Sp. Sci. Rev.,
152 (2010)
[157] C. Tachinami, H. Senshu, and S. Ida, The Thermal Evolution and Magnetic Field of Hot Super-Earths, In: EXO-
PLANETS AND DISKS: THEIR FORMATION AND DIVERSITY. AIP Conference Proceedings 1158 (2009), pp.
267-268.
[158] E. Gaidos, C. P. Conrad, M. Manga, and J. Hernlund, Thermodynamic Limits on Magnetodynamos in Rocky Exo-
planets, ApJ, 718 (2010), pp. 596-609.
[159] V. Stamenkovic, L. Noack, and D. Breuer, Low-Lid Formation on Super-Earths and Implications for the Habitability
of Super-Earths and Sub-Earths, European Geophysical Union, Geophys. Res. Abst. 12 (2010), Abstrac # 9380.
[160] V. Stamenkovic, and D. Breuer, Magnetic Field Generation on Super-Earths and Sub-Earths, European Geophysical
Union, Geophys. Res. Abst. 12 (2010), Abstrac # 8995-1.
[161] L. Kaltenegger, W. A. Traub, and K. W. Jucks, Spectral Evolution of an Earth-like Planet, Astrophys. J., 658 (2007),
pp. 598-616.
[162] L. Kaltenegger, and W. A. Traub, Transits of Earth-like Planets, Astrophys. J., 698 (2009), pp. 519-527
[163] L. Kaltenegger, and D. Sasselov, Detecting Planetary Geochemical Cycles on Exoplanets: Atmospheric Signatures
and the Case of SO
2
, Astrophys. J., 708 (2010), pp. 1162-1167.
[164] J. F. Kasting, D. P. Whitmire, and R. T. Reynolds, Habitable Zones Around Main Sequence Stars, Icarus 101 (1993),
pp. 108-128.
[165] F. Forget, and R.T. Pierrehumbert, Warming Early Mars with Carbon Dioxide Clouds That Scatter Infrared Radia-
tion, Science, 278 (1997), pp. 1273-1276.
[166] D. M. Williams, and J. F. Kasting, Habitable Planets with High Obliquities, Icarus, 129 (1997), pp. 254-267.
[167] M. A. Mischna, J. F. Kasting, A. Pavlov, and R. Freedman, Inuence of Carbon Dioxide Clouds on Early Martian
Climate, Icarus, 145 (2000), pp. 546-554.
[168] L. T. Elkins-Tanton, and S. Seager, Ranges of Atmospheric Mass and Composition of Super-Earth Exoplanets,
Astrophys. J., 685 (2008), pp. 1237-1246.
[169] Y. Alibert, I. Barae, W. Benz, G. Chabrier, C. Mordasini, C. Lovis, M. Mayor, F. Pepe, F. Bouchy, D. Queloz, and
S. Udry, Formation and Structure of the Three Neptune-Mass Planets System Around HD 69830, Astron. Astrophys.,
455 (2006), pp. L25-L28.
[170] I. Barae, Y. Alibert, G. Chabrier, and W. Benz, Birth and Fate of Hot-Neptune Planets, Astron. Astrophys., 450
(2006), pp. 1221-1229.
[171] H. Lammer et al, Coronal Mass Ejection (CME) Activity of Low Mass M Stars as an Important Factor for the
Habitability of Terrestrial Exoplanets. II. CME-Induced Ion Pick Up of Earth-like Exoplanets in Close-In Habitable
Zones, Astrobio. 7 (2007), pp. 185-207.
[172] J. Scalo et al., M Stars as Targets for Terrestrial Exoplanet Searches and Biosignature Detection, Astrobio. 7 (2007),
pp. 85-166.
[173] A. A. West, S. L. Hawley, J. J. Bochanski, K. R. Covey, I. N. Reid, S. Dhital, E. J. Hilton, and M. Masuda, Constraining
the Age-Activity Relation for Cool Stars: The Sloan Digital Sky Survey Data Release 5 Low-Mass Star Spectroscopic
Sample, Astron. J. 135 (2008), pp. 785-795.
[174] J. J. Fortney, M. S. Marley, and J. W. Barnes, Planetary Radii Across Five Orders of Magnitude in Mass and Stellar
Insolation: Application to Transits, Astrophys. J. 659 (2007), pp. 1661-1672.
[175] F. Selsis, J. F. Kasting, B. Levrard, J. Paillet, I. Ribas, and X. Delfosse, Habitable planets around the star Gliese
581?, Astrono. Astrophys., 476 (2007), pp. 1373-1387.
[176] S. Seager, and D. Deming, On the Method to Infer an Atmosphere on a Tidally Locked Super Earth Exoplanet and
Upper Limits to GJ 876d, Astrophys. J. 703 (2009), pp. 1884-1889.
[177] L. A. Rogers, and S. Seager, Three Possible Origins for the Gas Layer on GJ 1214b, Astrophys. J., 716 (2010), pp.
1208-1216.
[178] L. A. Rogers, and S. Seager, A Framework for Quantifying the Degeneracies of Exoplanet Interior Compositions,
Astrophys. J., 712 (2010), pp. 974-991.
[179] E. Miller-Ricci, S. Seager, and D. Sasselov, The Atmospheric Signatures of Super-Earths: How to Distinguish Between
Hydrogen-Rich and Hydrogen-Poor Atmospheres, The Astrophys. J., 690 (2009), pp. 1056-1067.
[180] K. Heng, and S. S. Vogt, Gliese 581g as a Scaled-Up Version of Earth: Atmospheric Circulations Simulations, Mon.
Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. (2011), tmp..738H.
[181] S. Zucker, T. Mazeh, N. C. Santos, S. Udry and M. Mayor, Multi-Order TODCOR: Application to Observations Taken
With the CORALIE Echelle Spectrograph, II. A Planet in the System HD 41004 Astron. Astrophys. 426 (2004), pp.
695-698.
[182] E.J. Rivera, R. P. Butler, S. S. Vogt, G. Laughlin, G. W. Henry, and S. Meschiari, A Super-Earth Orbiting the Nearby
Sun-like Star HD 1461, Astrophys. J. 708 (2010), pp. 1492-1499.
[183] K. Clubb, D. Fischer, A. Howard, G. Marcy, and G. W. Henry, M2K: A Search for Planets Orbiting Early M and
August 2, 2011 2:38 Contemporary Physics Haghighipour-Manuscript
42 REFERENCES
Late K Dwarf Stars, Bull. Am. Astron. Soc. 41 (2009), p.192.
[184] K. Apps, et al., M2K: I. A Jupiter-Mass Planet Orbiting the M3V Star HIP 79431, Pub. Astron. Soc. Pac. 122
(2010), pp. 156-161.
[185] X. Bonls, T. Forveille, X. Delfosse, S. Udry, M. Mayor, C. Perrier, F. Bouchy, F. Pepe, D. Queloz, and J.-L. Bertaux,
The HARPS Search for Southern Extrasolar Planets. VI. A Neptune-mass Planet Around the Nearby M-Dwarf Gl
581, Astron. Astrophys., 443 (2005), pp. L15-L18.
[186] S. Udry, X. Bonls, X. Delfosse, T. Forveille, M. Mayor, C. Perrier, F. Bouchy, C. Lovis, F. Pepe, D. Queloz, and
J.-L. Bertaux, The HARPS Search for Southern Extrasolar Planets. XI. Super-Earths (5 and 8 M

) in a 3-Planet
System, Astron. Astrophys., 469 (2007), pp. L43-L47.
[187] M. Mayor, X. Bonls, T. Forveille, X. Delfosse, S. Udry, J.-L. Bertaux, H. Beust, F. Bouchy, C. Lovis, F. Pepe, C.
Perrier, D. Queloz, and N. C. Santos, The HARPS Search for Southern Extrasolar Planets. XVIII. An Earth-Mass
Planet in the GJ 581 Planetary System, Astron. Astrophys., 507 (2009), pp. 487-494.
[188] P. Nutzman and D. Charbonneau, Design Considerations for a Ground-Based Transit Search for Habitable Planets
Orbiting M Dwarfs, PASP, 120 (2008) pp. 317-327.
[189] J. Irwin, D. Charbonneau, P. Nutzman, and E. Falco, The MEarth Project: Searching for Transiting Habitable Super-
Earth Planets Around Nearby M-Dwarfs, in COOL STARS, STELLAR SYSTEMS AND THE SUN: Proceedings of
the 15th Cambridge Workshop on Cool Stars, Stellar Systems and the Sun. AIP Conference Proceedings, 1094 (2009),
pp. 445-448.
[190] J. Irwin, D. Charbonneau, P. Nutzman, and E. Falco, The MEarth Project: Searching for Transiting Habitable Super-
Earth Planets Around Nearby M-Dwarfs, in Transiting Planets, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union,
IAU Symposium, 253 (2009), pp. 37-43.
[191] J. H. Steen et al, Five Kepler Target Stars That Show Multiple Transiting Exoplanet Candidates, Astrophys. J., 725
(2010), pp. 1226-1241.
[192] M. J. Holman, and N. W. Murray, The Use of Transit Timing to Detect Terrestrial-Mass Extrasolar Planets, Science
307 (2005), pp. 1288-1291.
[193] A. R. Dobrovolskis, and W. J. Borucki, Inuence of Jovian Extrasolar Planets on Transits of Inner Planets, Bull.
Am. Astron. Soc. 28 (1996), p. 1112.
[194] J. Miralda-Escud`e, Orbital Perturbations of Transiting Planets: A Possible Method to Measure Stellar Quadruples
and to Detect Earth-Mass Planets, Astrophys. J. 564 (2002), pp. 1019-1023.
[195] E. Agol, J. Steen, R. Sari, and W. Clarkson, On Detecting Terrestrial Planets With Timing of Giant Planet Transits,
Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc., 359 (2005), pp. 567-579.
[196] J. H. Steen, and E. Agol, An analysis of the transit times of TrES-1b, Mon. Not. Roy. Astron. Soc. 364 (2005), pp.
L96-L100.
[197] N. Haghighipour, E. Agol,and J. Steen, Detection of Super-Earth Planets via the Transit Timing Variation Method,
American Geophysical Union (2008), abstract P14B-04.
[198] E. B. Ford et al, Transit Timing Observations from Kepler: I. Statistical Analysis of the First Four Month,
arXiv:1102.0544v1.
[199] M. J. Payne, E. B. Ford, and D. Veras, Transit Timing Variations for Inclined and Retrograde Exoplanetary Systems,
The Astrophys. J. 712 (2010), pp. L86-L92.
[200] N. Haghighipour, and S. Kirste On the Detection of (Habitable) Around Low-Mass Stars using Kepler and Transit
Timing Variation Method, Celest. Mech. Dynamic. Astron., (2011), in press (arXiv:1107.2885)
[201] D. Nesvor` y, Transit Timing Variations for Eccentric and Inclined Exoplanets, Astrophys. J. 701 (2009), pp. 1116-
1122.
[202] D. Nesvorn` y, and C. Beaug`e, Fast Inversion Method for Determination of Planetary Parameters from Transit Timing
Variations, Astrophys. J. 709 (2010), pp. L44-L48.
[203] A. W. Mann, E. Gaidos, and B. S. Gaudi, The Invisible Majority? Evolution and Detection of Outer Planetary
Systems without Gas Giants, Astrophys. J. 719 (2010), pp. 1454-1469.

Вам также может понравиться