1

Sustainable Harvesting and Management of Medicinal Plants in the

Nepal Himalaya: Current Issues, Knowledge Gaps and Research
Priorities

Suresh K. Ghimire
Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu
email: sureshkghimire@yahoo.com

Abstract

Medicinal plants (MPs) form a high percentage of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) collected from the
Himalaya. They are the major source of medication for a wide range of ailments for the rural people. Besides
their importance in health care, MPs have high socio-cultural, symbolic and economic values, providing income
and employment to millions of people living in the region. Unfortunately, in recent decades, the use of many
plant-based NTFPs, including MPs, has gone from subsistence collection to large-scale commercial extraction,
increasing the probability of over-exploitation. Knowledge of the sustainability of the use of such plant resources
is thus urgently needed. Sustainability of the use and management of plant resources can be assured with an
understanding of the biological/ecological, economic, socio-cultural and political aspects of resource base;
understanding of the complex interactions between many of these factors; and with careful planning and
management grounded in ecological principles. Management also requires understanding local perceptions,
knowledge and decision making systems relating to the resources. Unfortunately, these aspects of research are
greatly lacking from the Himalaya. There is a general lack of precise scientific knowledge regarding both the
biological and socio-cultural aspects of the resource base and potential for sustainable harvest. This paper
reviews the biological and socio-cultural aspects of research on Himalayan MPs; evaluates current issues and
gaps on MP research; and outlines the approaches of ecological research in achieving harvesting sustainability of
wild MP resources.

1. Introduction

People have used medicinal plants (MPs) in health care since the time of earliest human evolution. In
many countries, MPs still remain the major source of medication for a wide range of ailments.
Therapeutic effects of MPs are associated with their chemical peculiarities, which are in reality
components of the defense strategies of plants. Only 5 to 15% of the approximately 270,000 species of
higher plants occurring in the globe have been systematically investigated, and plants remain a rich
source of novel bioactive compounds. The potential value of medicinal compounds derived from
plants has been proposed as a tangible benefit of biodiversity and therefore a basis for promoting its
conservation (Coley et al. 2003).
The role of MPs is particularly important in the Himalayan region, where a large proportion of the
rural population depends on wild MP resources to meet their health care needs. Besides their
importance in health care, MPs have high socio-cultural, symbolic and economic values, providing
income and employment to millions of people living in the region. In the Himalaya, MPs are highly
valued in different folk healing systems and in scholarly systems of traditional medicine, such as Ayurveda,
Unani, Chinese and Tibetan. In addition, Himalayan medicinal plants and their products are also popular in
other traditional medical systems (such as Siddha, homoeopathic) as well as in modern allopathic
medicines.
Plants used in traditional medicine are important sources of novel bio-molecules (Heinrich and
Gibbons 2001), with application for the manufacture of pharmaceuticals and cosmeceuticals. Besides,
the incorporation of medicinal herbs into health foods, dietary supplements, herbal teas, cosmetics,
massage oils, fragrances, and dying and coloring agents has dramatically increased the international
demand in medicinal plants. The global market for herbal medicines has been estimated to be worth
USD 40-60 billion, annually growing at the rate of 7-10% (for review see Nagpal and Karki 2004;
Subrat 2005). The Himalayan region is one of the major repositories of high value MPs in Asia concerned
by international trade. India and China alone consume hundreds of MP species from the Himalaya. The
annual demand for raw materials of MPs in India, for example, is estimated at 24 million metric tons,
which is increasing at the rate of 20% per annum (Karki 2001). Similarly, the traditional Chinese medicine

2
market has been valued at US$ 4830 million, which is projected to reach over 1.21 billion by the year 2010
(Nagpal and Karki 2004).
The recent trend of large-scale commercial extraction of MPs, to meet the growing demand of
herbal industries, has increased the probability of over-exploitation of many valuable species. The
pace, depth, and magnitude of human pressures in the Himalaya are known to have exerted ecological
stresses not only on the individuals and the populations of MPs but also on the life support
ecosystems. This has lead to the degradation of diversity, quality and availability of many valuable
species on the one hand and their habitats and ecosystems on the other. Knowledge of the
sustainability of the use of such plant resources is thus urgently needed. In the Himalaya, there is a
general lack of precise scientific knowledge regarding both the biological and socio-cultural aspects of
the resource base and potential for sustainable harvest. This paper reviews the biological and socio-
cultural aspects of research on Himalayan MPs, focusing on MPs from the Nepal Himalaya. It
evaluates current issues and gaps on MP research; and outlines the approaches of ecological research
in achieving harvesting sustainability of wild MP resources.

2. Research on Medicinal Plants: Historical Perspective and Current Approach

Enormous literature exists on MPs of the Himalaya. However, much of these represent compilation of
the use and properties of MPs. In fact, MPs of the Indian subcontinent, including the Himalaya, have
been explored since the Vedic period and compiled in different Ayurvedic texts dating back to the
Vedic ages (ca. 2500 and 500 B.C.). In Nepal, the earliest work on MPs and their uses can be traced
back to 7
th
Century A.D, when Shausruta Nighantu was hand copied in Post Likshivi script (Subedi
and Tiwari 2000). Another earlier effort towards the compilation of MPs of Nepal is the hand written
herbal pharmacopoeia, Chandra Nigantu written in the 19
th
and the beginning of 20
th
century.
Scientific study of the flora of Nepal started at the beginning of 19
th
century when Francis
Buchanan-Hamilton made first botanical exploration in 1802-1803, followed by Nathanial Wallich in
1820-1821. Plants collected by these earlier explorers were later published with some account of their
ethnobotanical importance (reviewed by Rajbhandari 2001). Despite floristic works, scientific research
focusing solely on MPs in Nepal started only in the mid 1950s and 1970s (e.g. Banerji 1955;
Dobremez et al. 1971).
A total of 450 reference (journal articles, conference papers, theses, books and reports) related to
MP research in Nepal have been accessed in this paper. Most of the research works (53%) were related
to the inventory (identification of major species, product and their ethnomedical and trade values) of
MPs; 17% research works were concerned with phytochemical and pharmacological screening; 10%
with commercialization and livelihood; 8% with ecology (these are further limited to the inventory to
assess availability, distribution and status); and the rest were concerned with cultivation (focusing in
vitro studies and propagation methods), management and sustainability. Dhar et al. (2000) reviewed
and analyzed research on MPs in the Indian Himalaya and found similar results. They reported that
that 50% of the studies were concerned primarily with inventories of species, 24.4% with cultivation
and propagation, 16.3% with status, and the rest with trade and conservation. They further stated that
lack of location specific and abundance data in most inventories limits their utility.

3. An Overview of the Himalayan MPs: Diversity, Distribution and Specificities

3.1 Diversity and distribution
The total number of medicinal plant species in the Himalaya is still not clearly known as several
systems of traditional medicine (both classical and folk) are being practiced which differ in their
preference of species used. It has been estimated that the Himalayan region is home to over 10000 species
of MPs, which support livelihood needs of about 100 million people living in the area (Pei 2001). The
diversity of MPs in different Himalayan countries is presented in Table 1.
The diversity of MPs is very high in a country like Nepal, which is well known for its biological
and socio-cultural diversity and in which nearly 90 indigenous languages/dialects are spoken. The
estimates of total number of MP species found in Nepal differ widely with authors. DPR (1970, 1984),
for example, compiled 571 species of MPs from Nepal. Later, Malla and Shakya (1984) reported 630

3
species; and Baral and Kurmi (2006) recently compiled 1,792 species of MPs (including lichens and
fungi). Central Department of Botany, Tribhuvan University, Nepal has developed Medicinal and
Aromatic Plant Database of Nepal (MAPDON) in 1999, which was based on Nepalese Plant Database
(NPD) prepared by the collaborative project of The Natural History Museum (London) and Tribhuvan
University (Kathmandu). The compiled data of the database was fist published in 2000 (Shrestha et al.
2000), which listed 1624 species of MPs. The database has been updated frequently to incorporate
additional species and verify the existing information. Recent analysis of the database revealed a total
of 1950 species of MPs in Nepal. Out of which 1906 species are represented by vascular groups
(angiosperm, gymnosperms and pteridophytes) (Table 1 and 2), comprising 1614 native, 192
introduced and/or cultivated, and 100 naturalized taxa.

Table 1 MP species diversity in different Himalayan countries.

Country Total number MP species References for number of MPs
of plant
species
Number % of total
flora

China

37604

10644

28.30

Pei et al. (2006)

India

17000
(8644)

7500
(1748)

44.1
(20.2)

Samant et al. (1998)
Nepal 7034

1906

27.10

Present analysis
Pakistan 6000 600-1500 - Ahmad (1997), Shinwari et al. (2000)
Bhutan ? 322 - Rinjin (2006)
Himalaya ? >10000 - -
World 270000 52885 19.6 Hamilton (2004)

Numbers of species recorded fromChinese Himalayan region [Yunnan, Sichuan, Tibet (Xizang), Qinghai and Gansu]

In the case of India, species for whole country are given first and numbers of species recorded only fromthe Indian Himalaya are
presented in the parentheses.

Only vascular plants (angiosperms, gymnosperms and pteridophytes) are taken into account


Table 2. Diversity of medicinal plants in Nepal Himalaya (only vascular groups are considered)

Plant groups Families Genera Species
Pteridophytes 24 41 77
Gymnosperms 7 11 19
Angiosperms 169 897 1810
Total 200 949 1906


Himalayan MPs comprise a diverse array of species varying in life-forms, reproductive modes, growth
strategies and habitat specificities. MPs are distributed from low-lying forests (<100 m) up to the high
alpine and trans-Himalayan regions (>5500 m). Some species even grow above 6000 m. Corydalis
hendersonii (Fumariaceae), Delphinium brunonianum (Ranunculaceae), Gentiana urnula (Gentianaceae)
and Lamiophlomis rotata (Lamiaceae) are some of the high-altitude MP species growing as high as 6100-
6300 m altitudes.
Preliminary analysis of the distribution pattern of MPs along altitudinal gradient in the Nepal
Himalaya shows that the lower sub-tropical level (1000-1500 m) harbor proportionally maximum
number of MP species (Fig 1a), with a peak in richness of MP species at 1200 m (with 679 species)
(Fig 1b). Despite lower MP species richness, the sub-alpine (3000-4000 m) and lower alpine (4000-
4500 m) levels provide important habitats supporting diversity of potential species which are highly
valued by regional and international trade (Lama et al. 2001; Ghimire et al. 2006).

4
0
10
20
30
40
50
L
t
U
t
L
s
t
U
s
t
C
o
l
M
o
n
L
s
a
U
s
a
L
a
l
U
a
l
Ecological levels
S
p
e
c
i
e
s

(
%
)
(a)

0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Altitude ('00 m)
N
u
m
b
e
r

o
f

s
p
e
c
i
e
s
(b)

Figure 1 Distribution of MPs in Nepal (only wild or naturally growing species were considered;
introduced/cultivated species were excluded): (a) distribution along ecological zones [Lt & Ut lower
& upper tropical (<1000 m), Lst & Ust lower & upper subtropical (>1000-2000 m), Col Collinen
(>2000-2500 m), Mon Montan (>2500-3000 m), Lsa & Usa lower & upper sub-alpine(>3000-
4000 m), Lal & Ual lower & upper alpine (>4000->5000 m)]; (b) distribution along elevation
gradient (at 100 m altitudinal intervals). The fitted line in (b) is based on quadratic polynomial
regression model.

In broad outline of their specialization, the MPs in the Himalaya exhibit peculiarities in a number of
characteristics, such as morphology, physiology, life form and growth pattern. In the Himalaya, most
of the species considered to be medicinal are long-lived and many show clonal growth (Dhar et al.
2000; Lama et al. 2001; Ghimire et al. 2006). However, the relative diversity of species of given life
form varies differently along the altitudinal gradient. As an adaptive strategy to progressive cold and
aridity along altitudinal gradient, plants in the Himalaya show slow growth with longer life spans and
have a higher degree of vegetative propagation than the plants at lower altitude (Wang et al. 2002;

5
Klime 2003). Annual herbs are quite common in the lower altitudinal area, which decrease sharply
with altitude, reaching a minimum (<5%) above 3600 m (Wang et al. 2002). Analysis of the
distribution pattern of life forms of naturally growing (native and naturalized) MP species in the Nepal
Himalaya revealed that 45.0% of the total naturally growing species are long-lived herbaceous
perennial. This figure is even higher (ca. 70%) when only high altitude species (growing >2500 m) are
taken into account. The second largest life form category of MPs is shrubs (16.6%), followed by
annual/biennial herbs (15.6%). Trees account for 13.6% of the total naturally growing species, and
woody and herbaceous climbers account for 6.5% and 2.3%, respectively.

3.2 Phytogeography

Floristically, Himalaya is a meeting place of the Holarctic and Paleotropical regions, with influences of
the Mediterranean, Indo-Malaysian and E. Asian floras. In the Himalaya, isolation of a number of high
altitude valleys has created marked bioclimatic barriers, which has also helped in the development of
endemism. A large number of MPs used in traditional medicine in the Himalayan region have been
reported to be endemic to this region. Samant et al. (1998), for example, reported that about 25.8% of
the total species of MPs in the Indian Himalaya are endemic to the Himalayan region. Similarly,
majority of the naturally growing MP species (28.5%) reported from the Nepal Himalaya are endemic
to the Himalayan region (Fig. 2). In Nepal Himalaya, the second largest group is represented by Sino-
Himalayan elements (17.0%). Some 7.1% of the MP species had very broad geographical distributions
(such as Holarctic/cosmopolitan). Regarding country level endemism, 25 species of MPs (1.5% of total
species) have been reported to be endemic to the Nepal Himalaya. Most of the endemic species of MP
have narrow distribution range, high habitat specificity and small population size (see Shrestha and
J oshi 1996; Ghimire 2006).

0
5
10
15
20
25
30
NE HE SH TR ML IN HO SJ IM Oth
Origin
S
p
e
c
i
e
s

(
%
)

Figure 2 Distribution according to phytogeographical domains of wild MP species found in Nepal Himalaya.
NE-Nepal endemic, HE-Himalayan endemic, SH-Sino-Himalayan, TR-Tropical, ML-Southeast Asian
Malaysian, IN-Indian, HO-Holarctic, SJ-Sino-Japanese or Eastern Asiatic, IM-Indo-Malayan, Oth-other.


3.3 Mode of utilization

Studies have shown that for about 70% of taxa of Himalayan MPs the mode of harvesting is

6
destructive, with underground parts or whole plant being most frequently exploited (Dhar et al. 2000;
Lama et al. 2001). For example, in Nepal Himalaya, for about 36.0% of MP taxa underground parts
are most frequently utilized and for 35.0% of taxa whole plant parts are used. In both of these cases
harvesting mostly involves uprooting the whole plants. Besides, reproductive (including flower, fruit
and seed) and other vegetative plant parts (leaf, bark, stem, plant exudates, tender shoot) frequently
harvested for local medicine and trade accounted for 27.5 and 41.0% of total MP species, respectively.
A large number of high-altitude MPs are aromatic and many are also the sources of food, condiments,
fiber, dye, fats and essential oils.

3.4 Phytochemical and pharmacological specificities

Although little is known about biochemical specificities of Himalayan MPs, some evidence suggests
that such plants offer great potential for discovery of novel molecules and new sources of active
compounds, mainly because of the environmental stress to which they are subjected. J ackson and
Dewick (1984), for example, found that the content of podophyllotoxin, which is isolated from
podophyllin (a resin produced by species of the genus Podophyllum, commonly known as may-
apple), is much higher (4.3% of dry weight) in the Himalayan species Podophyllum hexandrum than
in the American species P. peltatum (0.25%). Similarly, Bos et al. (1997) reported that the patchouli
alcohol, and b- and g-patchoulene, which are characteristic of the essential oil of Himalayan valerian,
Valeriana wallichii (Valerianaceae), have not been described to be present in other species, such as V.
officinalis. Concentrations of active phytochemical constituents of some Himalayan MP species have
been reported to be high in populations growing at higher altitude as compared to the populations
growing at the lower altitude (Mikage et al. 1987; Yang et al. 2005; but see Mikage and Mouri 1999,
2000; Yang et al. 2005a). In mountains, plant secondary compounds exhibit patterns of variation in
relation to stress associated with elevation, which relates to plant competition for resources, defense
strategies against herbivores and pathogens, and the harsh climate. Plastic increases in leaf secondary
compounds have been reported in some high altitude Himalayan MPs (such as Rheum nobile) as an
adaptive strategy to reduce the damaging effects of ultraviolet radiation (Iwashina et al. 2004).
However, altitudinal trend is not universal. In some species with a narrow altitudinal range, habitat
temperature is influenced more by habitat geography that controls daylight hours than by altitude and
influence the active phytochemical constituents (Mikage and Mouri 2000). Other factors, such as soil
type, temperature, precipitation, and abundance of microbial populations also have greater effect on
the synthesis and turnover of secondary compounds in MPs (Mikage and Mouri 2000; Yang et al.
2005a,b).
Himalayan MPs are known to possess memory-enhancing, anti-aging, hair growth promoting, anti-
inflammatory, immunomodulating, hepatoprotecive, anti-allergic, anti-diabetic, anti-stress, anti-
cancer, and anti-epileptic activities (Chandra Sekar et al. 1987; Dev 1997, 1999), in addition to
antifungal (e.g., Agarwal et al. 2000), antibacterial (e.g., Taylor and Towers 1998), antiviral (Taylor et
al. 1996a,b) and other properties widespread in medicinal plants. Several species have been
extensively used in the traditional system of medicine as rejuvenators (which prevent diseases and
promote health), slowing the process of aging and rejuvenating whole functional dynamics of the body
system (Govindarajan et al. 2005). This group of plants generally possesses strong antioxidant activity
(reviewed by Scartezzini and Speroni 2000). Free radicals and other reactive oxygen species are
considered to be important causative factors in the development of diseases of aging (Scartezzini and
Speroni 2000; Govindarajan et al. 2005). Several antioxidant compounds (e.g., mangiferin,
emblicanins, curcumin, polyphenols, etc.) have been isolated from Himalayan MPs as potential
sources of free radical scavenging compounds that remove these toxic species (reviewed by
Scartezzini and Speroni 2000). Li et al. (1999), for example, isolated nardosinone as a neuritogenic
substance from Nardostachys, which has been reported to play an important role in the survival and
maintenance of cholinergic neurons in the central nervous system. Similarly, picrosides (I and II),
isolated from Picrorhiza, have been shown to cause a marked enhancement of the NGF-mediated
neurite outgrowth by amplifying a step in the NGF-receptor-mediated intracellular signaling pathway
(Li et al. 2000).



7
4. Trade Status of MPs in Nepal Himalaya

The gathering of NTFPs including MPs for trade is an important aspect of local culture in many
mountain districts of Nepal. Total number of MPs involved in trade within or from Nepal is not well
known as many products are involved in trade through illegal channels. Subedi (2006) estimates a total
of 161 plant-based NTFP species which are harvested for commercial purpose in Nepal. Out of which
over 50% of the species are used for medicine. Bhattarai and Ghimire (2006), on the other hand, listed
a total of 143 species as commercial MPs.
Until 1960 the export of MPs from Nepal was limited to India and China. Later, the drive to
diversification has promoted herbal trade to overseas countries as well, although the bulk (>90%) of
trade is still with India (Malla et al. 1995; Edwards 1996; Olsen and Larsen 2003). Most of the herbs
are exported in raw forms, except some protected species, which are traded after primary processing.
From India, products are re-exported to other countries either in crude forms or after primary
processing, in addition to being used in the Indian pharmaceutical and aromatic industries.
The trade in MPs is an important source of revenue to the government and a major source of cash
income to rural people. In the mountains of Nepal, 10-100% of households in rural areas are involved
in commercial collection of NTFPs including MPs, and in certain rural areas this provides up to 50%
of the family income (Shrestha et al. 1995; Edwards 1996; Olsen and Helles 1997a; Olsen and Larsen
2003). The revenue from NTFPs, including MPs, for the government of Nepal is more than 10% of the
total revenue generated from the forest based products (GN 1999). The trade in MPs has increased
rapidly from 1990 onwards. According to Malla et al. (1995) the annual quantities of medicinal herbs
exported amounted to over 4,000 tons during the mid-1970s, reaching over 13,500 tons after 1992.
However, the real export value of MPs is not clearly known. Estimates of volume of trade greatly vary
according to the author. Edwards (1996), for example, estimated the annual export value to be USD
8.6 million, involving 10-15 thousand tons of raw NTFPs. Olsen (2005a) estimated the annual export
value of MPs from Nepal to be USD 3.2-12.8 million, but the same author (Olsen 2005b) estimated
the annual export value, calculated using regional wholesaler purchasing prices in the main markets in
India, to be USD 730 million, with a value of USD 16 million in 1997-1998. Recently, Subedi (2006)
estimated the total export value of NTFP (involving 161 species) from Nepal to be USD 35 million.
Some five high-value products constitute over 50% of the volume and value in trade, including two
high altitude MP species, Nardostachys grandiflora and Neopicrorhiza scrophulariiflora (Olsen
2005a). This trend has led inexorably to greater pressure on selected species. Cultivation of MPs is
still at the trial stage; thus almost all of the MPs involved in trade are harvested from the wild.

5. Conservation and Development Issues

In the Himalaya, conservation and management of MPs and other NTFPs is challenged by various
factors. The major conservation issue related to MP resources is over-harvesting due to trade pressure.
In addition, habitat destruction, livestock grazing, forest fires, etc., are also considered important
factors responsible for the depletion of many species (Shrestha and J oshi 1996). Depletion of many
MP species has also been attributed to the lack of comprehensive policies and regulations for
sustainable collection, use, trade and management (Olsen and Helles 1997b; Pandit and Thapa 2003).
Issues pertaining to equity in benefit sharing from the commercialization of MPs are quite complex as
the MP sub-sector involves diverse group of stakeholders (Subedi 2006; Olsen and Bhattarai 2005).
The trade in MPs is mostly based on traditional trade channels and networks, which are generally
secret and usually work against the interests of primary collectors (Olsen and Helles 1997a; Karki
2001). The prices paid to the primary collectors are too low than the actual value of the product, which
compels the local collectors to over-exploit the resources to supplement their income.
There is a lack of precise scientific knowledge regarding both ecological and social aspects of the
resource base and potential for sustainable harvest. Data about MP consumption, volumes of trade and
levels of demand are also inadequate. There are large variations in the estimates of volume of trade
showing the difficulty of actually estimating the amount collected due to lack of transparency in the
market circuit. Harvesting methods used by commercial collectors are particularly unsustainable as far
as high altitude MPs are concerned. Most of these are herbaceous with perennial roots, rhizomes or
tubers. Plants are generally uprooted to collect underground parts. It is very likely that underground

8
parts are very old and will take long to regenerate.
The threat status of many species of MPs in the Himalaya is not known. The first attempt for threat
assessment of Nepalese flora was that of Shrestha and J oshi (1996). In J anuary 2001, a Conservation
Assessment Management Plan (CAMP) workshop held in Nepal assessed the threat status of selected
MP of Nepal based on IUCN threat categories (Tandon et al. 2001). Based on these two works it is
estimated that a total of 138 native vascular plant taxa are threatened in Nepal, including over 50
species of MPs. Of the total threatened taxa, 73 (52.9%) are high-altitude plants growing mainly above
2500 m. Among the high-altitude threatened taxa, 55% are naturally rare and 56% are threatened due
to various levels of anthropogenic pressures. Human-induced rarity may be more harmful than natural
rarity, if the species is not adapted to low numbers. Many follow a common decline syndrome
whereby their wild distributions have recently contracted owing to continued habitat destruction and
over-exploitation (Shrestha and J oshi 1996). Over-exploitation may lead to decrease in effective
population size, which may have great genetic consequences (Cruse-Sanders et al. 2005).



Figure 3 Interlinked dimensions of sustainability of use of MPs. Achieving sustainable use of MPs
requires the consideration of many interlinked dimensions biological/ecological, socio-cultural, and
economic and all within a supportive political (and policy) environment (after Cunningham 2001).


6. Sustainability of Harvesting of Medicinal Plants: Ecological and Ethnoecological
Approaches

6.1 Ecological sustainability: knowledge gaps and research needs

Over the past decade, the use of NTFPs has been introduced as a conservation and development
strategy (Nepstad and Schwartzman 1992; Arnold and Perez 2001). In the early 1990s many
researchers argued that adding economic value to forests through the extraction of NTFPs is a strategy
for sustainable forest exploitation, capable of conserving biological diversity while providing
economic incentives to rural communities (Nepstad and Schwartzman 1992). This has resulted in an
upsurge of projects aiming, through the setting up of local enterprises, at adding value locally to
NTFPs. However, very few of these projects have had demonstrated effects on the ecological
sustainability of harvesting. More recently, other economic tools have been put forward as a means of
Biological/ Ecologica
l (Individual, population,
community, ecosystem,
landscape levels)
Economic Socio-cultural
Political environment
Policy and legal
measures
Sustainability
(Patterns & practices of
resource use, decision
making system, local
institutions & networks,
management systems)
(Market demand, amount
used, commercialization,
enterprise, value
addition, employment)

9
ensuring that NTFPs collected sustainably can be identified as such by the consumers. These are
mainly eco-certification processes, which are currently being developed to ensure sustainability along
the supply chain (Shanley et al. 2002).
Sustainability of NTFP harvesting is challenged by many factors from both the social and
ecological perspectives, factors which were not fully considered in the economic perspectives
developed in the early 1990s. It is now recognized that many interlinked dimensions biological,
ecological, socio-cultural, economic and political must all be considered in order to achieve
sustainable use of NTFPs (Hall and Bawa 1993; Cunningham 2001; Bennett 2002; also see Fig 3).
Harvesting and other human interventions may alter ecological processes at individual, population,
community, ecosystem and landscape levels (Hall and Bawa 1993; Cunningham 2001; Ticktin 2004).
Thus an understanding of dynamics at all these levels is important in estimating the sustainability of
use of MPs and other NTFPs. In ecological terms, sustainability of harvest is the amount of forest
resources (such as NTFP) that can be harvested indefinitely from a limited area of natural habitat
without imposing deleterious effect on the structure and dynamics of populations of harvested species,
and insuring that the population size and the availability of the extracted product do not decline as a
result of harvesting. Thus, sustainable management systems of MP species should guarantee the long-
term persistence of their populations, maintaining positive rate of their population growth (i.e.
population growth rate greater than one). At the larger spatial scales, achieving sustainability also
requires that human resource use should not have adverse effects on the vegetation dynamics, on the
structure and functioning of ecosystems, and finally on the dynamics at the landscape level (Hall and
Bawa 1993; Cunningham 2001).
Despite the interest in and advocacy of NTFP extraction, knowledge related to ecology of most
species remains scarce, making it difficult to assess the sustainability of extraction. The paucity of
information is particularly acute in the Himalaya, where only a few species have been studied from
biological or ecological perspectives (for review see Ghimire et al. 2005, 2008; Dar et al. 2000). Most
of the researches so far conducted are related either to the identification of major species, product and
their use in health care and trade. The major research limitations are:

Less emphasis on research with direct resource conservation application (e.g. ecological
consequences of harvesting on population dynamics, effect of harvest on genetic diversity;
reproductive biology and long-term viability of MP populations; threat and extinction risk
analyses, etc.)
Less emphasis on integrated and interdisciplinary approaches
Traditional methodological approach and insufficient sample size limits comparison and
replication of ecological research to other areas
Lack of long-term studies (monitoring of population dynamics, etc.)
Limited conservation/management implications of ethnobiological research

6.2 Ecological research: contribution to the sustainable use of MPs

The sustainable management of MPs includes four fundamental management tasks (modified after
Peters 1994): (i) the species or resources to be exploited are first selected; (ii) baseline data about the
current resource base, their abundance (density and productivity) and distribution, local use and
management practices are then collected though inventory, (iii) demographic studies are conducted
under different harvesting regimes to assess the population growth rates, the effect of harvesting on
life history parameters, and estimate the optimal rate of harvesting and rotation period required for the
long-term persistence of plant populations, (iv) finally, the impact of harvesting is carefully monitored
and harvest levels are adjusted as necessary to minimize biological over-harvesting.
Although a first estimate of the impact of harvesting can be assessed by comparing population
structure (i.e. the relative abundance of different sized individuals in the population) of harvested and
un-harvested populations, this approach has limited application in accessing long term population
growth and viability. The population structure is also not necessarily an indication of the population
performance. Many authors thus have emphasized the need of assessing sustainability of plant
extraction looking at the level of population dynamics (Hall and Bawa 1993; Peters 1994). Extraction
of NTFPs affects survival, growth and reproduction of harvested individuals and thereby also affects

10
the structure and dynamics of populations. Thus, designing sustainable management of NTFPs
requires information on the impact of harvesting on life history parameters (recruitment, survival,
growth, mortality) of focal species, knowledge on how populations of these species respond to
different harvesting regimes, and estimation of the level of harvest that will ensure their long-term
persistence (Hall and Bawa 1993; Peters 1994). Only the long-term monitoring of dynamics of
unharvested populations as well as of those subjected to different harvesting intensities will generate
sufficient information to evaluate the sustainability of harvesting (Hall and Bawa 1993; Ticktin 2004).
The information at population level can then be analyzed using demographic models. Among
different types of demographic models, size or stage-based transition matrix models are widely used
for calculating population growth rate, extinction probability, and sensitivities (e.g., Caswell 2001).
These models can provide powerful tools for the study of population dynamics of threatened plant
species and the application of results to sustainable management. This approach integrates the effects
of management on life-history components (i.e. survival, growth, reproduction) in such a way that
effects are measured at the level of population dynamics (Ghimire et al. 2008).

6.3 Factors affecting harvesting sustainability

Demographic studies have shown that the impact of harvesting and patterns of post-harvest recovery
of NTFP populations can be influenced by various factors, such as the biological characteristics of the
plant species (e.g., life form, growth pattern, regeneration capabilities), the plant parts harvested, the
characteristics of harvesting regime (e.g., amount, intensity, frequency, timing of harvest),
environmental conditions where plants grow and finally on the capacity of plants to survive, recover
after damage and reproduce (reviewed by Ticktin 2004). NTFPs include a large number of plant
species and plant parts with a diversity of growth patterns and life forms which may have diverse
responses to harvesting (Ticktin, 2004). Harvesting of leaves and reproductive parts (fruits or flowers),
for example, may have far less impact on individual plants than does by harvesting of roots, bark,
stems, or removal of the whole plant (Cunningham 2001). However, at population level, harvesting of
fruits or flowers may have long-term ecological consequences on seedling recruitment and population
persistence. Sustainable harvesting of underground parts (rhizomes, roots, bulbs or other storage
organs) of long-lived species presents a particularly great challenge (Ghimire et al. 2008). Long life
spans may allow populations to withstand long periods of unfavorable environmental conditions.
However, if population numbers are reduced, recovery in long-lived species can be slow, because
changes in demographic parameters strongly affect recruitment. Thus at the population level,
extraction may be considered sustainable only when the population size (and the availability of the
extracted product) does not decline as a result of harvesting, and there is enough recruitment to
perpetuate the population growth. Similarly, achieving sustainable harvesting also requires that
extraction of NTFP does impose deleterious effects on biodiversity at community, ecosystem and
landscape levels.

6.4 Integrating local knowledge and practices: ethnoecology

In addition to the present lack of knowledge about ecological aspects of MP harvesting, knowledge of
its socio-cultural background, in particular concerning local knowledge and management systems, is
also scarce. Local extraction and management practices are among the socio-economic factors
influencing sustainability of MP harvesting (Cunningham 2001). Thus, designing sustainable
management practices implies understanding the plants ecology within the context of how it is locally
used (Ghimire et al. 2004, 2005). In recent years, there has been growing interest in simulating local
management strategies in experimental studies to assess sustainable levels of NTFP/MP extraction
(e.g., Endress et al. 2004; Ghimire et al. 2005, 2008). Simulation of local management strategies in
experimental studies to assess sustainable level of plant part extraction is important because it not only
mimics the actual local practices but also provides opportunities to interact with the local people, a
learning process both for the users and the scientists.
Local resource users often have profound knowledge about the ecology of plants they use, and they
can provide both theoretical and practical information concerning the use, habitat, distribution, and
various other aspects of natural history and ecology of plant resources (e.g., Ticktin and Johns 2002;

11
Ghimire et al. 2004). Understanding of local ecological knowledge is essential to appreciation of
peoples relationship to their nature and such local knowledge has been reported to have great potential
use in the design of sustainable management of natural resources (Gadgil et al. 1993; Berkes et al. 2000).
Researches on ecological knowledge of traditional societies relating to NTFPs have also made important
contributions to develop strategies and practices for their sustainable harvesting (Ticktin and Johns 2002;
LaRochelle and Berkes 2003; Ghimire et al. 2004). Incorporation of such local knowledge and practices
in the process of scientific research may also help to develop new hypotheses for research experiments
relevant to management (Posey 1998; DeWalt 1994). Because the Himalayan region is culturally very
rich, application of resource management systems needs to consider closely local cultural contexts, how
knowledge about plant resources has developed within each particular context, and how local
perceptions and beliefs relate to practices and management systems.

7. MP Management: Community-Based Approach

Management for MPs and other NTFPs in most of the rural areas of Nepal is part of traditional forest
management system. However, such resources are collected for trade and export with the permission
of District Forest Offices of the Government of Nepal, which control and regulate collection and trade
of forest products. Although government policies and legislative measures in the forestry sector in
Nepal provide a framework for the improved utilization of forest products, these are often criticized as
ineffective due to the lack of proper implementation (Larsen et al. 2000). Government management is
particularly difficult and costly in remote high-altitude areas. Studies showed that a large number of
high value species are traded without proper management and control. In a study of MP trade from
Manang district, Shrestha et al. (1995), for example, showed that only 6.5% of the total amount of
MPs is legally exported and the rest amount is harvested without permission. Even the species which
are banned by the government for collection contribute a high proportion of total value to the rural
collectors (Shrestha et al. 1995; Olsen and Helles 1997b), showing the inefficiency of centralized
control systems.
As the government-based centralized management system is not effectively enforced in the remote
hilly districts of Nepal, the long-term sustainability of harvest of MPs in the area thus largely depends
on local peoples knowledge and their management ability. Recent researches in Nepal have
highlighted the importance of addressing village poverty through management of MPs and other
NTFPs, leading to recommendations that the present centrally-based regulation mechanisms be
replaced by the handing over of NTFP resources for community management (e.g., Larsen and Smith
2004). Community Forestry User Groups (CFUGs), legitimized by the Forest Act, are the important
local institutions governing access to forests even in the buffer zone around the national parks and
conservation areas. Experiences of two decades of community forestry practices in Nepal indeed show
that local communities can manage their forests effectively and efficiently. However, the field of
community-based approaches for conservation and use of MPs and other NTFPs in Nepal is new and
requires more attention as trade has increased dramatically.
In Nepal, the richness of traditional knowledge systems and experience in community involvement
in the management of forests form a good background for developing community-based management
system of MPs/NTFPs, which address the issues of biodiversity conservation as well as the promotion
of local livelihood. Support to such community-based approach would help to preserve resources as an
integral part of the socio-cultural landscape. Conservation and sustainable use of MPs and
enhancement of livelihoods can be improved if : (i) communities take an increased responsibility for
management of such resources; (ii) community rights to manage MP resources are legally secured;
(iii) local knowledge and practices are recognized and acknowledged in the process of resource
assessment and conservation management; (iii) sustainable harvesting systems are developed (based
on sound ecological principle) and followed; iv) community-based monitoring mechanisms of NTFP
harvesting are developed and followed; (iv) communities have greater access to and understanding of
the market system; and (v) sustainable enterprises bring local benefits especially to poorer households.
This can be achieved through building capacity of community institutions, such as the community
forest user groups (CFUG) to develop NTFP/MP management plan addressing conservation and
livelihood issues through sustainable harvesting and marketing of key species and effective
implementation and monitoring of the management plan.

12
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