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HORT 281
PRACTICAL MANUAL
S.ESWARA REDDY
09
Practical Record
PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY IN
VEGETABLES AND FLOWERS
(Course No. HORT-281)
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
ACHARYA N.G.RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY
S.V. AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE
TIRUPATI-517 502
DEPARTMENT OF HORTICULTURE
Certificate
This is to certify that MR/Ms
__________________________
ID.NO _____________student of B.Sc(AG), II year has
successfully undergone the training in the practical exercises
of course number HORT-281 titled “PRODUCTION
TECHNOLOGY IN VEGETABLES AND FLOWERS”
during the I SEMESTER OF 2009-10.
DATE: COURSE IN
CHARGE
(Dr.S.Eswara
Reddy)
INDEX
SL. PAGE
DATE TITLE REMARKS
NO. NO.
EX NO:- 01 DATE :-
5. Vegetables obtained from the kitchen garden are fresh, are not liable to
infection with germs occurring in unsanitary markets, and can be
consumed freely.
(picking and other above mentioned options will continue as per need)
The size of a kitchen garden depends on the number of persons to be supplied with
vegetables. By close attention to succession cropping and intercropping, 250sq meters
land may be used to supply a family of five members.However, the size of village gardens
may be more than that of the city garden.
ARRANGEMENT OF CROPS
The perennials and fruit crops should be on one side or at one end of the garden,
where they do not obstruct the field preparation operations. Cucurbitaceous and other vine
vegetables should be grown near the fence so that it may be used as staking. Long
season’s crops or those occupying the land throughout the growing seasons should be
planted together. Quick maturing crops should be planted in continuous rows so that the
area may be planted with a single late crop. It is desirable to plant tall growing crops
together and to locate them in northern direction so that do not shade the dwarf crops.
SOIL MANAGEMENT
Rich, well-drained friable, loamy soil is the best for growing vegetables. The surface
should not have depressions where rain or irrigation water may accumulate. Most of the
vegetables do best in slightly acidic soils. It should be free from deleterious salts such as
Nacl2; Na2co3 etc.The irrigation water should also be free from these salts. Lime
improves the structure of certain heavy soils, but too much of it may prove injurious to
most garden crops.
The plot is divided into different beds and their size may vary according to irrigation
and drainage channels. Rainy seasons vegetable crops and root and tuber crops should be
planted on ridges.
MANURING
During preparation of land, manure should be thoroughly incorporated in the soil to a
considerable depth. Basal dose of fertilizer to the concerned crop may be mixed in the soil
at last harrowing and top dressing done as and when recommended for the crop.
PLANTING/SOWING
Cauliflower, cabbage, kolkhoz, tomato, brinjal, chillies and onion do well when
transplanted. Soil should be in excellent physical condition if plants are to be set in it.
Sufficient moisture should be present, and if possible, the transplanting should be done in
cloudy weather or in the evening in order that the plants may have the opportunity to
recover before being exposed to strong sunshine. It is also desirable to irrigate the field,
does transplanting after the soil is in working condition.Sowing of above seeds may be
done right in time in the nursery, and later the seedlings may be transplanted in main
plots.
Vegetables like peas, beans, cucurbits, carrot, beetroot, okra, cluster bean and
green leafy vegetables are sown directly in the field. Distance and depth of seeds should
be maintained according to the crop.
INTERCULTURE
Interculture is essential to the maintenance of a loose mulch of dry soil on
the entire surface of a garden as long as possible in the growing season. The maintenance
of this mulch is of great value in retaining moisture, in keeping the soil in good physical
condition and in destroying weeds. In kitchen garden, the hand hoe and hand weeder will
meet every requirement without undue labour. The operations like earthing up, blanching,
staking, thinning, etc., may also be attended to whenever they are required. Earthing up
consists of putting the soil around the base of the plants. Blanching is done in case of such
vegetables as celery, leek, cauliflower, and asparagus to make them tender and not to
allow the green coloring matter to develop since it imparts certain bitterness to them.
Blanching is done by earthing up in celery, leek, asparagus and by covering the curds
with leaves and tying the leaves in case of cauliflower.
IRRIGATION
Plants should be irrigated regularly. Flow irrigation is, however, more desirable
than hand watering. In small plots, irrigation by rubber pipe is better. The plant should not
suffer any set back in growth for want of water. When, how and what amount of irrigation
water should be applied in the field will depend on the nature of crop, weather conditions
and conservation of soil moisture in beds.
HARVESTING
NURSERY PRODUCTION
ADVANTAGES:
Raising nursery from seed provide an easy and convenient way to nourish Tender
young seedlings in a well managed small and compact area for better germination of
small and costly seed. A small area can be easily provided with favourable conditions in
the open area specified for the purpose or glass or poly house or any other protected area
which is used for rising the healthy seedlings. Thus nursery area can be conveniently
protected from natural hazards designated seed borne diseases and insect or pests as well
managed economically some of the vegetable seeds are very costly and is necessary to
rise nursery in the most optimum conditions .
In areas (hills) where landholdings are small, nursery rising helps in making
economic use of land for about one to one and half month and provides enough time for
proper maturity of the previous crop harvesting, threshing etc and land preparation. The
vegetables subjected for nursery rising easily tolerate transplanting shocks.
PREPARATION OF SEEDBEDS;
The size of the nursery plot to rise seedlings for planting a hectare of potato, brinjal
and chilly would be 10 x1.2m,10 x1.2and10 x1.2m respectively. In case of cole crops like
cabbage, cauliflower & knoll-khol, a plot of 50x1.2 m would be sufficient. These plots
would be better made into smaller beds of 1 to 1.5m instead of single bed. The width of
the bed does not exceed 1.5m so that it facilitate weeding and watering without trampling
the bed
LOCATION;
The site for nursery beds should be located close to the source of water supply
PREPARATION;
The seed should be ploughed thoroughly to get fine tilth with an excellent medium for
better germination of seedlings growth
1. One cart of load of well rotten powder farmyard manure sieved compost should
be spread.
2. 1kg of super phosphate applied and mixed thoroughly with the soil Application of
ssp is an essential practice since seedlings require more P for root development of
initial stages of their growth.
3. Aldrin or Dialdrin wettable powder at 30g per bed should be applied to keep
away the white ants .
4. The soil should be leveled and made into raised beds of 3mx1.2m with irrigation
channels between the beds.
5. The level; of the bed surface is also slightly raised in the centre with a little slope
on either sides .
6. A week before sowing , the soil should be sterilized by drenching with
commercial
7. Formalin at 1;100 dilution at the rate of 5ltre per sq m ,against damping off
disease .
SOWING;
The common practice is to broadcast seeds in the nursery beds , but line sowing is
preferred so as to check proper germination , uniform spacing and facilitate weeding
hoeing and plant protection operation .The sows are usually kept about 8 to 10cm apart,
the seeds are treated with agrosan on at one part in 500 parts of seed by weight against
damping off disease and then sown in furrows , small seed should be sown mixed with a
little sand and covered with soil by passing a flat wooden plank followed by light
irrigation with a sprinkler
AFTER CARE
1. Watering the bed is done gently to avoid packing or washing away of the soil
covering the seed
2. In the beginning shade is provided by covering the bed with a thin layer of leaves
thatched cover on bed
3. Better 0.2percent should be sprayed or the nursery branched capton at 2g per litre
to control the spread of this disease. Racking the soil every week along with light
irrigation will promote required growth of the seedlings. In the growth of seedlings
is allow the bed may be irrigated with a weak solution of ammonium sulphate or
solution of Ca (NH4)2 (NO2).a week before transplanting the no of watering are
reduced and the seedlings exposed to full sun shine so that they become hardy to
bear the shock of transplanting
HARDENING OF PLANTS ;
The term hardening is any treatment that results in hardening of the tissues of the
plants thus enabling them better to withstand unfavourable environmental conditions such
as less intake of water, hot dry winds and low temperature
ADVANTAGES OF TRANSPLANTING:
Through transplanting there is economy in the case of plants and there is a saving
of seed in the case of expensive seed.
During transplanting there is a root pruning which gives rise to many more short
branch roots in the plant. When planted in the field due to shoot system in the
immediate block of soil that goes with the plants.
Due to transplanting shorter time for plating in the field to harvest is needed. Due
to this, this can get higher prices in easy market and period of crop production can
be extended.
Through transplanting it is possible to grow under favourable environmental
conditions.
More plants of high quality can be produced through transplanting due to proper
spacing, selection and protection from insect pests and diseases.
Through transplanting better yields with more uniform maturity are obtained.
It is a safe way to start small seeded crops in heavy soil crusts badly.
DISADVANTAGES:
Not all vegetable crops are fit for transplanting the following two groups separate
plants as to their case of transplanting.
SUCCESSFULLY TRANSPLANTED:-
Cabbage and other cole crops, solanaceous vegetables like tomato, brinjal, pepper
etc., onion lock and calares.
DIFFICULT TO TRANSPLANT:-
Transplanting should not be delayed if seedlings are allowed to grow too long,
they become weak and prone to immature flowering it should be done as seedlings are 10-
13 cm high and have formed about 3-4 true leaves(not seed leaves or cotyledons).however
age and condition of transplanting operation. Transplanting should always be done in the
morning so that the plants may establish in the cool weather and when it is drizzling
transplanting the seedlings for transplanting, the beds must be watered 24 hours
transplanting. So that the seedlings may not suffer from dessication as their tissues will be
filled with water.
HOW TO TRANSPLANT:-
When the seedlings are in proper stage of transplanting i.e when the seedlings are
4-6 weeks old according to the season and transplanted in the thoroughly prepared field.
Immediately after transplanting the soil around the plant are pressed firmly so that the
roots will have good contact with the soil and do not have any air pockets.Complete the
transplanting as early as possible after removing the plants from the nursery. During
transplanting take care that seedlings are well protected from wilting if they are planted.
This may be done by keeping the seedlings encased in moist soils wet plant leaves or by
frequent sprinkling of water over the seedlings. When the transplanting is finished,
irrigate the transplanted area just after transplanting.
Plants are dug from the nursery with as little injury as possible. Digging of plants
should be proceeded by angle watering after plants are dug. Cover them with cloth or
sacks and keep them in shade, so that their will be little loss of water. Press the soil
around the roots of the plants so that there is good contact with soil. Pressure should be
exerted towards the plant and downward. So the soil is pressed around the entire root
system to prevent air pockets near the roots.
Some times leaves or portions of leaves are removed from plants to reduce the area
transplanting water at transplanting time. This is done to establish a better balance
between the intake of water by roots and leaves of water from leaves. Complete the
process of transplanting as quickly as possible after removing the plants from nursery.
After transplanting, examine the field every day for watering whenever necessary,
water them till they are well established. Those seedlings which are not doing well and
also in places where the seedlings are dried are replaced from the pressed seedlings of
there is any insect pests and diseases. Plant protection measures are to be taken
immediately.
WORK DONE REPORT:-
EX NO:- 05 DATE:-
INTER-CULTIVATION IN CABBAGE:-
In cabbage for getting higher yield 2-3 intercultural operations are needed.
Cabbage is a shallow rooted crop and hence, deep cultivation should be avoided. Never
do hoeing when the plants start to head during morning hours hoeing operation should not
be conducted because leaves are turgid and these may be broken.
Most of the above weed species can be controlled effectively with pre emergence
application of oxyfluorofen 0.75 lit a.i/ha.
INTERCULTIVATION IN CAULIFLOWER:-
Good plant environment results in better growth of plants and ultimately desired
economic out turn. The intercultural operations play an important role in this regard.
Shallow and frequent intercultural operations should be given to keep down weeds and to
provide favourable environment for the growth and development of roots and shoots.
The heavy manurial and frequent irrigation requirements of the crop create conductive
conditions for emergence and growth of different weed species. Hand weeding is not
economic. Moreover, the root system of cauliflower plant is very shallow and there is a
damage to the roots with deep hoeings. Hence chemical weed control should be taken up.
Important weed species associated with cauliflower crop:
Most of the weeds can be controlled effectively with the pre emergence application of
fluchloralin at 1.20kg a.i/hac or alachlor at 2.5kg a.i/hac it persists up to 100days.
Earthining up:-
During rainy season, due to beating of rain drops, roots do expose and slightly earthling
up of individual plants becomes essential operation. It is not wise to cultivate after the
plants have began to head otherwise roots may be damaged which in turn imbalance the
development of curds.
INTECULTIVATION IN KNOLKHOL:-
In order to provide good aeration to the root zone, one or two hoeings may be done. This
operation will also help in keeping down weeds, if any growing in the field. However the
weed growing very close to the plants, should be pulled out by hands. sometimes removal
of terminal buds and lower leaves may result in early and good quality sprouts.
INTERCULTIVATION IN BRINJAL:
Shallow cultivation will be sufficient to provide good environment to the plant and
it will also help in reducing the weeds. If weed pose a problem, chemical control may also
be followed .Application of basalin @ 2-3 litres/hac should be done at pre emergence. A
few weed plants associated with brinjal crop are: Trianthema portulacastrum, Orobanche
spp, Amaranthus viridis, Cyperus rotundus etc.,
INTERCULTIVATION IN CHILLIES:-
In order to make soil loose around root system and to keep down the weeds,
intercultural operations should be done. Chemical control of weeds may be done with
alachlor 50 EC 2 litres per hectare as pre plant herbicide with one hand weeding
effectively control weeds. Tok granular at the rate of 5 kg per hectare is found o control
weeds in chilli crop.
INTERCULTIVATION IN TOMATO:-
Weeds affect growth and yield of tomato. They compete for nutrients and water,
therefore, it is essential to check them before they become a problem. The early stage of
the crop is the critical period for weed competition and during this period free
environment is needed to ensure good growth and yield.
INTERCULTIVATION IN OKRA:-
Hoeing is done twice or thrice during early stage of plant growth to provide better
conditions for plant growth. The most critical period of crop weed competition in okra is
at 30-60 days after sowing. Hand weeding is costly and time consuming. The important
weed plants are Dactyloctenium aegyptium, Dualoindica, tribulus terrestris, Cyperus
rotundus. Soil application with basalin at 1-2 lit/hec or TOK-E-25 at 5 lit/hec will control
the weeds effectively.
INTERCULTIVATION IN PEA:-
Hoeing once during early stage of crop growth will suffice the purpose of
providing good environment for plant growth for aeration and development of root system
and reducing the weeds. If weeds pose a problem, chemical control may be adopted. Most
of the weeds can be controlled by use of weed species associated with peas depending on
a region of where crop is grown. They are Amaranthus viridis, Anagalis arvensis,
Chenopodium album, Chichorium intybus, Convolvulus arvensis, Cynodon dactylan,
Eleusine spp, Fumaria parviflora, Medicago spp, Poa annua, Trigonella polycerata etc.,
WORK DONE REPORT:-
EX NO:- 06 DATE:-
Harvesting:
The last event in the horticultural process is the harvest which is of special concern to
commercial horticulturists. Some ornamentals may not be harvested unless the
appreciation of their aesthetic values can be called a harvest.
The oblast harvest technique is hand harvesting, which is still practiced. The home
horticulturist makes expensive use of this approach for his technique when mechanized
operations are not available.
SOLANACEOUS CROPS:
Tomato: -
SN: Lycopersicon esculentum
The stage of maturity at which tomatoes are picked depends on the purpose for which
they are grown & the distance over which they are to be transported. Immature green,
mature green, turning half ripe & pink & ripe or red ripe are some recognized stages. For
shipping, firm mature green fruits ripe. The yield varies from 16000 to 24000 kg / ha
Brinjal : -
SN:Solanum imelsigena
The fruit is harvested when it attains a good size & color. The surface of fruit should
not lose its bright & glossary appearance. The fruits are edible from the time they are
greater grown, until they are near ripe. When full ripe. The fruits become greenish or
yellow or bronze. Their flash turns dry is tough. Harvesting is done by cutting the fruit
from the stem. A short piece of stake is left attached to fruit. The average yield varies
from 20,000 to 25,000 kg / ha
Chilli : -
SN Capsicum Fruticums
The stage of maturity at which chillies are picked depends on the type & purpose
for which they grown. Chillies which are used for veg purpose are generally picked which
they are still green but full grown. Those which are used for pickles are pickles are picked
other green or ripe & chilies used for drying are picked when fully red ripe.
Ocra or Lady’s finger :
SN: Abelmoschus esculentus (L)
The okra fruits are continuously harvested every second or third day from the time
the first pods are formed the best time of picking being 6-7 days after the ripening of
flowers of course this depends on the variety and the season the growth and bearing of the
plant are adversely affected if the fruits not harvested when young.
CUCURBITACEOUS VEGETABLES
Optimum temperatures for storage, handling and transit depend on the duration of
storage & the use to be made of than 2 days temp have little practical effect. For longer
storage hectare is about 8000 to 10,000 kgs.
Harvesting is done when fruits are still young and tender on ripening the fruit changes its
colour from green to yellow and orange. Picking may be done every alternate day. If the
fruits are not picked may be done every alternate day. If the fruits are not picked when
tender and allowed to riper on the virus, the bearing becomes reduced. The yield varies
from 8,000 to 14,000 per kg hectare with an average of 10,000 kg.
MELONS:
Water melons should be at the proper stage of maturity. When they are harvested size of
the fruit and colour of the rind are not good indications to known the proper stage.
Change of colour of the potion of the fruit which rests on the ground is a useful guide, the
colour changing from white to creamy yellow at maturity. A metallic sound when the
melon is tapped with the back of the hand denotes immaturity; where as a heavy dull
sound indicates ripeness. The dying of the tendril at the stem end is also a sign of
maturity. The smooth appearance and the total absence of hair on the stem which attacks
the melon to the vine is also taken as guide.
COLE CROPS:
2. Cauli flower: Brassica Oleracea var botrytis: : It is harvested when the curds attain a
proper site and before they begin to ‘rice’ or discolour. It is with leaves attached can be
stored for 30 days at (0) zero degree’c with 85 to 90% re humidity
3.Khol Khol: - Brassica caulorapa : When the swollen steams reach a diameter of 5 to
7cms the pts pulled out. The average yd / ha is varying from 25-30 tonnes.
BULB CROPS:-
Onion: - (Allium cepa)
Green Bunch Onions : -
Green onions are best when they are of the diameter of a lead pencil and until a small
bulb is formed.
Ripe bulbs :-
A well matured bulb should be harvested maturity is indicated by the tops dropping
just above the bulbs while the leaves are still green. If the bulbs are mature, they are
pulled out easily by hand if the soil is not hard or compact ; otherwise they may be dugout
with a shovel or khurpi.
The tubers become ready for harvest in 8 to 12 months, depending on the variety
for can be harvested in about 6 months for home use and sale in local markets after
planting as needed. Most of the tubers contain 80 to 85 % starch and this may deteriorate
and the tubers may become fibrous if not harvested once they reach full maturity. The
plants are cut back before, digging at the roots. The yield varies from 25,000 to 35,000 kg
of tubers. The tubers can be stored for several weeks in a worm dry place and harvest the
help of the knowledge of heat unit (or) degree days, is taken in order to anticipate the
harvest date of given variety of peas, It is necessary to know how many heat units must be
accumulated to obtain a given quality as maturity level as measured by the tenderometors.
ROOTS CROPS: -
Carrot: - SN (Daucus carota)
Early carrots for the market are pulled out when partly developed. They are normally dug
out, when the soil is sufficiently moist with a spade (or) Khurpa. Roots are trimmed &
washed by sending them to market. The tropical types usually give high yield.
LEAFY VEGETABLES: -
Palak:-
The leaves are cut from the bare when they are 15-30 cm long. The main consideration is
the tendons & succulence of the leaves. The average yield is about 8,000 to 10,000 kg of
green leaves perhac. ‘Pusajyothi’ gives about 30 to 40 % highyields.
Green pods are usually harvested before they are full grown and while the seeds are small.
Pods are usually ready for harvest 2-3 weeks at the first blossom. As harvest is delayed,
the total yield increases but the quality falls rapidly. Picking is usually done by hard.
Mechanical pickers have been developed in advanced agric countries. Dry beans are
harvested when a large percentage of pods are fully ripe and most of the remainder has
turned yellow. Harvesting is done either by hand or by machine. Beans require one to two
weeks to cure, after which they are threshed either by bullock or by machine. Care should
be taken that seeds are not injured even internally at the time of machine threshing and
cleaning.
Peas: - (Piscum Sativum L)
Garden peas must be picked at the proper stage of maturity, because they start
losing their quality after reaching edible stage. The deterioration is hastened if the
temperature is high at the time of harvesting. Peas in India are generally hand picked.
Proper care should be exercised not to injure the virus by picking the pods with a jerk.
About 3 pickings are required for harvesting most of the varieties.
BOTTLE GOURD:
It is a cross –pollinated crop and requires 400 and 800 metres isolation distance for
certified and foundation seed production respectivetly.Off type plants should be
removed ,first before flowering,second at the time of flowering and last at the time of
fruit.Maturity .the anthesis starts form 5 to 7.30pm .the staminte and pistillte flowers open
at the same time .the dehiscence takes place between 12noon and 10.30pm when the
maximum temperature ranges between 16 to 20 .the stigma retains acceptivity 36hours
before and 48 hours after anthesis(71). Better control measures against insect pests and
diseases should be adopted.
BITTER GOURD:
It is a cross- pollinated crop and requires 400 and 800 met isolation distance for
certified and foundation seed production respectively. minimum three rouging should be
done.Flower start opening at 5am up to completely open between 9.30am to 10am.flower
Take more than 2 hours to open .they wither away up to 7am .Dehiscence of anthers
takes place about 2 hours before blooming.Male flower drop in the evening the pollens
become non-viable as the day advances and after 12noon not a single pollen grain is
found to germinate and the stigma remains respective for a much longer period.Fruit
setting is normal after crossing between varieties, fruit set better through hand pollination
than open pollination.
SNAKE GOURD:-
It can be self pollinated : a female flower can be fertilized by pollen coming from a
female flower of the same plant.however,crosspollinations are predominant: a female
flower is fertilized by pollen coming from different plants of the same variety or of a
different variety. The insects are the vectors of these cross pollinations. To ensure the
varietal purity ,some botanists specify a distance of 1 km between two varieties.
undoubtedly this distance can be reduced according to the biotopes and the type of
pollinator insects in the region. Infact the white flowers of this species blossom late
afternoon and early evening: the pollinator insects are thus night time insects, which
supposedly travel shorter distance than daytime insects. When several varieties are grown
in the same garden you can employ the technique of manual pollination.
CUCUMBER:
Botanical name : Cucumis sativaus
Family : Cucurbitaceae
It is a cross pollinated crop and requires 400 and 800 meters isolation distance
for certified and foundation seed production, respectively. During crop period sufficient
sprayings at insecticides and fungicides should be done to control the insect pests and
diseases. Plants affected by virus should be removed regularly. Three readings should be
done, first before flowering, second at the time of flowering and third at the time of fruits
should be harvested. Seeds are removed after cutting the fruits. The seeds should be
washed immediately by clean water and dried properly.
RIDGE GOURD:
It is a cross pollinated crop and requires 400 and 800 meters isolation distance for
certified and foundation seed production respectively. Off type plants should be removed,
first before flowering, second at the time of flowering and finally at the time of fruiting.
Heavy rouging should be done before and at the time of flowering. Control measures
against insect pests and diseases should be adopted. When the colour of fruit turn brown,
they should be harvested and kept in sun light for about a week for complete drying. Seed
can be extracted very easily only by removing the tip at the time of fruits. About 3 to 5
quintals of seed is obtained from one hectare.
ASH GOURD:
It is cross pollinated crop. NANDPUR & SINGH (1967) reported that anthesis takes
place between 5.45a.m. And 7.15 a.m., dehiscence starts from 3.15a.m. And stigma
remains receptive 12 hours before and 36 hours after anthesis. The staminate and pistillate
flowers open at the same time. About 800 and 800 meters isolation distance is required
for foundation and certified seed production respectively. Rouging should be continued
till harvesting and at last time rouging should be done, first before flowering , second at
the time of flowering and third at the time of harvesting. Ripened fruits are harvested and
seeds are taken out by the fruits. Seeds are washed, dried and stored at cool and dry place.
SEED PRODUCTION IN FRUIT CROPS
TOMATO:
BOTANICAL NAME:Lycopersicon esculentum
Family:Solanaceae.
Seed production of tomato can be undertaken in any part of the country .It is a self
pollinated crop and an isolation distance of 50 and 25 m should be maintained forndation
and certified seeds.
The best time for planting the seed crop is January to mid February in plains since it
is not affected by the viruses due to low temperature. All recommended cultural practices
should be followed for crop cultivation.
The crop should bed inspected thrice during growth period . Firstly, before
flowering on the basis of growth characters.Offtypes should be removed. Secondly ,at the
time flowering on the basis of flower characters.Offtypes mshould be removed .Thirdly,at
the time of fruit ripening on the basis of fruit characters.Plants affected by viruses and
other diseases should be removed when ever observed in the crop .
The complete ripened fruits should be harvested and crushed under feet in wooden
boxes and allowed to ferment for 24 to 48 hours.
In winter, the fermentation takes place in 72 hrs.Later on the seeds are washed with
water through a sieve and dried in the sun.
On the large scale Hcl can be used for fermentation at rate of 1lit per quintal of
fruits. On average to produce 1 Kg of seed 150 to 200kg fruits will be required depending
upon the variety.
Normally pear shaped varieties have less seeds than round or oval varieties. The
average yield of seed varies from 110 to 200kg per hec. At present ,seed is also being
extracted in processing factories.The pulp is used by factory for preparation of various
tomato products whereas seed is returned to the growers .This seed is supplied by farmers
to organizations like UPS&TDC (or)NSC.
BRINJAL:
BOTANICAL NAME: Solanum melongena
FAMILY:solanaceae.
It is a normally self pollinated crop , but cross pollination some extent does take
place through insects .To get pure seeds ,an isolation distance of 100 and 200m is
certified and foundation seed plots ,respectively should be maintained.During crop period
atleast three times the crop should be rogued off .First rouging is done before flowering
and on the basis of foliage characters ,the off types are removed .second rouging is done
at the time of flowering on the basis of flower characters and off types are removed .At all
the stages,plants affected by viruses and phomopsis blight should also be removed.At
ripening the fruits become light yellow in colour and at this stage they are harvested and
seeds are extracted properly.At small scale the fruits are pressed by stick (or) stone etc.To
make the flush loose,cut into pieces and wash in clean water .The seeds settle down in the
bottom of pan .The seeds should be dried completely and kept in cool and dry place.
CHILLI
BOTANICAL NAME: Capsicum annum
FAMILY:Solanaceae
OKRA(BHENDI)
B.N:Abelmoschus esculantus
FAMILY:Malvaceae
It is often cross-pollinated crop and to get pure seed isolation distance of 400 and
200m should be maintained for foundation and certified seeds,respectively some cultural
practices should be allowed as recommended for normal crop .However ,rainy season
crop is good for seed.All recommended control measures for insect pests and diseases
should be followed strictly.crop should be inspected thrice during the crop period .First
before flowering and on the basis of foliage characters ,off types and diseased plants
should be removed .Secondly at the time of flowering and on the basis of flower
characters off types and diseased plants should be removed. When pods are brown they
should be considered for harvesting.Harvest them at 4 to 6 days interval depending upon
maturity .keep them in sun for drying and thresh them.clean the seed and dry it upto 10%
available moisture.Keep it in cool and dry place.The average seed yield is about 10 to 15
quintals per hec.
TUBER CROPS:-
With the help of seed plot technique a healthy seed crop may be raised as below
Whole virus- free tubers treated with Aretan 0.25% solution should be planted
from 10 October to 20 October. Sow the tuber at distance of 60cm from row to row and
15-20cm with in the row apply lower dose of nitrogen that is 80-100kg/hec to avoid
excessive growth the crop should be carefully examined at least thrice and all diseased
plants removed and burnt to wards mid December when the crop has tuberized well
restrict irrigation and later with hold it completely. So that haulms dry up and
consequently escape aphid build- up towards mid January. Remove tops between 10&15
January. Leave the tuber under ground till the end of January .So that they mature and the
skin hardens. Take all precautions against blight and aphids.
True to the type tuber should be selected for producing the vines. At the time of
planting. Selection of cuttings on the basis of leaf and stem characters should be made for
the specific variety off types should be removed as and when observed in the field.
Finally at the time of harvesting off types should be sorted out control measures s
FAMILY should be followed for controlling pest and diseases.
Select true to the types , based on the external characters of corms . The selected
corms are multiplied with recommended agronomical cultural practices. Proper spraying
of fungicides should be done to control the blight, off types and diseased plants should
be removed from time to time during its growing period. During harvesting, the true to
the type’s corms should be selected for seed purpose.
ROOT CROPS
Only the Asiatic types can produce seeds in the plains of the country while in European
types seed can be produced only in hills. It is across pollinated crop hence every care
should be taken to keep the two varieties away from each other about 100mt and 800mt
isolation distance should e maintained for foundation and certified seeds respectively.
True to the type roots are selected when they are at the marketable stage. The
selected roots are prepared for planting by cutting two thirds of the tops and one third
lower root portion .These roots are trans planted in the well prepared field at the distance
of 60x60 cm some growers leave the plants the field and allow them to produce the seeds
this method is not successful because the seeds produce by this method produce poor
quality root and result in early blotting. Off types are removed at the time of root selection
and at the time of flowering .A yield of 300 -500 kg of seed per hectare is obtained.
It is a cross pollinated crop the pollination being done through the insects mainly
and hence required 1600&1000mts as isolation distance to produce foundation& certified
seeds. This way the contamination from other varieties can be avoided only the Asian
varieties produced seeds in the plains, while European varieties do not produced seed in
the plains. Hence their seed production is restricted to the hills only the true to types root s
of a particular variety are picked up at the normal stage from the nursery grown for this
purpose the selected rots are prepared for planting by cutting two third to &one third roots
these prepared roots are transplanted in the well prepared field at the distance of 70x60
cm. Some growers leave the plants with roots in the fields and allow them to produce seed
stalks. This method is not recommended because the selection of true to the type roots is
not done and off types plants can not be removed, also the seed quality and yield is
affected adversely. On an avg 4-6 quintal per hectare
MELON CROPS
SEED PRODUCTION
All melons are highly cross pollinated. Snap melon, Musk melon and Long
melon are highly cross pollinated. Water melon and Round melon how ever do not cross
pollinate with any other melon. Different varieties of any one of the melons should not be
put together. An isolation distance of 800m should be maintained ripe melons are good
for seed extraction. Seeds may be dried in the sun or in the mechanical driers.
COLE CROPS
This group includes cabbage, cauliflower, knoll khol, etc.
The cabbage is a cross pollinated crop and it readily crosses with he other members
of the cole crops.proper isolation distance between varieties is to be maintained.
In India the seed is produced only in the hills.Three methods are been used.
STUMP METHOD
The head is removed and only the stump left.The last two methods given higher
yield of seed. But The flower stalks become decumbent and pods nearly touch the
ground.The seed yield per hectare is about 500 to 650 kg.
Tomato is one of the important vegetable crops of India and Andhra Pradesh. It is the
leading crop of our district i.e., Chittoor. It occupies third position after Potato and sweet
potato in its importance. Seed can be extracted from the tomato fruit by one of the
following three methods :
FERMENTATION METHOD
ALKALI TREATMENT METHOD
QUICKEST METHOD OR ACID TREATMENT METHOD
1.FERMENTATION METHOD:
This method is employed when tomato fruits are generally not very big and they possess a
large no. of seeds. In this method the fruits selected for seed are completely lost and
nothing can be used as food or otherwise. The selected ripe fruits are harvested from the
plants and allowed to ripe further for a day or two in a heap or in an earthen pot. They are
then crushed well in an earthen pot by hand or by any mechanical method to make a
paste. No fruit juice should be allowed to drain out. Now the entire mess is kept in the vat
for a day or two to ferment. It may be complete in one or two or more days according to
high or low temp. Profuse foam formation on the top and no adhering of seed to the
tomato flesh on stirring the mass vigorously with a wooden stick or hand, indicates that
the fermentation is complete. Now the flesh will float on the top, while the seeds will
settle down at the bottom of the vat.
Remove all the fermented mass on the top and then decant off gently all the liquid.
The seeds resting on the bottom of the vat are collected and washed 8 – 10 times with
clear water and then they are spread in the sun to become dry. When they are perfectly
dry in the sun store them in air tight containers in a cool dry place. It is the simplest
method and can be adopted by any layman. They should not be left too long, other wise
they may germinate in it.
When fruits are big enough but the no. of seeds is small, we adopt this method. Cut
the selected ripe fruits into halves and then scoop out the slimy mass containing the seeds
into an earthen or porcelain vessel with the help of the handle of a stainless steel, tea
spoon or wooden stick. The flesh thus separated can be easily used for eating raw or for
any other purpose.
Treat the slimy mass with an alkali mixture (150 grams of ordinary washing soda
is added to 5 liters of boiling water) in equal volumes. When the alkali mixture is cooled,
allow it all to stand over night in an earthen or porcelain vessel. Next day, all the seeds
settled down at the bottom of the container. Now decant off the clear liquid at the top.
Seeds thus obtained are washed thoroughly with clear water and allowed to dry in the sun
and are preserved as described above.
This method is followed where seed production is done on large scale. It can also
be adopted on the home scale. In this method, too, the flesh of the fruit can be saved.
Slimy seed mass is separated as mentioned above and kept in an earthen or a porcelain or
glass vessel. This is done treated with commercial hydrochloric acid in the proportion of
30 ml of fluid per 12kg of the material. The seeds are separated from the slimy mass
within 15 – 30 min., if acid is thoroughly mixed. The acidified liquid is then decanted off
and the seeds remaining at the bottom are immediately washed well with clear water and
allowed to dry in the sun. They are then preserved as usual. In this method the seeds can
be extracted and dried on the same day and any discoloration of seeds, resulting from the
fermentation process, is entirely eliminated. There is also no possibility of seed
germination during this process.
The ripe fruits, when turned yellow are harvested, crushed and stored over night by
soaking in water for softening the pulp and subsequent separation of seeds. They are
washed with water and sieved. After separation, seeds floating in water should be rejected
and sound seeds are dried in partial shade before storing.
BRINJAL SEED EXTRACTOR
Cabbage:
The tendency for better grading of cabbage as the market wants a firm, uniform head of
high quality. Prevailing grade and size standards, and regulations can be obtained from
the U.S. Department of agriculture. The cabbage is hauled from the from the field to a
central packing house while in some areas the crates are filled in the field or on the head
lands. The heads should be arranged in orderly layers in the crates with the stem ends to
the outside. They should be packed firmly, but not tightl7 enough to cause bruising.. The
mesh bag and 13/4 bushel carton are std containers for cabbage. In warm weather it is
desirable to place crushed ice in (or) around the containers while in transit to prevent
deterioration. In cool weather, cabbage should be transported in containers with open
vents.
Carrots:
Most carrots for market are topped, washed, graded and packaged in transparent
film bags. Roots are sorted into various sizes for packaging. They should be carefully
handled to avoid bruising which causes them to be very susceptible to strong diseases.
Prompt removal of field heat and protection from freezing are important.
Onion :
After tops have been removed, the onions are cleaned and graded. Onion grades
depend some what on the cultivar involved, Bermuda and domestic onions. Are being
classified on different bases. 50 pound open much bags have practically replaced all other
containers. Onions are packed in smaller mush bags of 3 to 10 pound sizes for direct use
in retail trade.
Potatoes:
Long rooted cultivars are bunched in fours and gives which round and globular
rooted cultivars are tied in bunches of 6-12 Baskets, hampers and crates are the principle
containers. For long distance shipments, cracked ice is placed in the middle and stoop of
the containers.
Sweet potatoes:
Since sweet potatoes require care in harvesting and marketing and field grading
reduces the amount of handling, the marketable potatoes are picked up first, the will and
strings being garnered later. The U.S. Department of Agricultural will supply slandered
grading for this.
Hampers, bushes baskets and bones are popular commercial packages, while
baskets are in common use on local markets. Regarding of the container it should be
clean, neatly packed and the product should free from bruises.
Garlic:
The mature buds are cut with 1 to 11/2 inches of the stem attached they are graded
for size and quality and packed in large paper lined bones carrying 48 to 125 buds. Jug
bones are used for local markets.
Tomatoes:
Different systems of grading are followed in different parts of the country. The U.S.
Department of Ag has established U.S. grades numbers 1,2, and 3 which have been
adopted in many localities the essentials of grading injured fruits and to separate the
sound fruits according to their grade, maternity and size.
Methods of packing very in different parts of the country. Regardless of the pack,
uniformity always makes it more attractive and commands a better price .
Peas:
As peas come from the field to a central packing shed they are placed in a grading
machine which has a blower attachment to remove the trash.
Since peas are very perishable and heat easily, a shallow or flat container is desirable.
The field heat should be removed as soon as possible often harvest. The container should
be well filled.
Bell pepper:
Bell peppers are graded either by hand of machinery various kinds of containers are used
for marketing. The crop is packed in 1 and ½ bushed crates which are easier to handle
than standard 1 – bushed hamper peppers are sold commercially in 4 grades.
1. U.S. Fancy
2. U.S. No.1
3. U.S. No. 2
4. Unclassified
Brinjal:
The Indian standards institution has recommended three grades of brinjal viz.super ,
Rancy and commercial.
The fruits should be handled with care in transit. Before transporting, the fruits should
be wrapped in paper and packed in cartons or any packing material locally available.
However, they all packed loose in bulk or in containers like loosely woven gunny bags or
net bags or plastic/wooden crates for trading and transport.
Chilllies:
Green chilly fruits are graded into different grades depending on the cultivar. The
graded fruits are packed in baskets or cartons or plastic crates when they are fresh. The
dried fruits are marketed in bags. The fruits during is done in the sun by spreading on the
thrashing floor or tarpaulin in thin layer. The dried fruits can be transported or stored in
gunny bags.
Beans:
On the basis of cultivars characteristics, the pods should be graded into A,B,and C
grades according to the ISI standards. The produce after proper grading and preparing for
the market should be packed in suitable containers.
Water melons:
Fruits are graded on the basis or variety, size, rind colour, sugar content and flavour,
the chief attributes which do not increase after picking. Water melons are transported in
trucks without any individual packing and are liable to braise.
Gourds:
Bitter gourd:- Grading of fruits should be done acc, to cultivar, fruit shape, size and
colour or the recommended A,B and C grades. The fruits should be packed in bamboo.
Baskets, crates, cartons etc., if they are to be transported to distant markets and for local
markets and for local market onion bags can be used.
Bhendi:-
Damaged and insect bored fruits should be separated from the healthy ones. They
should be handled so carefully that their may no nabbing or pressing which terns the
bruised edges of the pods black. Okra is graded according to size, maturity and general
appearance pack then in baskets or gunny bad. In case of exports fruits are packed in
cartons after proper grading.
Corn Vegetables:
Colocasia: The corns should be trimmed, cleaned and graded on the basis of shape and
size according to the cultivars A,B, and C grades. The mature corms can be stored for 5-6
months in bags, baskets, heaps on the floor.
Amaranthus: The larger leaves or some part of petiole with leaves in choti caulis are
bundles prepared ease in handling in packaging, transit, marketing. These being highly
perishable should be disposed off immediately after harvesting.
Cauliflower:
The harvested curds are separated into three grades, depending on size, colour, quantity
and cultivar. The normal method of packing and transport of curds is in big nets, beds,
tractor trolleys and trucks. Tight packing is essential to prevent shifting and bruising. At
present, curds are transported in plastic crates and wire bound container/boxes.
Garden peas:
The Indian standards institutions has fined three grades of garden peas in pods viz,
A,B,and C. The produce being perishable in nature should be immediately send to the
market under proper grades, packed in bags. Winter leafy Vegetables:- Spinach – After
harvesting, damaged and yellow leaves should be removed and the soil, dirt etc., adhering
to the leaf stakes is washed off and these are tied into bundles of one Kg containing about
15-20 plants.
Salad Vegetables:
Lettuce:- Lettuce may be washed dripped dry and stored in an airtight containers in
the refrigerators. The harvested heads/plants are graded and neatly packed in baskets of
crates or cartons.
Herbs:
Coriander:-
The harvested leaves are washed can small bundles are tied which ease handling and
selling these are taken to shade to avoid withering in direct sun. Proper graded bundles
will earn more price in the market. The produce should be packed in baskets, cartons or
crates and sometimes in bags with proper ventilation, so that bundles are not damaged.
Miscellaneous crops:-
Ginger:- The rhizomes prior to selling / storage all graded on the basis of shape, size,
number of fingers colours, scales etc., Select only healthy, plumpy rhizomes of uniform
size, free from rhizomes rot disease and insect attack.
WORK DONE REPORT:-
EX NO:-10 DATE:-
FLOWERING ANNUALS
FLOWERING SHRUBS
FLOWERING TREES
Fence :
It is the outer most boundary of the garden to prevent trespass and the ensure
privacy in home gardens. This may be masonry, barded wire or other non-living material
or it may be a live fence. A live fence is usually reinforced by a wore fence especially in
the early stages.
Plants selected for a fence should be quick growing, drought resistant, should stand
pruning and easy to propagate. Fence should be broader at the base and narrower at the
top. Plants are pruned from the time they attained one foot height and gradually brought
to a desired height (4-5ft).
Hedge :
These are useful to divide the garden into sections to live the drives so as to direct
the visitor to a central object. They are shown and grown in the same manner as the fence.
The plants are pruned to a height of 3-4 feet.
Eg. Clerodendron, Duranta repens, Latana spp., lawsonia alba/ interme Jacobinie comea.
Edge : Edges are rows of plants which don’t exceed I foot in height. They are grown
along the path and around the flower beds. Nonliving materials like bricks and tiles are
also used for this purpose, live edge are more in harmony with the garden than bricks. The
foliage edges are trimmed and flowering edges are not trimmed. When the edge lines a
flower bed they divide the green plants from the green lawn by contract of colour of the
foliage.
It forms the background colour in the garden picture against which the colour of
the shrubberies and flower beds are brought into relief. Whether the garden is big or small
a garden should have a lawn. The beauty of a garden largely depends on the condition of
the lawn. The lawn should be sown only to single spices of grass so as to give a uniform
colour.
If the shrub plants are grown in a row and not trimmed the features is called a
shrub border. Borders are planted with a mixture of different species of plants. The shrub
borders are planted along the wall or in front of the fence or a tree and also to screen of
untidy places. If number of shrubs are ground together but are not in a raw, the feature is
known as shrubbery.
Flowerbeds : It is also an important garden feature. These are also known as annual
flowerbeds and they are generally planted with annuals or herbaceous perennials, which
are treated as annuals. A flowerbed may be of any shape preferably geometericals. They
should be planted a songlike species and variety so that each bed is of a single colour. A
flower bed should be behind a lawn or at lease should have stripe of lawn in front of it.
The plants in a flowers bed should be close enough together so that the soil of the bed
cannot be through the plants.
Carpet beds : Plants of different coloured foliage which can be clipped close to the
ground are chosen for planting in an intricate design on the ground. Such feature is known
as carpet bed. Lettering with plants is also carpet bed. The design may be conventional,
geometrical or a map or clock or a sundial. Occasionally dwarf flowering plants may also
be used for carpet bedding.
Eg. Casuarina, Duranta repens, Murraya exotica, Polyalthia longifolia, Thuja oreitnal,
Rougainvillea spp. etc.
Fern house / Fernery / Conservatory : Plants of the humid tropical, sub-tropical and
temperature regions can not be grown in the open in the plains exposed to glaring sun
such shade loving plants are grown in a structure called the fern house. It is usually a
roofed house supported by stone pillars or any other strong frame work and may be round,
hexagonal, octagonal or rectangular tub is constructed and is filled with water to as to
increase humidity inside. This also facilitates watering of potted plants. The beauty of a
ternary depends on the proper arrangements of the plants. Plants like ferns, begonia,
anthuriums, caladiums, dieffenbachia, dracaena, palms etc are hung from the roof. On
hills and in cooler climates special construction of glass are necessary to provide warmth
for the tropical and subtropical plants which can not be grown in the open. These are
mainly to protect the plants from frost. These glass structures are called glass houses.
Orchids : These are humid tropical and subtropical plants loving shade. These are
becoming garden favorites because the flowers have gregarious colours. They often
assume shapes of birds, moths, and butterflies. There are two types of orchids. Terrestrial
orchids and epiphytic orchids are epiphytic orchids. Terrestrial orchids are those, which
grown in soil. The epiphytic orchids grown on branches of trees having their roots
exposed to air from which they absorb moisture. Most orchids develop pseudo bulbs and
storage of water and food as a measure against drought.
Pot galleries : Circular galleries constructed of masonry. On the steps of which potted
plants are arranged. The height of each step and the pot on the lower step should be the
same. The plants grown should be taller than height of the steps so that the pots and the
masonry structure are both hidden behind the plants. The appearance of a mound of
plants. Such gallery may be either in the open or under the shade of a tree or in the
fernery. On the open galleries may be kept potted flowering plants and in the fern house
may be kept several shade loving plants.
Lilly pool : Aquatic plants are grown in Lilly pool which may be dug in the ground as to
look natural or may be constructed in cement of regular shape in cement pools there
should be an inlet at the bottom and an out let below the top of the pool so that a constant
level of water is materials. Fish may also be reared in these ponds to keep the water
clean.
Eg. Lotus, Pistia, Nymphea (water lilies), Eichornia crassipes (Water hyacinth).
Rockery : Planets grown in rockery situations are grown in the garden in rockery. The
rockery is constructed by heaping up mannered soil to a desired height embedding rocks
to it. The plants are kept in the crevices between the rocks. It can be raised under a tree or
separately. Generally both foliage and flowering succulents as well as xerophytes are
grown on a rockery. Succulents are plants may more water in them and are drought
resistant.
Single specimen plants : In an extensive lawn, the monotony of the lawn can be broken
the single beautiful tree without blocking the view of the other features beyond.
INTRODUCTION:
lawn has a charm on its own. It serves to enhance the beauty of a garden, be it
large or small. It enhance the beauty of surrounding objects, whether they are trees,
shrubs or flower beds. It is not difficult to keep a lawn from the verandah and the
windows of the house should be free and uninterrupted. A spacious lawn may be provided
with the beds of flowering plants. A group of shrubs or trees of attractive form or
specimen shrubs or Thuja Oriental's or travelers palm or a large succulents may be
planted here and there is pockets made in the lawn to form colonies of themselves and
bear their beautiful flowers.
n making a lawn it is essential that the ground be prepared properly, the surface
being thoroughly dug and uniformly leveled, coarse stones, roots and other obstacles
being removed and surface made smooth. Provision for drainage of excess rain water if
the ground is not sloppy, let ground settle down during the first showers. Remove any
weed that may come up.
Turfing :
Turf are pieces of earth with compact grass grown on them. Turf should be cut
uniformly, thin in square from the place where the grass is grown short, compact and free
from weeds. They should be spread on the prepared on the ground side by side. Gaps
should be filled with the soil. The entire turf area should be rolled and watered liberally.
This is the more fastest method of raising lawns
Truf Blastering :
The roots should be cut into 2 - 4 cm long. A mixture consisting of 2 parts of this
root, one part of well decomposed horse or cow manure, 1 part of fresh cow dung, 1 part
of red earth are made into a paste by adding sufficient water spread the paste evenly over
the prepared ground which has been already watered. Cover the ground with litter or a
layer of coarse manure to minimize evaporation and prevent the roots from the heat of the
sun. Grass will not shoot up within 15 days. Cut the grass with scythe and after 3 months
use grass mower.
Dibbling Roots :
This is the cheapest and slowest method. Small roots are dibbled about 15 c.ms
apart into the prepared ground. The roots spread and grow underground in course of 6
months.
Using turf is the quickest way to get a lawn, but it needs careful preparation and
care while it settles down. In southern UK, turves are best laid in late winter/early spring
when the ground has not dried out and the growing season is approaching. They can be
laid later in spring through to late summer but they will need more attention to ensure that
they do not dry out. Laying them in late autumn and early winter is best avoided as the
grass will be dormant and the turves can become waterlogged by winter rain. In more
northern areas, the best times are early spring to mid summer. Turves should ideally be
laid within 24 hours of delivery, any delay over 48 hours increases the risk of the grass
turning yellow or the turf drying out before being laid - 3 days should be considered the
absolute maximum in ideal conditions (not too dry, hot or sunny). Don't arrange for the
turves to be delivered until the site is completely prepared and you are ready to lay them.
Types of turf :
Turf is usually supplied in rolled up length, 3 foot by 1 foot by 1.5 to 2 inches, they
can be heavy to handle especially during wet weather. Meadow grass turf, is what it says,
turf cut from an ordinary meadow. It is the cheapest type to purchase but will contain
mixed grass types and weeds. It is quite hard wearing so is suitable if children or pets are
going to use it. Seeded turf is a much better quality, it comprises a known type of grass
suitable for lawns, it should not contain any weeds.Try to buy turves from sources using
personal recommendations or after inspecting them - look for moist soil and a good colour
of the soil and grass. You will only have a good quality lawn if you use good quality
turves.
Before you start laying turf, give some thought as to what you want, as the lawn
will be with you for years to come. Do you want a square lawn or a shaped one? Do you
want flower beds in the lawn? Sometimes it is worth putting down a full lawn and cutting
flower beds into it later when you have lived with it for a year or two. A lawn need not be
flat but you'll probably want to avoid very steep slopes. If you need to flatten an area,
remember not to mix top soil and sub soil. Although it may seem a lot more work, the
proper way is to remove the top soil from all the area to be levelled, then flatten the
surface by redistributing the sub soil, and then replace the top soil over the whole area.
Try to build up as much ground as you level down, this will mean that you won't have
much soil to dispose of. If the ground is levelled up by more that about a foot (30 cm),
leave it to settle for a year before laying turf.
The lawn area needs to be well drained. If the area suffers from water retention, it
may be necessary to lay a soak away or drainage pipes. If a lawn is to be laid around a
newly built house, you can expect the builders to have buried some building waste and
also to have mixed top and soil soils. If there is any builders sand left, do not dig it in -
you need 'sharp sand' to condition soil not 'builders sand'. Start by removing all large
stones, blocks and any obviously non-organic rubbish from the surface. If you are
replacing an existing lawn, dig off the existing grass to about two inches. A lawn grows
best on well drained medium loam, if your soil is like this, your preparation can be
minimal, but if the soil is clay or sandy, you'll need to do more work. With heavy clay
soils, you should add sharp sand, well decomposed manure, garden compost or rotted
leaves. his will improve drainage under the lawn. With sandy soils, you should add well
decomposed manure or rotted leaves. This will improve moisture retention under the
lawn. The top soil needs to be prepared to give a fine, workable soil to a depth of 4 to 5
inches (10 to 12 cm) - if you are adding organic material, you should aim for a minimum
depth of 6 inches (15 cm). If the area of the lawn is fairly small, it can be prepared by
hand using a spade. For larger areas it is worth using a rotavator - borrowing or hiring one
if necessary. When starting to prepare the soil, it needs to be not too dry and not too wet.
Start by digging or rotavating the whole area to the required depth, breaking down any
large clumps of soil and remove any stones or rubbish that you see. When digging, work
backwards so you don't tread down the soil you've just broken up.
Having turned over the whole area, add half of anything you need to dig in, and dig
over or rotavate the whole area again. Add the other material to be dug in, and again go
over the whole area. Rake over the area to level it (again removing any stones/rubbish
which appears). Tread down the entire area - starting are one corner, walk slowly across
the area placing one foot in front of the other, when you reach the other end, turn around
and repeat until the whole area has been trod down (if the area is large, get help from your
family and friends - I've not heard of a 'lawn walking party' but there's no reason not to
have one!). The first time you do this, you'll probably find some humps and dips, remove
these by giving the surface a light racking and repeat the treading down. When you are
happy that you have a flat surface, it is time to get the turves delivered, think about where
to stack them as you only want to move them once yet have them handy for when you lay
them. If the weather is very hot, dry or sunny, try to find a place which is shaded but not
too far from the new lawn. Also decide where you are going to start laying the turves, if
one side is against a wall or path, start there. If a corner of the area is formed by walls or
paths, start in that corner. It's better if the last turves are laid along 'flexible' edges rather
than fixed edges such as walls or paths.
Laying the lawn:
When the turves have arrived and you are ready to lay them, give the whole area a
dressing of general purpose fertiliser (such as one handful per square yard of Growmore),
and rack it in to the top surface.
Use a garden line to mark out a straight edge to lay your first row of turves, don't
rely on the straight edge of a wall or path - the chances are it won't be straight. Do not
walk or run a wheelbarrow directly on newly laid turves, use planks on top of the turves
to run the wheelbarrow, walk and kneel on (they will also have the effect of firming down
the turves). Lay the first turf along the line and upto the start point of the first row.
Continue to lay the turves along the line, end to end. Align each new one to the line and
butt it upto the end of the previous one until the first row is complete, don't trim off the
end to it's required length until the whole lawn has been laid. If it looks as if the required
end edge will mean that the last piece of turf will be very small (less than 18 inches
(45 cm)), use two large cut pieces for the last two turves rather than a full turf plus a small
one. If you notice any humps or dips in the turves as you lay them, remove or add soil as
appropriate. Start the second row by cutting a turf to half length and lay one half against
the first turf of the first row. Butt it up against the start line and also the first row. This
will give staggered turf joints and give a better lawn. Lay the rest of the second row using
full turves, butt each turf firmly up against both adjacent turves. Adjust the two turves in
the same manner as used on the first row to ensure that the last turf is not too small. As
you go along, fill in any gaps between turves with a mixture of soil and sharp sand.
Repeat for the remaining rows, starting off each alternatively using full or half
turves. When you come to the second from last row, check the required width. If it is less
than two turf widths, you will need to trim one row of turfs lengthways. Cut and lay these
trimmed turfs along the second to last row and then use full width turfs for the final row.
When all the turfs have been laid, pass a garden roller over it, once long the turfs and once
at right-angles. You may need to trim some of the edges: If you need a straight edge, run a
string line along the edge and use a half-moon edging tool to cut the turfs as necessary. If
you need curved edges, a hose-pipe laid on the turfs can be used to form any curve
required. Again you can use a half-moon edging tool to cut turf or you could use a sharp
knife.
After care:
If the turfs are laid in hot weather, they will need to be watered - preferably using a
sprinkler to give a gentle watering. For the first season, watering should be carried out
during hot, dry periods. Any problems should be visible by the grass losing its colour.
Keep playing children and pets off the lawn for the first season, turfs are transplanted
plants and need time to recover their full strength. Newly laid turfs should not be mown
until it starts to grow, and even then, the mowers should be set high for the first couple of
cuts, and then reduced over the following three or four cuts.
LAWN MAINTENANCE:
Lawn maintenance boils down to keeping your lawn healthy and attractive.
Watering, mowing and removing the debris will keep the lawn in a reasonably good
condition. A great looking lawn requires conscious maintenance so as to retain its natural
beauty. In order to retain the velvet emerald appearance, you should adhere to good lawn
practices. A good-looking, well-maintained lawn is an object of admiration, owner's pride
and neighbor's envy.
Your lawn requires your care and attention. A lush green lawn is not only a delight
for the eyes. Oxygen conversion, absorption of air borne pollutants, erosion control, air
and surface cooling are the other healthy benefits a lawn provides its owner. If you are in
the pursuit of lawn maintenance tips to safeguard your lawn from weed growth, insect
attacks and disease-spread, use this lawn health care guide. Conscientious effort promises
that perfect patch of lawn throughout the year, irrespective of change in season.
How much of grass should be mowed? Answer to this determines the following.
Amount of food the lawn can prepare by way of photosynthesis. Amount of water and
time taken for maintenance. The look of the lawn Provide enough foliage fully exposed to
the sun to support the process of photosynthesis. Too short a length hurts the grass and
results in water wastage. Take care that you do not remove more than one-third of leaf
blade per mowing. Mow the grass when it is dry.
Adequate Watering
The amount of water required for the lawn depends on the season and soil type.
Make use of this simple calculation to determine the number of minutes to water the lawn.
First determine the depth of the moistened soil in inches. Divide this by 120. Once you
determine the length of watering period, the same can be followed for all seasons. In
order to minimize evaporation and water wastage, water the lawn in the early mornings.
In case of abundant rain during the day or night, be assured of adequate water supply for
unto two weeks. For a medium sized lawn, you can choose the best sprinkler device
oscillating, fountain type or permanent sprinklers. Infrequent heavy watering is preferred
to small daily doses.
Do not water lawn at night. This may lead to fungus and insect development.
Dishonor, Sosa and Bermuda grasses need 2 inches depth of water.
Merion, Kentucky Blue, ryes and red fescues need 3 inches of water.
Proper Fertilizing
If you care to make your lawn stronger, pest and disease resistant consider
fertilizing the lawn. It provides necessary nutrients required by the lawn to remain plush
green. However, it is essential to analyze the type of fertilizer that is required for your
lawn. This can be done after testing the soil for its inherent nutrient content. Based on the
soil test recommendation, you can determine the appropriate fertilizer. Experts
recommend fertilizing lawns in spring or fall to reap total benefits.
Check day temperature, not above 85 degrees for weed control to be effective.
Choose a still day that is not windy to prevent drifting of chemicals.
AERATION TO BREATHE:
Put to a variety of uses such as play, sports activities or a barefoot evening stroll.
With time lawns age and soil compaction may occur. The pore space within the soil that
holds air is reduced with compaction. The soil suffers as it does not receive required
amount of oxygen, water and nutrients. Root growth is terribly affected. The results are
poor top growth and overall health of lawn starts deteriorating. Annual machine aeration
during spring or autumn helps lawn to breathe healthily.
Make sure soil is moist, not too wet nor too dry
Lawn aeration by hand is advantageous for small lawn
Water lawns two days prior to aerating
For good coverage, aerate lawns in two different directions. Another lawn
maintenance tip is to rake your lawn to remove accumulated thatch so as to feel the
crisp lawn under your feet. Trim the edges of your lawn to give a neat appearance
to the entire garden.
WORK DONE REPORT:-
EX NO:-13 DATE:-
Pruning not only maintains the floriferous ness of rose plant but improves flower
quality and plant vigour and also removes the diseased and unproductive growth. It also
results in the development of strong shoots
Pruning time
The best time of pruning is the period when the activity of the rose plant is least
and the plant is at dormant to near- dormant stage. Pruning time is entirely dependent on
climatic conditions of the region. In temperate climate, it is done in spring though some
growers do it at the end of autumn. Late pruning, in general, delays flowering and also
reduces the yield of flowers. In the Indo Gangetic plains, pruning is done after cessation
of rains when cold season is approaching. Under North Indian conditions, particularly in
Delhi, highest yield of cut- flowers in. cultivars, like Super Star, Happiness and Queen
Elizabeth, was obtained when pruning at weekly intervals from 23 rd September to 16th
October seems to provide regular supply of flowers throughout winter form December to
March. In Kamataka, roses are pruned twice two distinct flowering seasons. In
Maharashtra, pruning is done in the first week of November for winter bloom and in the
first week of June for monsoon flush. In and around Chennai, pruning is done only once
at the end of November or early December. In the hills, pruning is done by the end of
March or in April. In R. damascene, grown for perfume, pruning during the end of
December was found to be useful. Pruning of R. bourboniana during November gave
maximum yield of flowers.
HOW TO PRUNE:
In pruning, cut is made at about half a centimeter above a vigorous bud that points
to the direction one desires the new• shoot to grow. Since a bush rose is to be kept open in
the centre, the cut is made at ail outer. growing bud. The cut should be slightly slanting to
avoid accumulation of moisture and thereby reducing the risk of fungal attack at the cut
end. The cut should always be clean and sharp and immediately be painted with a
fungicidal preparation made by mixing 4 parts of red lead, 4 parts copper• carbonate, and
5 parts of linseed oil.
TYPES OF PRUNING:-
The intensity of pruning markedly .influences 'the growth and flowering of roses.
Depending upon the extent and level of shortening of stem, there are three types of
pruning' - light, moderare and hard, In light pruning, the healthy shoots,' left after thinning
out diseased and unwanted portion, are cut either at the second or third bud, immediately
below the flower- bearing point. Moderare pruning is done by cutting back the ripe mam
and lateral shoots of the previous year's growth at an outward-_ growing eye, at about half
the length of the growth. Hard pruning consists of keeping only three or. four shoots of
the last year and heading them back at about three or four eyes from the base.,
In roses, the amount of pruning largely depends upon the cultivar and the class,
health and vigour of the plant, spacing, fertility status of soil and the desired flower
quality. Generally, strong and healthy plants are pruned lightly, moderate growers
moderately and weak plants relatively hard. If the soil is light in texture and the nutrient
status of the soil is medium to low, pruning should be light. In case of heavy and fertile
soils, pruning may be little harder. Hard pruning is usually given to obtain better blooms
with longer stems.
Pruning of different groups of code. Rose plants are to _ be pruned after proper
establishment. The actual pruning starts after one year of establishment. In the first year,
pruning is done to give a definite shape to the plants and the operation varies according to
the class of the rose and also the purpose for which it has been grown. The method
adopted in different classes of roses are as follows:
Hybrid teas:
In Hybrid Tea, all the dead, weak, diseased and crossing shoots are removed from
their point of origin. Only 4 to 5 healthy basal soots are retained and remaining ones
removed from the base. In the climatic conditions prevailing in greater part of India,
moderatrely severe pruning appears to be ideal. In order to obtain. higher yield of export
quality flowers. hard pruning was found to be best for cultivars, like Super star and
Happiness. Usually, the cultivars having healthy and vigorous growth need light pruning,
whereas, those producing slender and less vigorous branches are cut severely.
Floribundas :
The primary objects of pruning of this class of roses are to obtain large number of
flowers and to give a good shape to the plant. Usually, very little or no pruning is given
except the thinning of dead, weak and overcrowded shoots and also cutting of the en9 of
branches that have already flowered.
They hardly need any pruning because it is desirable to promote the growth of the
lateral and side branches to bear flowers. Therefore, only some branches from the vase
should be cut to five room for the new growths. Pillar roses and large- flowered climbers
are also not pruned in the first year and thereafter pruning merely consists of removal of
unwanted wood in controlling size and shape. The climbing Floribundas, polyanthas and
Miniatures also need such treatments. Many Ramblers and some shrubs of Hybrid Musk
Group only bloom on the new wood. The older stems which have completed flowering
once may therefore, be removed.
Standard:
Standard roses do not need drastic pruning. Sometimes, when there are two unions,
the shoots from upper one are weaker. Pruning at the lower union should, therefore, be
more severe to maintain the symmetry of the plant.
Wintering :
In some of the rose-growing areas, wintering is done. In this practice, the base of
the rose plant is exposed to sun and air by removing the soil to a depth of 10-15 cm in a
diameter of 20-30 cm around the plant. After a few days, the dug-out soil, mixed with
well-decomposed manure, is put back, firmed and irrigated. This treatment is usually
done and found useful in the humid regions of the country but not in other places.
Pinching
Removal of terminal growing portion of stem, i.e, pinching reduces plant height
and encourages axillary branching. Maturity of flower-bud is delayed by this practice.
The blind shoots that appear healthy are pinched hard by 1 or 2 nodes to induce
flowering.
Disbudding:
Undesirable buds are removed form time to time, keeping only the central bud
intact for better quality bloom. The removal of buds of structural shoots (bottom breaks)
increases the number of flowers also.
Removal of young vegetative shoots (deshooting):
This practice is generally done in hybrid Tea roses. Young vegetative shoots
developing from the axil of leaves of basal and lateral shoots are removed to encourage
the growth of terminal shoot. The side shoots that develop .from the eyes down the stem
below the terminal flower bud, if not removed at the initial stage, result in much branched
plants that produce a number of smaller flower.
Standard :
For better shape of the plants and attractive extra large flower, large- flowered
chrysanthemums are trained as standards producing 1-3 blooms/plant. For this, suckers
are planted in January. All care is taken for proper development of the plant. The plants
are transplanted several times in bigger posts and finally into 25cm posts in August.
These plants bloom in November-December and are normally very tall and need care
throughout the year. The lower portion of the plant looks bare as the leaves drop.
According to recent cultural methods for developing better standard, plants are developed
from cutting in july. It avoids unnecessary carrying of plants for about 6 months.
The suckers are planted in December in 15cm pots filled with compost made of
leaf-mould : light clay : charcoal power (10:2:1). Second potting is done into 20cm pots
during February-end in a potting mixture of cow dung : leaf mould : light clay +bone-
meal (4:2:2+1 table spoon full). The pot is irrigated regularly at fortnightly interval. Two
table spoonfuls of oil-cake are added on the plant attains a height of 20-25 cm. for more
vigorous growth, plants are shifted to beds in March. The beds are well-manufactured
with rotten farmyard manure, bone-meal and oil-cake. The planning distance is kept
92cm. the main stem is made vertical with the help of a strong bamboo stake. The lateral
shoots which come out after first pinching are made horizontal with the help of hooked
wire inserted in the pot. Pinching is continued for profuse branching till June – end oil
cakes are added to accelerate the growth rate. Disbudding is done from October maintain
only one terminal bud. The plants are finally shifted into the container. He lifting of plants
from bud to container is a very important operation. It should be performed with great
care to maintain beauty of the plants. The plants should be performed with great
----------when the plants are well established in pots after lifting, the plants is give the
final shape “A” structure is made by split bamboo around the plant. The shape of the
structure may be given according to choice but the most popular shape is hemisphere or
dome shaped . then branches and individual buds are tied at definite places do as to give
the plat a particular uniform shape. Before lifting of plants from bed and at the time of
final typing of the branches, irrigation is stopped for 2-3 days so that the branches become
soft and more flexible. Beauty, Maud Jefferies, John Weller, evening Star, shin Mei
Getsu, Allahabad, Reflex and Raja are suitable chrysanthemums.
Bush form :
This is a specific cultural practice for small flowered chrysanthemums. The plant is
given a bush appearance by specific pinching and training. The blooms are arranged
compactly to give an effect of a floral carpet. Medium sized cultivars having profuse
branching habit are suitable for bush. Korean, anemone, button, charm, stellate,
decorative and quilled blooms are modt suitable. First pinching is started in March when
the plants attain about 20cm heights. First pinching is started in March profuse branching
takes place. These lateral primary branches are again soft pinched and the process
continued till September. By pinching selectively and regularly, plants may be given a
desired shape. The most important is use of soft pinching to outer or lower branches and
pinching hared pinching to central or higher branches. Normally in this case, disbudding
is not practiced. For maintaining uniform spreading bamboo stakes are used the periphery
and are tried with a ring of wire or sutli.
Pot – mums :
In normal practice, one cutting is planted in one pot. The plant grows tall and lower
portion of stem is naked. In recent times, 5-7 cuttings are planted in one pot (20-25cm)
during June/July . the healthy rooted cuttings are planted at equal distance around the
periphery of the pot. Pos are kept in semi shade for about 7-10 days. Then optimum
conditions are provided for proper vegetative growth of plants for 2 months till the
initiation of flower bud. The compost mixture of clay, farmyard manures and leaf-mould
in a 1:2:2 ratio is very good for proper growth of plants. Top dressing with neem-cake
about a month after potting is very useful. Liquid manuring with a fertilizer mixture
during early-September is recommended for vigorous growth.
Pot-mums are grown as such without pinching or they may be pinched as per
choice. In no-pinch pot-mums, the number of flowers are almost as many as the number
of plants (5-7). The flowers are bigger in size. If large number of flowers are desired, the
branching is encouraged by soft-pinching.
The height of plants of pot –mums is mostly uniform uniformly of height is
maintained by selecting proper variety, right time of planting and pinching. Disbudding is
adopted for better bloom size and good looks of the plant. This method has become very
popular. It requires less time and it can be easily handled due to home decoration. The
pots may be easily exposed to artificial lighting and shading. There fore, supply of
successive batches of pot-mums are possible for a long period during the year.
Varieties selected for pot-mums are Beatrice May, Kasturba Gandhi, General
Petain, Otome Zakura, Pink Cloud, Pink Casket, Fish Tail, Jack Straw, Evening Star,
Goldie and John Reid.
Cascade form :
The plants trained in cascade form give the effect of a water fall in blooming stage.
This is also a Japanese art of chrysanthemum culture. The stem is made to bend down
above the rim of the container. This training methid gives an excellent look of the blooms.
For beautiful cascades ( small, medium and large –sized ) selected varities should have
:Long internodes for large and short internodes for medium and small cascade.Thick but
flexible stem.Profuse branching and prolific blooming habit.Anemone and Korean types
ate also suitable. The selected varieties are planted in the bed during March in a slanting
position (60 degrees angle).A strong bamboo stake is also inserted in the soil at same
angle. Another vertical stake may be tied with the slanting stake to prevent damage of the
plant due to wind . bamboo frames of desired shape and design are kept ready in July and
planted in a large pot at 45 degrees angle. The main stem and branches are tied to the
frame at several places. The frame is bent gradually downward by applying pressure
taking care that by August-end. The bending process is continued for the next 2 months
(September-October). Sometimes a weight is tied at the tip of the frame for gradual
bending. Pinching is most critical technique in formation of a cascade. It is started at the
height of 15-25cm from the ground and continued till September. Both soft and hard
pinching are performed. October is most crucial period when bud initiation starts. One
should keep regular vigilance of plants and buds should be arranged systematically by
bending and typing to cover the entire structure. Perfecta, Modella, Jaya, Aparajita,
Mayur and Flirt are most –suited chrysanthemum for cascade form.
Coniform :
Fan form :
Planning of a garden:
In planning a garden, several factors like the size of the house and the space
available for the garden, availability of water, cost of laying the garden and its
maintenance, have to be taken into consideration. A garden is planted priority to suit the
tastes of the people of the household and the locality, there is no rigid system in garden
planing and each system is open to modification to suit the environments and other local
factors.
If there is a vast open area it should be designed to give a mass effect. If the land in
single stretch, the single level can be broken by providing terraces or sunken gardens or
by making apportions with garden factures like hedger or herbaceous perennial borders. A
lawn should form a green mantle or cover to cloths the garden. Flowers and flower beds
should add colour, variety and the necessary finish. The trees, climbers and hedges should
be situated in such places that they fit in with the situation and do not any of the other
factures. The tall factures like trees fence etc. should be towards the periphery of the
compound and successively dwarfed features should occupy more and more inner space
till the centre is occupied by carpet beds and flower beds this helps to have a panoramic
view of the garden from the centre.
GARDEN DESIGNS:
1.Formal design:
This design is very stiff and every thing is done in a straight and narrow way in
symmetrical or a geometrical pattern, every thing is planted in straggly lines. The hedges,
edges and topiary are maintained in proper shape by regular training and pruning,
summitry is always maintained in the garden by undertaking similar type of plantation
and using similar garden technique and facture on one side of the garden, the same thing
should albs be repeated on the other side of the gander.
2.Informal design:
In this design, the plants and factures of the garden are arranged naturally without
following and hard fast rules. The plant is first laid on the ground and then it is brought on
paper. The existing plant on the ground is utilized as such for the purpose of
beautification.
3.Picturesque design:
The idea of picturesque design of garden was expounded by William Robinson in
the last decade of nineteenth century. This ideas was to naturalize plants in shrubbery. He
also suggested that grass should not be mown and bulbous plants should be grown
scattered in the grass to imitate wild scenary be opened in the woodland and trees, shrubs
and bulbous plants should be planted in forest flora to have an effect of wild garden, this
idea was to allow the creeper to climb over the tree naturally to imitate forest tipe of
effect.
WORK DONE REPORT:-
EX NO:-15 DATE:-
If u want ur cut flowers to last as long as possible, you need to be willing to give
them some extra attention.Lt will only take you a few minutes and the results will be well
worth. it. Read the instructions first, and then gather the materials you’ll need to prepare
your flowers.Here are the keys points you need to know about the care of cut flowers.
The present invention relates to method to lengthen the shelf –life (hereinafter also
indicated as post –harvest life) of cut flowers with a hydroalcoholic solution of myrrh. In
these last years the world of floriculture has known a prolonged development phase not
followed, unfortunately, by a corresponding development of the Italian floriculture. Even
if the last has a very primary role as far as the innovation aspects of the products (for
example in case of carnations) and quality of sold products are concerned, the difficulties
in efficient and widespread distribution com up with by a production strongly delocalized
on territory caused productions of other countries to be preferred, faster in providing
efficient transportation to reach the sale markets. Therefore, since our floriculture cannot
rely on rapid transportation and since it necessarily has to provide far away foreign
markets, difficult to reach, it had to develop alternative solutions, for example by
developing lengthened post –harvest life products.
On the contrary, the inventors of the present invention have surprisingly found out
that a treatment with myrrh hydroalcoholic solutions, followed by the drying of the
flower, makes it possible a lengthening of post- harvest life of the flowers themselves and,
at the same time, obtains the further advantage of making the transportation there of
actually easier. The foregoing seems evident if only the greater easiness in transporting a
substantially dry product (hereinafter designated with “dry” preserved product) compared
to a product immersed in water is considered.
WORK DONE REPORT:-