Hardware and Software

• A computer is a machine designed to perform

operations specified with a set of instructions
called a program.
• Hardware refers to the computer equipment.
Introduction to Scientific – keyboard, mouse, terminal, hard disk, printer,
Computer Programming – CPA
Computer Concepts and C • Software refers to the programs that describe the
steps we want the computer to perform.

Computer Hardware Computer Organization

•
CPU – • Input Unit
– Central processing unit – Receives data into the computer (receiving section)
•
ALU – • Output Unit
– Arithmetic and logic unit – Outputs information (shipping section)
• Memory Unit
•
ROM –
– Called the primary memory, the warehouse section
– Read only memory
• Arithmetic and Logic Unit
•
RAM – – Performs calculations and makes decisions
– Random access memory • Central Processing Unit
– Supervises all operations of the other sections
• Secondary Storage Unit
– Stores programs and data currently not needed
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Software: Operating System Computer Software: Applications

•
A system of computer programs that control •
Application Software (Software Tools)
the interaction of the user and the computer – Word processors (Microsoft Word,
hardware. WordPerfect, ...)
– Examples: Linux, Windows, QNX,…
– Spreadsheet programs (Excel, Lotus1-2-3, ...)
•
Purposes of the operating system
– Computer games
– Controls communication between input and output
– hardware and each process running in the computer. – Communication software (email, chat, web
– Directs and orders all operations of the computer
browser…)
– Allocates and shares resources (memory,processor…) – Telecommunication software (VOIP, …)
– Controls access to resources and data (security)
– Provides a user interface (UI) and/or graphical user
interface (GUI)
– Stores and accesses data and applications 5 6

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Computer Software: Languages
•
Some Computer Languages
– Machine language (machine instruction set)
– assembly language
– high level languages
– C, C++, Ada, Fortran, Basic, Java
•
Do YOU know of any others?
– mathematical computation tools (MATLAB,
Mathematica, ...)
•
Application software is written using
computer languages.
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Machine Language Programs
•
In machine language a program is a list of
instructions
– Each instruction is represented by a number
– Inside the memory of the computer each number is
represented in binary (as a constant length string of 1’s
and 0’s)
– The long string of 0’s and 1’s is easy for the computer
to understand and very difficult for a Human to read or
write
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Assembler Programs
•
The code for an Assembler program is
written into a text file.
•
The computer read 1’s and 0’s not text
•
How do we translate to machine readable
form?
– A computer program called a compiler is used to
translate the text file (called a source file) containing the
assembler code into machine readable code
– The compiler writes a binary file containing the machine
readable code (called an object file)
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Machine language
•
Each type of processor (like Pentium 4,
Athalon, Z80, …) has its own instruction set
•
Each instruction in an instruction set does a
single thing like access a piece of data, add two
pieces of data, compare two pieces of data …
•
Each instruction is represented by a unique
number This # may be different for different
instruction sets, but no two instructions in the
same instruction set will have the same #
Assembler
•
Assembler languages make it easier for the
programmer.
– Assembler is easier for humans to read/write
– The numbers that identify each of the instructions in the
instruction set are replaced with mnemonics like ADD,
CMP, …
– The code, written using these mnemonics is written into
a text file.
Programs in High Level Languages
•
Assembler is easier to read/write than
machine language. It is still very cumbersome
•
High level languages are easier to write than
assembler
– The compiler is more complex, but that is a tool you
use, not one you write
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History of C C Standard Library
• C evolved from two previous languages • C program consists of modules or pieces called
– BCPL in 1967 by Martin Richards functions.
– B in 1970 by Ken Thompson • The C Standard Library contains a extensive
• From B, Dennis Ritchie developed C at Bell collection of functions to form a C program.
Laboratories in 1972. • In creating a program in C, usually, you would use
– Today, virtually all Operating Systems are developed the following:
using the C language, or the C++. – The C Standard Library functions
– Functions you create yourself
– Functions others have created, and are now available
for you

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C Program Execution Source files

• There are six phases a C programs goes •
Contains the text you type into a text editor
through to be executed •
The text is a program
1. Editing
– Typing in and saving of program files on disk •
The program is a list of instructions written in a
2. Preprocessing special Human readable language (C)
– Completes preprocessor directives (e.g. includes…) •
The program can be translated, from the
3. Compiling
Human readable language (in source file) to a
– Translation of C program to machine language code
4. Linking machine readable language (in object file), by a
– Links object code with the libraries and saves on disk compiler
5. Loading •
A compiler is a special piece of software used
– Places program in memory
to translate from source files to object files
6. Executing
– Processing of instructions (program execution)

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Source files Perfect Code? Finding Errors 1

•
Write using a text editor
•
Do not write your code using a word processor
like Microsoft Word. A word processor will save in
a special format.
•
The compiler reads only text, not special
• formats.
•
Beware: your text does not differentiate
between a word processor and an editor
•
It is highly unlikely than any of us will always
write perfect code that contains no errors
•
How do we find errors?
– Are there different kinds of errors? Yes
•
A computer program can contain syntax
errors, semantic errors, or logical errors
•
When and how can we detect and correct
• errors?
– Compile errors
– Link errors
– Run Time Errors

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Syntax Errors
•
A computer program can contain syntax errors
•
A computer language follows simple rules
– how words and punctuation of different types may be
combined.
– In English syntax is similar to grammatical structure
•
The compiler for a high level language can
detect errors that break those simple of syntax
(syntax errors)
•
Syntax Errors are usually detected at compile
time
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Logical Errors
•
When your program completes but gives an
unexpected answer it usually means there is a
error in the logic in your solution of the problem
•
Logic errors can also cause a program to fail
part way through execution
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Perfect Code? Finding Errors 3
•
If your code compiles and contains no errors
that can be found by the linker (or splint) is it
correct? NOT NECESSARILY
•
How do we find the remaining logic and
semantic errors?
– When you run your executable program it may not
complete (may or may not generate error message)
– It may complete and give the wrong answer
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Semantic Errors
•
A computer program can contain semantic
errors
•
Semantics relates to the meaning of the words
in a sentence or a computer language command
– Just like a grammatically correct English sentence can
be nonsense, a syntactically correct high level
computer language command can also contain
semantic errors
•
Some semantic errors may be found by the
compiler, some will be found when the program is
linked, some may be found at run time
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Perfect Code? Finding Errors 2
•
If your code contains compile time errors is it
correct? NOT NECESSARILY
•
How do we find the remaining errors?
– Use a tool that does more checks than the compiler
(splint).
– Move on to linking the code to libraries etc.
– The linker resolves references, words in your program
than are defined elsewhere
• Errors occur when the definitions cannot be
found
• Errors occur when the use of the word does not
correspond to the definition
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Summary:
Executing a Computer Program
•
Compiler
– Converts a source file (containing your human readable
program in C) to and object file (computer readable
binary file)
•
Linker
– Converts object program to executable program
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Summary: Types of Errors
•
Syntax errors
– Errors in syntax, how words are combined and used
reported by the compiler or splint
Introduction to
•
Semantic errors
– Errors in the meaning of words, Scientific
– Reported by the linker (linker errors) Computer Programming
– Reported by the compiler (compile time errors)
– Found at execution time (run-time errors) – Computer Concepts
•
Logic errors and C
– Errors causing the incorrect results, not reported
– Errors causing program failure (run-time errors)

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