Offset QPSK (Staggered QPSK)

QPSK (after pulse shaping or filtering) do not have constant

amplitude, especially for the transition with a phase shift equal to
Hence, after non-linear power Amp, distortion creates more
spectral sidelobes (spectral re-generation)
In offset QPSK, I and Q channels are offset in time by half of a
symbol period
Phase transitions happen at every half of a symbol period (instead
of every symbol period as in QPSK), but each transition is limited to
+/-90 degree
Results: relatively more constant envelope after pulse shaping
Used in the reverse link for IS 95 (CDMA) standard
OQPSK
In Offset QPSK signaling,
sometimes called staggering
QPSK, there is same data
stream partitioning and
orthogonal transmission as
shown in Fig 9.10
The difference is that the
timing of the pulse stream
d
I
(t) and d
Q
(t) is shifted such
that the alignment of the two
streams is offset by T
Figure 9.12 OQPSK data streams
OQPSK
Offset QPSK signaling can also be represented by eq-9.44
The only difference between QPSK and OQPSK is in the
alignment of the two baseband waveforms
Offset between I and Q means that transition is potentially possible
every Tb sec
)
4
2 sin( ) (
2
1
)
4
2 cos( ) (
2
1
) (
0 0

+ + + = t f t d t f t d t s
Q I
Figure 9.13: (a) QPSK (b) OQPSK waveforms
For OQPSK, symbol transition across the origin (phase changes of
180
o
) is prohibited (Compare this to QPSK)
OQPSK is close to a constant envelope modulation scheme that is
attractive for systems using nonlinear transponders, e.g., satellite
communication
Unlike QPSK, signal transition do not
pass through the origin
Bandwidth of OQPSK:
90% bandwidth = 1/Tb
99% bandwidth = 8/Tb
Facts about OQPSK (SQPSK):
Invented by K. Fehr, 1982
I and Q baseband signals are shifted half a symbol relatively
Both QPSK and OQPSK have the same shape of power spectrum in
the linear channel
Spectral response is different under bandlimited and non-linearity
conditions
Envelope fluctuations in OQPSK is much smaller than in QPSK
/4 QPSK
Another variant of QPSK which is now widely used in majority of
digital radio modems is the /4 QPSK format
It is so called because the 4 symbol set is rotated by /4 or 45
o
at
every new symbol transition
The reason for this rotation is to ensure that the modulation envelope of
the QPSK signal never passes through zero
/4 QPSK constellation
Example:
Bit Sequence: 00 00 10 00 01 11 11 00 01 00
1 0 B1 00 10
.707 -.707 A2 01 9
1 0 B1 00 8
-.707 -.707 A3 11 7
0 -1 B2 11 6
.707 -.707 A2 01 5
1 0 B1 00 4
-.707 .707 A4 10 3
1 0 B1 00 2
.707 .707 A1 00 1
Q I Symbol ID Bits Symbol
The fact that the modulation envelope does not pass through zero is
important for the design of radio power amplifiers
Comparing the vector diagrams for QPSK and /4 QPSK, this
property is clearly evident
Since the envelope never goes through zero as shown above, /4
QPSK mitigates the spectral spreading caused by system
nonlinearity
Summary of /4 QPSK Modulation
Differentially encoding of symbol phases
Mitigates loss of data due to phase slip
Uses include portable land mobile / satellite communications
/4-QPSK is a compromise between QPSK and QPSK
It performs better in multipath environment
It is possible to differentially encode /4 QPSK /4-DQPSK
Less envelop fluctuation
Demodulation:
Coherent detection
Differential detection
Noncoherent detection
Discrimination detection
US/Japanese standard for digital cellular system
Continuous Phase FSK and Minimum Shift Keying (MSK)
CPFSK: FSK with continuous phase
MSK is a form of CPSK modulation
FSK
Data bit 0 -> f
1
= f
c
+ f
Data bit 1 -> f
2
= f
c
f
MSK has modulation index (h= 2fT) of 0.5
f = 1/4T
where T is the bit interval
Constant amplitude modulation
Gaussian MSK (GMSK)
Used in GSM, DECT, HIPERLAN
MSK has considerable out of band radiated energy
Guarantees constant envelope property
Lowpass filter should present the following properties
Narrow bandwidth and sharp cutoff
suppress high frequency components
Low overshoot impulse response
protect against excessive instantaneous frequency deviation
Preservation of the filter output pulse area
Corresponds to a phase shift of p/2 for simple coherent detection
Uses a Gaussian Lowpass filter
Gaussian
LPF
Data
~
FM Mod
Index=0.5
Output
Lower the out of band energy by lowpass filtering the binary input data
prior to modulation
GMSK is generated by passing the the modulating NRZ data waveform
through a pre-modulation Gaussian pulse-shape filter
Block diagram of a GMSK transmitter using direct FM generation
GMSK
PSD of various modulation schemes
Advantages and Disadvantages of FSK
Advantages
FSK is a constant envelope modulation
hence insensitive to amplitude (gain) variations in the channel
hence compatible with non-linear transmitter and receiver
systems
Detection of FSK can be based on relative frequency changes
between symbol states and thus does not require absolute
frequency accuracy in the channel (FSK is thus relatively tolerant to
LO drift and Doppler Shift)
Disadvantages
FSK is less bandwidth efficient than ASK or PSK
The bit/symbol error rate performance of FSK is worse than PSK
In case of FSK, increasing the number of frequencies can increase
the occupied bandwidth
Advantages and Disadvantages of PSK
Advantage:
Bandwidth Efficiency
In order to improve on the bandwidth efficiency of bandpass data
transmission, we can increase the number of symbol states
A reduction in bandwidth by a factor of k
M k
k
B
B
Binary
ary M 2 _
log = =
b
ary M
b
Binary
kT
B then
T
B if
1
,
1
_
= =
Disadvantages:
Reduced immunity to noise
As a general rule, we know that as the number of symbol states
is increased, the tolerance to noise is reduced
Two exceptions to this rule, QPSK and orthogonal MFSK
Decreased immunity to noise compared to binary
Increased transmission power compared to binary
Increased complexity compared to binary
Lower transmission quality compared to binary
Figure: Digital Modulation Tree
C o n s t a n t E n v e l o p e
D i g i t a l
M o d u l a t i o n s
N o n c o n s t a n t E n v e l o p e
F S K P S K C P M
B F S K
( N )
M F S K
( N )
B P S K
( D )
M P S K
( D )
Q P S K
( D )
O Q P S K
p i /4 - Q P S K
( D )
M H P M S H P M
L R C
L S R C
G M S K
T F M
L R E C
1 R E C
( C P F S K )
M S K
( D ) ( N )
A S K Q A M S Q O R C
O O K
( N )
M A M
( N )
Q O R C
Q O S R C
IJ F -
O Q P S K
T S I-
O Q P S K
S Q A M
X P S K
L = 1
h = 0 .5 S in u s o id a l
P u l s e - S h a p i n g
h = 0 . 5
Q P S K
( D ) ( N )
2
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - D a s h e d L i n e in d i c a t e s "a lt e r n a t iv e l y c a n b e d e r iv e d f r o m "
( D ) C a n b e d if f e r e n t ia ll y e n c o d e d
( N ) C a n b e n o n c o h e r e n t l y d e t e c t e d
_ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
S o l id L i n e in d ic a t e s " c a n b e d e r i v e d f r o m "
M-ary ASK,M-ary Amplitude Modulation MAM MASK
Amplitude Shift Keying(generic name) ASK
Binary On-Off Keying ASK OOK
Amplitude and Amplitude/Phase modulations
M-ary Phase Shift Keying MPSK
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation QAM
/ 4 Quadrature Phase Shift Keying / 4 QPSK
Offset QPSK, Staggered QPSK SQPSK OQPSK
Quadrature Phase Shift Keying 4PSK QPSK
Binary Phase Shift Keying PSK BPSK
Phase Shift Keying (PSK)
M-ary Frequency Shift Keying MFSK
Binary Frequency Shift Keying FSK BFSK
Frequency Shift Keying (FSK)
Descriptive Name Alternate Abbr. Abbreviation
Digital Modulation Schemes (Abbr.= Abbreviation)
Descriptive Name Alternate
Abbr.
Abbreviation
Tamed Frequency Modulation TFM
Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying GMSK
Spectrally Raised Cosine Pulse of Length L LSRC
Raised Cosine Pulse of Length L LRC
Serial Minimum Shift Keying SMSK
Minimum Shift Keying, Fast FSK FFSK MSK
Continuous Phase Frequency Shift Keying CPFSK
Rectangular Pulse of Length L LREC
Multi-h Phase Modulation MHPM
Single-h(modulation index) Phase Modulation SHPM
Continuous Phase Modulations
Digital Modulation Schemes
Descriptive Name Alternate
Abbr.
Abbreviation
Crosscorrelated QPSK XPSK
Superposed QAM SQAM
Two Symbol Interval OQPSK TSI-OQPSK
Intersymbol-Interference/Jitter-Free OQPSK IJF-OQPSK
Quadrature Quadrature Phase Shift Keying Q2PSK
Quadrature Overlapped Squared Raised
Cosine Modulation
QOSRC
Staggered QORC SQORC
Quadrature Overlapped Raised Cosine
Modulation
QORC
Nonconstant Envelope Modulations
Digital Modulation Schemes
(a) FDM (b) OFDM
Special Topic
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM)
Discrete Multitone (DMT)
Converts a wideband signal into a series of narrowband signals
placed side-by-side in the frequency domain
Pros
Immune to the effects of a dispersive channels
Implemented using an FFT at the transmitter and receiver.
Cons
overhead associated with guard interval
Applications
ADSL, European DAB, High speed wireless LANs
Basic Concept
Consider single frequency modulation
Consider multicarrier modulation
cos(2f
c
t) f
c
cos(2(f
c
+f
1
)t)
f
c
+f
1
T

f
c
+1/T
cos(2f
c
t)
f
c
cos(2(f
c
+f
1
)t) f
c
+f
1
cos(2(f
c
+f
2
)t)
f
c
+f
2
a0
a1
a2
Orthogonal Frequencies
Let f = 1/T for multicarrier modulation
For each sub-carrier frequency, the contribution from all other sub-
carriers are zero
Orthogonal waveforms
Analogous to the use of sinc pulses in the time domain having brick wall
frequency response
Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing
Each carrier may be modulated independently,
BPSK, 4- 16- QAM,
Frequency selective channels will result in some sub-carriers having
higher SNR than others
Use higher size constellations with higher SNR.
f
c
f
c
+f
1
f
c
+2f
1
Realization with an FFT
Consider the baseband equivalent signal for each quadrature pair
(a
n
+jb
n
)exp(j2nft) n=0, ..., N-1 for N pair of sine and cosines
The output signal y(t) is the sum of quadrature modulated signals
Let us sample the time signal with a sampling period of (1/Nf)
For each frequency f
c
+nf use sine and cosine (quadrature)
waveforms
Each quadrature pair is then modulated with a pair of information
bits which we will denote as a
n
and b
n
This is the inverse FFT of the complex sequence (a
n
+jb
n
)
Note that the complex baseband notation allows us to represent
signals with frequency contents up to the sampling frequency.
ft n j
n
N
n
n
e jb a t y

=
+ =

2
1
0
) ( ) (
N
nm j
n
N
n
n mT t
e jb a t y
2
1
0
) ( ) ( + =

=
=
Chapter 10: Synchronization
In a digital communication system, the receiver must maintain some
degree of synchronization with the transmitter in order to decode the
message correctly.
The following levels of synchronization are commonly found in a
communication system:
(1) Phase synchronization
(2) Symbol synchronization
(3) Frame synchronization
Phase synchronization using Phase-Locked
Loop (PLL)
This type of synchronization is required for coherent detection.
Phase synchronization can be achieved with a phase-locked loop.
The basic PLL is shown below:
Consider a normalized input signal r(t):
where
o
is the angular carrier frequency and (t) is a slowly
varying phase.
The voltage-controlled oscillator (VCO) generates a normalized
signal x(t):
This signal is multiplied with the input signal to get the error signal
e(t):
[ ] ) ( sin ) (
0
t t t r + =
)] (

cos[ 2 ) (
0
t t t x + =
)] ( ) (

2 sin[ )] (

) ( sin[
)] ( sin[ )] (

cos[ 2
) ( ) ( ) (
0
0 0
t t t t t
t t t t
t r t x t e


+ + + =
+ + =
=
The error signal is applied to a low-pass filter which removes the
higher frequency component represented by the second term in the
previous equation.
The output of the LPF depends on the difference of
If this value is small, then:
The VCO will adjust its output signal frequency according to y(t).
The PLL is said to be phase-locked if:
is maintained within a small value.
) (

) ( t and t
) (

) ( ) ( t t t y
) (

) ( t t
Suppressed Carrier Loop
The basic PLL works well if the input (carrier) signal r(t) is fairly
stable with some positive average energy.
In a suppressed carrier system, the modulated signal does not
contain the carrier frequency.
Therefore the basic PLL cannot be used in a suppressed carrier
system.
As an example, consider a binary PSK signal:
where m(t) = 1 with equal probability.
In order to track the phase of the carrier signal, the (filtered) PSK
signal is first applied to a squarer as shown in the next slide.
) sin( ) ( ) (
0
+ = t t m t r
The second term contains the carrier related component.
The phase lock of this frequency component can be achieved by the
basic PLL.
The phase-locked carrier is obtained by the divide-by-2 circuit.
[ ] ) 2 2 cos( 1
) ( sin
) ( sin ) ( ) (
0 2
1
0
2
0
2 2 2



+ =
+ =
+ =
t
t
t t m t r
The output of the squarer is:
Costas Loop
In practice, it is difficult to implement the squarer at carrier
frequency.
The Costas loop as shown below is a suppressed carrier PLL which
does not require a squarer.
The input signal is multiplied by
to get the two error signals e
1
(t) and e
2
(t).
Considering the received signal:
we get:
The frequency components at 2
o
are removed by the LPF
The output signals of the LPF are multiplied together to obtain y(t)
)

sin( 2 )

cos( 2
0 0
+ + t and t
)]

2 cos( )

)[cos( (
)

sin( ) sin( ) ( 2 ) (
)]

2 sin( )

)[sin( (
)

cos( ) sin( ) ( 2 ) (
0
0 0 2
0
0 0 1




+ + =
+ + =
+ + + =
+ + =
t t m
t t t m t e
t t m
t t t m t e
) sin( ) ( ) (
0
+ = t t m t r
For small
Therefore, phase lock at
o
is achieved when is
maintained at some small.
[ ] )

( 2 sin
)

cos( )

sin( ) ( ) (
2
1
2


=
= t m t y

) ( ),

( t y

Symbol Synchronization
Data symbols are generally transmitted in either synchronous mode
or asynchronous mode.
In synchronous mode, symbols are sent continuously at a fixed
periodic rate.
In asynchronous mode, the stream of data bits is broken into a
number of words, each is typically made up of a start bit, 8 data bits,
a parity bit (optional) and a stop bit.
The transmission interval between words is irregular.
In either mode of transmission, it is necessary that the received
symbol is sampled at the right time, i.e., some form of symbol
synchronization is required.
Early/late-gate symbol synchronization
Perfect synchronization:
The clock is perfectly synchronized with the input data when the two
integrator outputs are equal.
Slightly out of synchronization:
Suppose the clock is slightly out of synchronization, say, earlier than
the input symbol by .
The early gate will integrate the input symbol from (- ) to (T- -d).
The result is the area of the pulse in the interval - to (T- -d).
The late gate will integrate from (d - ) to (T - ) which yields (T-d).
The error signal e is therefore equal to 2 .
This signal will then vary the VCO such that the error tends to zero.
Explanation
Late sample
Early
sample
T- T T+
Matched filter output
Optimum sample
Another view: The matched filter output and early and late samples
Frame Synchronization
This can be achieved by frame marker or synchronization codeword.
Frame marker:
This marker is sent periodically in a data stream.
Synchronization codeword:
This is usually sent in the beginning of a message frame.