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7.
7.
Short introductions
Short introductions
to:
to:
Mass
Mass
transfer;
transfer;
Separation
Separation
processes
processes
;
;
Particulate
Particulate
technology &
technology &
multi
multi
-
-
phase
phase
flow
flow
Ron Ron Zevenhoven Zevenhoven
bo Akademi University bo Akademi University
Heat Heat Engineering Engineering Laboratory Laboratory / Vrmeteknik / Vrmeteknik
tel. 3223 ; tel. 3223 ; ron.zevenhoven@abo.fi ron.zevenhoven@abo.fi
Processteknikens grunder (PTG) Processteknikens grunder (PTG)
Introduction to Introduction to Process Process Engineering Engineering
v.2008 v.2008
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7.1
7.1
Mass
Mass
transfer
transfer
processes
processes
;
;
Diffusion,
Diffusion,
convection;
convection;
Mass transfer coefficient
Mass transfer coefficient
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Mass
Mass
transfer process
transfer process
examples
examples
Drying Drying of a solid of a solid using using heat or heat or dry dry gas gas
Adsorption of gas or Adsorption of gas or liquid liquid using using a solid a solid
Distillation Distillation using using heat to heat to create create a a vapour vapour phase phase
Gas absorption Gas absorption using using a a liquid liquid absorbent absorbent
Extraction Extraction of of liquid liquid or solid or solid using using a solvent that a solvent that
creates creates immiscible immiscible phases phases
Crystallisation Crystallisation using using cooling cooling
to to create create a solid a solid phase phase
Note Note the the support support phase: phase:
solvent, sorbent solvent, sorbent, heat, , heat, .... ....
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Mass
Mass
transfer
transfer
mechanisms
mechanisms /1 /1
Diffusion: Diffusion: Ficks Ficks Law* Law* (for binary systems) (for binary systems)
Spreading Spreading of a of a substance substance from a region with high from a region with high
concentration concentration to regions with to regions with lower lower concentration concentration; ;
more more correct correct for for concentration concentration is is chemical chemical potential potential
time
x x
c
dx
dc
D
dt A
dm
m =

=

&
Molecular diffusion coefficient ; for species A in medium B =
AB
diffusion
surface
c
* Note analogy with Fouriers Law for heat conduction
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Mass
Mass
transfer
transfer
mechanisms
mechanisms /2 /2
Diffusion + ( Diffusion + (forced forced or or free free) ) convection convection
Flow Flow as a as a result result of a of a pressure pressure difference difference, , gravity gravity, ... , ...
If If needed needed, , = =
mol
+ +
turb turb
can can be be used used to to include include turbulent turbulent eddy eddy diffusion diffusion
time
x x
c
flow, v flow, v
dt dx v
c v
dx
dc
D m
/ =
+
&
diffusion
c
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Diffusion
Diffusion
Transfer of Transfer of matter matter as a as a
result result of a of a concentration concentration
(or (or density) difference, density) difference,
more more accurately accurately
chemical chemical potential potential
difference difference (gradient) (gradient)
Main Main cause cause: : Brownian Brownian
motion motion of of molecules molecules
Mass flux Mass flux
mA,x mA,x
(kg / s (kg / s
per m per m
2 2
) through a surface ) through a surface
(x (x
0 0
) perpen ) perpen- -dicular to the dicular to the
transport direction (x) as transport direction (x) as
a result of a gradient in a result of a gradient in
mass concentration ( mass concentration (
A A
). ).
More conventional for More conventional for
gases: use gases: use concentration concentration
c c
A A
(mol/m (mol/m
3 3
)= )=
A A
/M /M
A A
=p =p
A A
/RT /RT
Picture: SSJ84
dx
dc
D
A
A x molA
- =
,
"
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Diffusion
Diffusion
coefficients
coefficients ( (some some values values) )
(96 p. 40)
Ambient Ambient conditions conditions: : ~ 10 ~ 10
- -5 5
m m
2 2
/s in /s in gases gases
~ 10 ~ 10
- -8 8
.. 10 .. 10
- -9 9
m m
2 2
/s in /s in liquids liquids
~ 10 ~ 10
- -11 11
.. 10 .. 10
- -13 13
m m
2 2
/s in solids /s in solids
A B D
AB
m
2
/s Temp C
water CO
2
1.1710
-9
18
water N
2
2.0110
-9
22
water O
2
2.6010
-9
25
air NH
3
19.6 10
-6
0
air CO
2
13.610
-6
0
air H
2
O vapour
2610
-6
25
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Diffusion and
Diffusion and
convection
convection
An An example example: :
Flow Flow of a fluid from a of a fluid from a
tube tube into into a region a region
where where c = c c = c
0 0
for a for a
certain certain species species
c
0
x
convection, v
diffusion
Steady Steady state state, , mass mass balance balance gives gives
number) (Schmidt
D

Sc with Sc Re
D

vx
D
vx
Pe
number) (Pclet Pe
D
vx
with
0 x @ c c ;
0
= = = =
=

=
= = =
D
vx
- . c c
c A v
dx
dc
A D
exp
0
0
A m
2
x
c
0
c
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Mass
Mass
transfer and
transfer and
boundary
boundary
layers
layers
For For mass mass transfer transfer
between between two two phases phases A A
and B, and B, concentration concentration
gradients gradients usually usually only only
exist exist near near the the physical physical
boundary boundary that that
separates A and B separates A and B
Thus Thus, the , the driving driving forces forces
are are active active only only in in
boundary boundary layers layers at the at the
separating separating surface surface
Equilibrium
between
c
A,interfaceA
and c
A,interfaceB
A
boundary layer
medium A
phase
boundary
boundary layer
medium B
c
A,bulkA
c
A,bulkB
c
A,interfaceA
c
A,interfaceB
B

molA molA
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Mass
Mass

heat transfer
heat transfer
analogy
analogy /1 /1
A A temperature temperature
profile profile, heat , heat
transfer 1 transfer 1 2 2
T
2
T
i
T
1

1
c
1
c
2
c
1,i
c
2,i
c
1
c
1,i
c
2,i
c
2
A A chemical chemical
potential potential profile profile, ,
mass mass transfer 1 transfer 1 2 2
Concentration Concentration profiles profiles, ,
mass mass transfer 1 transfer 1 2 2
Phase Phase
1 2
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Mass
Mass
transfer
transfer
coefficient
coefficient
Mass Mass flow flow species A: species A:

A A
= =
A A
mol/s mol/s
Mass Mass transfer transfer rate rate per area: per area:

A A
= =
A A
/a = /a =
A A
mol/(m mol/(m
2 2
s) s)
Mass Mass transfer transfer coefficients coefficients, k, , k,
( (unit unit: m/s) for : m/s) for both both sides sides of the of the
interface: interface:

A A
= = k k
x x
(c (c
1,i 1,i
- -c c
1 1
) = k ) = k
y y
(c (c
2 2
- -c c
2,i 2,i
) )
Interface Interface concentrations concentrations can can be be
eliminated eliminated using using equilibrium equilibrium
constant constant K = c K = c
1,i 1,i
/c /c
2,i 2,i
= c = c
1 1
*/c */c
2 2
= c = c
1 1
/c /c
2 2
* *
c c
1 1
* = c * = c
1 1
at at equilibrium equilibrium with c with c
2 2
, , etc. etc.
1 (L) 2 (G)
x
C
1
y
i
C
2.i
y
C
2
x
i
C
1.i
L,G example
interface a

A A
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The film
The film
model
model
A A mass mass transfer transfer coefficient coefficient can can
be be linked linked to the film to the film model model: :

A,mol A,mol
= k = k (c (c
A0 A0
- -c c
A1 A1
) = ) =
- -
A A
dc dc
A A
/dy = /dy =
A A
(c (c
A0 A0
- -c c
A1 A1
)/ )/
c c
which which gives k = gives k =
A A
/ /
c c
Thus Thus, the , the boundary boundary layer layer thickness thickness
can can be be estimated estimated if if k and k and
A A
are are
known known. .
The The mass mass transfer limitations are transfer limitations are
concentrated concentrated in a in a well well- -defined defined region. region.
Picture: SSJ84
See heat transfer Nusselt number Nu = hD/ = D/
T
mass transfer Sherwood number Sh = kD/ = D/
c
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Mass
Mass
heat transfer
heat transfer
analogy
analogy /2 /2
Heat transfer Heat transfer
Nu = Nu = f(Re f(Re, Pr, L/D, Gr,..) , Pr, L/D, Gr,..)
Convection Convection around around a a sphere sphere: :
Nu = 2 + 0.6Re Nu = 2 + 0.6Re

Pr Pr

Transfer from a Transfer from a wall wall and a and a
turbulent turbulent flow flow: 2000 < : 2000 < Re Re < 10 < 10
5 5
and Pr > 0.7 and Pr > 0.7
Nu = 0.027Re Nu = 0.027Re
0.8 0.8
Pr Pr
0.33 0.33
( ( / /
wall wall
) )
1/7 1/7
General: Nu = General: Nu = CRe CRe
m m
Pr Pr
n n
, , where where
m = 0.33 .. 0.8, n m = 0.33 .. 0.8, n 0.33 0.33
Mass Mass transfer transfer
Sh Sh = = f(Re f(Re, , Sc Sc, L/D, Gr,..) , L/D, Gr,..)
Convection Convection around around a a sphere sphere: :
Sh Sh = 2 + 0.6Re = 2 + 0.6Re

Sc Sc

Transfer from a Transfer from a wall wall and a and a
turbulent turbulent flow flow: 2000 < : 2000 < Re Re < 10 < 10
5 5
and and Sc Sc > 0.7 > 0.7
Sh Sh = 0.027Re = 0.027Re
0.8 0.8
Sc Sc
0.33 0.33
General: General: Sh Sh = = CRe CRe
m m
Sc Sc
n n
, ,
where where m = 0.33 .. 0.8, n m = 0.33 .. 0.8, n 0.33 0.33
Chilton Chilton- -Colburn Colburn analogies analogies, heat and , heat and mass mass transfer transfer values values j j
H H
, , j j
D D
: :
j j
H H
= NuRe = NuRe
- -1 1
Pr Pr
- -
j j
D D
= ShRe = ShRe
- -1 1
Sc Sc
- -
j
H
= j
D
= CRe
m-1
= = Fanning friction factor for pipe flow
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7.2
7.2
Phase
Phase
equilibrium
equilibrium
( (gas gas- -gas gas, , gas gas- -liquid liquid, , liquid liquid- -liquid liquid) )
Henrys Henrys Law Law, , Raoults Raoults Law Law
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Mass
Mass
transfer and
transfer and
equilibrium
equilibrium
Drying Drying of of wet wet gas in an gas in an glycol glycol absorber absorber
c
H2O
wet gas dry gas
time
c
H2O
in liq
c
H2O,eq
Equilibrium determined by
thermodynamics
Rate determined by
transport processes and
equipment design
glycol
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Air
Air
above
above
a lake
a lake
x = x = fraction fraction in in liquid liquid, y = , y = fraction fraction in gas, in gas,
z = position z = position coordinate coordinate, T = , T = temperature temperature
z
x, y, T
x
H2O
1
y
H2O
<< 1
T
Equilibrium
at surface
Concentration
jump
and: some
air dissolves
in the lake !
O H
O H
O H
x
y
K
2
2
2
= : m equilibriu at
y
O2
0.21
y
N2
0.79
x
O2
<< 0.01
x
N2
<< 0.01
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Gas
Gas
-
-
liquid
liquid
phase
phase
equilibrium
equilibrium
:
:
Raoults Raoults law law
Assume Assume a a liquid liquid mixture mixture of of components components A, B, A, B,
C, .... at a C, .... at a temperature temperature T. T.
A A occupies occupies a a large large fraction fraction, , say say x x
A A
> 5 % > 5 %
At At temperature temperature T, T, saturation saturation pressure pressure of pure of pure
substance substance A A (i.e. A (i.e. A vapour vapour above above liquid liquid A) A) is p is p
A A
0 0
For the For the mixture mixture, the , the vapour vapour pressure pressure of A of A
equals equals p p
A A
= = y y
A A
.p .p
tot tot
= x = x
A A
.p .p
A A
0 0
For a For a two two- -component component mixture mixture
of A and B: of A and B:
p p
B B
=x =x
B B
.p .p
B B
0 0
= (1 = (1- -x x
A A
).p ).p
B B
0 0
, ,
using using x x
A A
+x +x
B B
=1 =1
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Gas
Gas
-
-
liquid
liquid
phase
phase
equilibrium
equilibrium
:
:
Henrys Henrys law law
Assume Assume a a liquid liquid mixture mixture of of components components A, B, A, B,
C, .... at a C, .... at a temperature temperature T. T.
A A occupies occupies a a small small fraction fraction, , say say x x
A A
< 5 % < 5 %
For the For the mixture mixture, the , the vapour vapour pressure pressure of A of A
equals equals p p
A A
= = y y
A A
.p .p
tot tot
= = H H
cA cA
.x .x
A A
with with Henry Henry constant constant H H
c c
( (unit unit: Pa, bar, ....) : Pa, bar, ....)
y y
A A
/ /x x
A A
= = H H
cA cA
/ /p p
tot tot
= = , , y y
A A
= = . .x x
A A
distribution distribution coefficient coefficient (mol/mol) (mol/mol)
H H
c c
is a is a function function of of temperature temperature, , but but
independent of independent of pressure pressure at at p p
tot tot
< 5 bar. < 5 bar.
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Example
Example
:
: Water Water- -ammonia ammonia vapour vapour /1 /1
A A mixture mixture of of ammonia ammonia and water and water
40C, total 40C, total pressure pressure unknown unknown
Liquid Liquid composition composition: :
70 70 % %- -mol mol NH NH
3 3
+ 30 + 30 % %- -mol mol H H
2 2
O O
What What is the is the composition composition of the of the
gas, y gas, y
NH3 NH3
, y , y
H2O H2O
? ?
At At equilibrium equilibrium, no , no driving driving forces forces
or or temperature temperature gradients, gradients,
x x
NH3 NH3
+ x + x
H2O H2O
= 1, y = 1, y
NH3 NH3
+ y + y
H2O H2O
= 1 = 1
but but x x
NH3 NH3
y y
NH3 NH3
, x , x
H2O H2O
y y
H2O H2O
!!! !!!
x
H2O
= 0.3 mol/mol
x
NH3
= 0.7 mol/mol
T = 40C
P
tot
= ?
GAS
LIQUID
Relative volatility of NH
3
with respect to water:
= (y
NH3
/ x
NH3
) / (y
H2O
/ x
H2O
) = K
NH3
/ K
H2O
at equilibrium
20 20/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Example
Example
:
: Water Water- -ammonia ammonia vapour vapour /2 /2
Gas Gas above above an NH an NH
3 3
/H /H
2 2
O O liquid liquid mixture mixture with with
x x
NH3 NH3
= 0.7 and x = 0.7 and x
H2O H2O
= 0.3, T = 40C. = 0.3, T = 40C.
Questions Questions: : pressure pressure & & equilibrium equilibrium composition composition of gas ? of gas ?
From From tabelised tabelised data data for saturation pressures, for saturation pressures, at 40C : at 40C :
p p
H2O H2O
= 7.348 = 7.348 kPa kPa; p ; p
NH3 NH3
= 1554.33 = 1554.33 kPa kPa
x x- -values values for for liquid liquid >> 5 % : >> 5 % : use use Raoults Raoults Law Law : :
p p
H2O H2O
= x = x
H2O H2O
p p
H2O H2O
= 0.3 = 0.3 7.348 7.348 kPa kPa = 2.22 = 2.22 kPa kPa
p p
NH3 NH3
= x = x
NH3 NH3
p p
NH3 NH3
= 0.7 = 0.7 1554.33 1554.33 kPa kPa = 1088.3 = 1088.3 kPa kPa
P P
total total
= p = p
H2O H2O
+ p + p
NH3 NH3
= 1090.25 = 1090.25 kPa kPa = 10.9025 bar = 10.9025 bar
y y
H2O H2O
= 2.22 = 2.22 kPa kPa / 1090.25 / 1090.25 kPa kPa = 0.002 = 0.2 = 0.002 = 0.2 % %- -v v
y y
NH3 NH3
= 1088.3 = 1088.3 kPa kPa / 1090.25 / 1090.25 kPa kPa = 0.998 = 99.8 = 0.998 = 99.8 % %- -v v
Source: B98
21 21/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Example
Example
:
: Water in air Water in air above above a lake a lake
Assume Assume a lake with T=17C, a lake with T=17C, p p
tot tot
= 92 = 92 kPa kPa at at
water water surface surface level level. .
At the At the surface surface, the water , the water will will be be saturated saturated with with
water, water, which which means means p p
H2O H2O
= p = p
H2O H2O
= 1920 = 1920 Pa. Pa.
Fraction Fraction of water in the air at the water of water in the air at the water surface surface
at at equilbrium equilbrium with the air with the air above above is is then then
y y
H2O H2O
= p = p
H2O H2O
/ /p p
tot tot
= 1.92 = 1.92 kPa kPa / 92 / 92 kPa kPa = 2.09 % = 2.09 %
note note: : % = % = % %- -v v ( (volume volume %) %)
Source: B98
22 22/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Example
Example
:
: Air Air dissolved dissolved in lake water in lake water
Assume Assume the same lake, T=17C, the same lake, T=17C, p p
tot tot
= 92 = 92 kPa kPa at water at water
surface surface level level. At the . At the surface surface p p
H2O H2O
= p = p
H2O H2O
= 1920 Pa. = 1920 Pa.
A small A small amount amount (<< 5 (<< 5 % %- -vol vol) of air ) of air will will be be dissolved dissolved in in
the water: the water: use use Henrys Henrys Law Law to to calculate calculate the the equilibrium equilibrium: :
At T = 290 K, At T = 290 K, H H
c c AIR,water AIR,water
= 6200 = 6200 MPa MPa
p p
AIR AIR
= = p p
tot tot
p p
H2O H2O
= 90.008 = 90.008 kPa kPa
x x
AIR AIR, water , water side side
= = p p
AIR,air AIR,air side side
/ / H H
c c AIR, water AIR, water
= 0.090008 = 0.090008 MPa MPa / 6200 / 6200 MPa MPa = 1.45 = 1.45 10 10
- -5 5
= 0.00145 = 0.00145 % %- -v v
This This means means 1.45 1.45 moles moles air (molar air (molar mass mass ~29 kg/ ~29 kg/kmol kmol) in ) in
100000 100000 moles moles water (molar water (molar mass mass 18 kg/ 18 kg/kmol kmol), ), which which
means means 23.4 mg air / kg water 23.4 mg air / kg water
Source: B98
23 23/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Two
Two
-
-
component
component
phase
phase
diagram
diagram (G/L) (G/L)
P, T, x diagram for a
binary gas-liquid system
x x
A A
= 1 = 1- -x x
B B
y y
A A
= 1 = 1- -y y
B B
Picture: T68
critical points
pure A, B
24 24/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Constant Constant pressure pressure; the ; the x x- -y y diagram diagram
Binary
Binary
vapour
vapour
-
-
liquid
liquid
equilibrium
equilibrium
Temperature
Picture: T68
y
x
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Relative
Relative
volatility
volatility
,
,

Raoult Raoult (for (for not not- -small small x x

i i
) ): :
y y
A A
=x =x
A A
p p
A A
, , y y
B B
=x =x
B B
p p
B B

x x
B B
= 1 = 1- -x x
A A
, , y y
B B
= 1 = 1- -y y
A A
y y
B B
/ /y y
A A
= = x x
B B
/ /x x
A A
= relative = relative volatility volatility
= = p p
B B
/ /p p
A A
= = (T) (T)
result result: :
(1 (1- -y y
A A
)/ )/y y
A A
= = ( (1 1- -x x
A A
)/ )/x x
A A
y y
A A
= = x x
A A
/ (1+ ( / (1+ ( - -1) 1) x x
A A
) )
=
Picture: WK92
26 26/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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7.3
7.3
Separation
Separation
processes
processes
( (gas gas- -gas gas, , gas gas- -liquid liquid, , liquid liquid- -liquid liquid): ):
equilibrium
equilibrium
stages
stages
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Separation of
Separation of
mixtures
mixtures
:
:
1 stage
1 stage
For For example example: : separating separating phenol phenol from from
water (L) by water (L) by adding adding benzene benzene (V) in a (V) in a
separation separation funnel funnel. .
x = x = phenol phenol conc conc. in L, y = . in L, y = phenol phenol conc conc. in . in V V
Equilibrium constant: K = y1 / x1 Equilibrium constant: K = y1 / x1
Separation factor: S = K Separation factor: S = K V/L V/L
Fraction of phenol separated = S / (S+1) for 1 stage Fraction of phenol separated = S / (S+1) for 1 stage
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Separation
Separation
and
and
equilibrium
equilibrium
stages
stages
Example Example
Four Four- -stage stage
processing processing for Cu for Cu
recovery recovery from from Cu Cu- -
containing containing ore ore
( (liquid liquid / / liquid liquid) )
release
from ore
extraction
recovery
electrolysis
Diluted H
2
SO
4
Organic solvent
Concentrated H
2
SO
4
Cu
Cu - ore
Numbers are concentrations kg Cu/m
3
2,0
2,2
0,1
0,2
50 40
Source: WK92
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Phase
Phase
equilibrium
equilibrium
stages
stages /1 /1
The The extraction extraction and the and the recovery recovery process are process are
combinations of combinations of mixing mixing tanks and tanks and settling settling tanks tanks
extraction
feed refine
solvent loaded
solvent
Picture: WK92
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Phase
Phase
equilibrium
equilibrium
stages
stages /2 /2
Cu Cu is is transferred transferred from from feed feed stream stream L to solvent (support L to solvent (support phase phase) V; the ) V; the
extraction unit can extraction unit can be be described as described as a a series of series of equilibrium equilibrium stages stages. .
Equilibrium constant for Cu in feed stream andsolvent stream is Equilibrium constant for Cu in feed stream andsolvent stream is K =y K =y
Cu Cu
/x /x
Cu Cu
Thus, for an equilibrium stage n: y Thus, for an equilibrium stage n: y
n n
= Kx = Kx
n n
Streams L and V are often roughly constant Streams L and V are often roughly constant
L L
1 1
L L
2 2
.. .. L L
n n
= L; V = L; V
1 1
V V
2 2
... ... V V
n n
= V = V separation factor S = K separation factor S = K V/L V/L
extraction
feed refine
solvent loaded
solvent
equilibrium
stage n
L
n
x
n
equilibrium
stage n-1
equilibrium
stage n+1
L
n+1
x
n+1
V
n
y
n V
n-1
y
n-1
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Example: phase
Example: phase
equilibrium
equilibrium
stage
stage
For For example example: : phase phase equilibrium equilibrium constant constant K=5; K=5;
L = 1000 kg/s, V = 800 kg/s L = 1000 kg/s, V = 800 kg/s S = KV/L= 4. S = KV/L= 4.
Cu in Cu in feed feed x x
0 0
= 0.2 = 0.2 % %- -wt wt = 0.002 kg/kg = 0.002 kg/kg
For For clean clean solvent, y solvent, y
2 2
=0, =0, then then Vy Vy
1 1
/ Lx / Lx
1 1
= S = S
Mass Mass balance balance gives Lx gives Lx
0 0
= (S+1)w = (S+1)w- -r r
Lx Lx
0 0
+Vy +Vy
2 2
= Lx = Lx
0 0
= Lx = Lx
1 1
+Vy +Vy
1 1
= Lx = Lx
1 1
(1+KV/L) = Lx (1+KV/L) = Lx
1 1
(1+S) (1+S)
Lx Lx
0 0
= 2 kg Cu/s w = 2 kg Cu/s w Lx Lx
1 1
= Lx = Lx
0 0
/ (1+S) = 0.4 kg Cu/s / (1+S) = 0.4 kg Cu/s
Picture: WK92
32 32/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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7.4
7.4
Separation
Separation
processes
processes
( (gas gas- -gas gas, , gas gas- -liquid liquid, , liquid liquid- -liquid liquid): ):
continuous
continuous
distillation
distillation
;
;
packed
packed
tower
tower
columns
columns
33 33/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Continuous
Continuous
distillation
distillation
Pictures: T68
34 34/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Distillation
Distillation
,
,
principle
principle
Liquid Liquid with with
composition composition a a
1 1
boils boils at at
temperature temperature T T
2 2
, , giving giving
vapour vapour with with
composition composition a a
2 2
which which
is is enriched enriched in in
component component A A
Taking Taking out out and and cooling cooling
vapour vapour a a
2 2
gives gives liquid liquid
a a
4 4
at at temperature temperature T T
4 4
In In equilibrium equilibrium with with
liquid liquid a a
4 4
is is vapour vapour a a
4 4
, ,
again again further further enriched enriched
in in component component A A
Picture: A83
35 35/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Continuous
Continuous
distillation
distillation ( (binary binary) )
Separating Separating a a mixture mixture of of
2 2 components components A and B, A and B,
with A with A more more volatile volatile
Liquid Liquid for absorption for absorption
section section produced produced by by
condensing condensing some some top top
product product
Gas for Gas for stripping stripping
section section produced produced by by
boiling boiling some some bottom bottom
product product
Roughly Roughly equimolar equimolar
exchange exchange: 1 mol A : 1 mol A
liquid liquid gas ~ 1mol B gas ~ 1mol B
gas gas liquid liquid
Top section:
rectifying section
absorbing the less
volatile component
Bottom section:
stripping section
desorbing the more
volatile component
Bottom product:
less volatile
component
Top product:
more volatile
component
36 36/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Pictures:
T68
Packed
Packed
tower columns
tower columns /1 /1
Mellapak Mellapak
http:// http://www.sulzerchemtech.com www.sulzerchemtech.com
37 37/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Packed
Packed
tower
tower
columns
columns /2 /2
Mass Mass transfer from gas to transfer from gas to liquid liquid or or vice versa vice versa where where
the the liquid liquid forms a ( forms a (thin thin) film on the ) film on the surface surface of of packing packing
material elements, material elements, creating creating a a large large contact contact surface surface a a
(m (m
2 2
/ m / m
3 3
apparatus apparatus) )
For For relatively relatively small small
amounts amounts of material of material
transferred transferred ( (say say, < 2% of , < 2% of
the the streams streams) the process ) the process
may may be be considered considered
isotherm isotherm (vaporisation and (vaporisation and
condensation condensation have have a heat a heat
effect effect!) !) and and streams streams V V
and L and L may may be be
considered considered constant constant. .
Picture: W92
38 38/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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7.5
7.5
Particle technology;
Particle technology;
Multi
Multi
-
-
phase flows
phase flows
Prof. Brian Scarlett
1938-2004
Consider a particle
39 39/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Particle
Particle
(or droplet)
(or droplet)
size distribution
size distribution
Particle size, X
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X
n
d
N
/
d
X
n
=
0
,
1
,
2
,
3
dN/dX
N = number
L = length
S = surface
V = volume
XdN/dX=dL/dX
X
2
dN/dX=dS/dX
X
3
dN/dX=dV/dX
Particle size, X
F
r
e
q
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c
y

d
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s
t
r
i
b
i
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i
o
n
X
n
d
N
/
d
X
n
=
0
,
1
,
2
,
3
dN/dX
N = number
L = length
S = surface
V = volume
XdN/dX=dL/dX
X
2
dN/dX=dS/dX
X
3
dN/dX=dV/dX
Different distributions for number,
length, surface and volume !
Different particle size analysers give
different distributions: some measure
length, others measure surface, etc.
40 40/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Particle shape
Particle shape
Shape factor, Shape factor,
sphericity sphericity
= = 4.836 4.836 (volume) (volume)
2/3 2/3
surface surface
= = surface of sphere with same volume surface of sphere with same volume
surface of particle surface of particle
41 41/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Particles
Particles
in fluid
in fluid
flows
flows
A smooth (a) and A smooth (a) and
roughened (b) ball entering roughened (b) ball entering
water at 25 C water at 25 C
Picture: CR93
Turbulence Turbulence as as seen seen
by by Da Da Vinci Vinci
Particles Particles and and
turbulent turbulent eddies eddies
42 42/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Eulerian
Eulerian
vs.
vs.
Lagrangian
Lagrangian
particle representation
particle representation
Focussing on a control volume (Euler), Focussing on a control volume (Euler), left left, ,
or focussing on particle trajectories (Lagrange), or focussing on particle trajectories (Lagrange), right right
Euler Euler- -Euler (for fluid and particulate phase) and Euler (for fluid and particulate phase) and
Euler Euler- -Lagrange methods are both widely used Lagrange methods are both widely used
time t time t
1 1
time t time t
2 2
time t time t
1 1
time t time t
2 2
time t time t
3 3
time t time t
4 4
time t time t
4 4
Source: ZH00
43 43/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Aerosols
Aerosols
Aerosol: Aerosol: A suspension of A suspension of
solid or solid or liquid liquid particles particles in a in a
gas. Aerosols are gas. Aerosols are stable stable for for
at at least least a a few few seconds seconds and in and in
some some cases cases may may last a last a year year
or or more more. The term aerosol . The term aerosol
includes includes both both the the particles particles
and the gas, and the gas, which which is is usually usually
air. air. Particle Particle size size ranges ranges from from
0.001 to over 100 m. 0.001 to over 100 m.
For For example example smoke smoke is a is a
dispersion of solid dispersion of solid particles particles
or or droplets droplets in air. in air.
Sol: Sol: particles particles dispersed dispersed in a in a
liquid liquid, , for for example example ink ink
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:
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Source: ZH00
44 44/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Flow of particle swarms
Flow of particle swarms
Drag coefficient for sphere in swarm, C Drag coefficient for sphere in swarm, C
D D
*, *,
corrected for effect of neighbour particles corrected for effect of neighbour particles
= = voidage voidage, porosity , porosity
Small particles, Small particles,
low Re: ( low Re: ( ) = ) =
- -4.7 4.7
Richardson Richardson - - Zaki Zaki hindrance factor: hindrance factor:
Re Re n n
< 0.2 < 0.2 4.65 4.65
0.2 ~ 1 0.2 ~ 1 4.35 4.35 Re Re
- -0.03 0.03
1 ~ 500 1 ~ 500 4.45 4.45 Re Re
- -0.01 0.01
> 500 > 500 2.39 2.39
n
D D D
C f C C

= = ) ( *
Source: ZH00
45 45/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Flow in packed beds
Flow in packed beds
Darcys Law: Darcys Law:
with permeability K with permeability K
Kozeny Kozeny - - Carman equation: Carman equation:
S S
v v
= specific surface = surface/volume = specific surface = surface/volume
S S
v v
= 6 /d
p
for a sphere with diameter d
p
L
( )
L S
p
u
fluid v


=
2
3
1 5 ) (
L
p
K u
fluid

=
Source: ZH00
46 46/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Fluidised beds
Fluidised beds
Source: ZH00
gas bubble in a
gas/solid
fluidised bed
47 47/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Conveying
Conveying
systems:
systems:
mechanic mechanic, , pneumatic pneumatic, , hydraulic hydraulic
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:
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4 pneumatic conveying regimes :
- Solid Dense Phase
- Discontinuous Dense Phase
- Continuous Dense Phase
- Dilute Phase
Conveyor belt
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Pneumatic conveyor / drier
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48 48/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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Flow of powders in/from silos
Flow of powders in/from silos
a. Mass flow b. Funnel flow
c. Expanded flow d. Pipe
e. Rathole f. Arching
Source: ZH00
49 49/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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n
e
e
r
i
n
g
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n
g
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n
e
e
r
i
n
g
(
P
T
G
)
(
P
T
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)
TkF TkF VT VT rz08 rz08
A gas cyclone
A gas cyclone
Advantages
Simple, cheap and
compact
Large capacity
Disadvantages
Large pressure drop
Low efficiency
Catch removal problems
No removal below ~5 m
Problems above ~ 400 C
Source: ZH00
See also hydro-cyclones and
other cyclones for liquid-solid,
liquid-liquid and liquid-gas separations
50 50/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
I
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TkF TkF VT VT rz08 rz08
Electrostatic
Electrostatic
precipitators
precipitators ( (ESPs ESPs) )
4 process steps: 4 process steps:
1. Particle charging 1. Particle charging
2. Particle movement relative 2. Particle movement relative
to the gas flow to the gas flow
3. Particle collection at 3. Particle collection at
deposition surface deposition surface
4. Particle removal from 4. Particle removal from
deposition surface (often deposition surface (often
discontinuous) discontinuous)
Note Note: the : the electric electric properties properties
of the of the particles particles to be to be
removed removed should should be be
suitable suitable, , otherwise otherwise use use
a filter system a filter system
Typically Typically quite quite large large, , mainly mainly
used used at power plants for at power plants for
fly fly- -ash ash removal from removal from flue flue gas gas
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51 51/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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TkF TkF VT VT rz08 rz08
Baghouse
Baghouse
filters
filters
Inside out / outside in operation
Source: ZH00
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52 52/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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TkF TkF VT VT rz08 rz08
Liquid filtration
Liquid filtration
Horizontal belt filter Horizontal belt filter
Rotary drum filter Rotary drum filter
~ Constant pressure filtration
N rotation /min (rpm), drum
radius R (m),length L (m),
submerged angle = (0 ... )
volume element A= R L
is submerged for a time
t = / (2 N) (min)


Source: IGH91, IGH91, ZH00
53 53/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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TkF TkF VT VT rz08 rz08
Sedimentation of suspensions
Sedimentation of suspensions
Dry solids concentration Dry solids concentration
Clear zone Clear zone
Feed zone Feed zone
Thickening zone Thickening zone
Feed Feed
Effluent Effluent
Sludge discharge
Dry solids concentration Dry solids concentration
Clear zone Clear zone
Feed zone Feed zone
Thickening zone Thickening zone
Feed Feed
Effluent Effluent
Sludge discharge
Batch sedimentation test
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.
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Continuous thickener
Source: IGH91, IGH91, ZH00
54 54/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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TkF TkF VT VT rz08 rz08
Solid
Solid
-
-
solid
solid
separations
separations
Used Used for for separating separating
unwanted unwanted materials materials
or or size size fractions fractions
Equipment Equipment examples examples: :
Sieves Sieves, , screens screens
Cyclones Cyclones, , centrifuges centrifuges
Hydraulic Hydraulic separators separators
Sink Sink- -float float, , froth froth
flotation separators flotation separators
Magnetic Magnetic, , electrostatic electrostatic
separators separators
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Screens
Froth flotation
55 55/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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TkF TkF VT VT rz08 rz08
Crystallisers
Crystallisers
Solid Solid product product crystals crystals can can be be
produced produced from from gases gases, , liquid liquid melts melts
or solutions or solutions
Advantages Advantages are: high are: high product product
purity purity ( (crystallisation crystallisation can can be be seen seen
as a separation process!), and as a separation process!), and
( (except except for for liquid liquid melts melts) ) low low
energy energy demand demand and and low low
temperatures temperatures
Import Import issues issues are are crystal crystal product product
morphology morphology, , crystal crystal growth growth
kinetics kinetics, , inclusion inclusion of of impurities impurities
(and (and crystal crystal water), and process water), and process
control control ( (temperature temperature product product
size size distribution and distribution and quality quality) )
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A continuous crystalliser
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56 56/56 /56 #7/8 #7/8
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TkF TkF VT VT rz08 rz08
Sources
Sources
#7
#7
A83: A83: P.W. Atkins P.W. Atkins Physical Physical chemistry chemistry 2nd Ed. Oxford Univ. Press (1983) 2nd Ed. Oxford Univ. Press (1983)
BMH99: BMH99: Beek Beek, W.J., , W.J., Muttzall Muttzall, K.M.K., van , K.M.K., van Heuven Heuven, J.W. Transport , J.W. Transport phenomena phenomena
Wiley, 2nd ed. (1999) Wiley, 2nd ed. (1999)
B98: B98: Y. A. Y. A. engel engel, M.A Boles , M.A Boles Thermodynamics Thermodynamics 3rd Ed. McGraw 3rd Ed. McGraw- -Hill (1998) Hill (1998)
CR83 CR83: : Coulson Coulson, J.M., Richardson, J.F., , J.M., Richardson, J.F., Backhurst Backhurst, J.R., , J.R., Harker Harker, J.H. , J.H. Chemical Chemical
Engineering, Vol. 2 : Unit Operations Engineering, Vol. 2 : Unit Operations Pergamon Pergamon Press, Oxford (1983) Press, Oxford (1983)
IGH91: IGH91: Iinoya Iinoya, K., , K., Gotoh Gotoh, K., , K., Higashitani Higashitani, K. , K. Powder technology handbook Powder technology handbook , ,
Marcel Dekker, New York (1991) Marcel Dekker, New York (1991)
SH06 SH06: : J.D. J.D. Seader Seader, E.J. Henley Separation process , E.J. Henley Separation process principles principles, Wiley, 2nd ed. , Wiley, 2nd ed.
(2006) (2006)
SSJ84: SSJ84: J.M. Smith, E. J.M. Smith, E. Stammers Stammers, L.P.B.M , L.P.B.M Janssen Janssen Fysische Fysische
Transportverschijnselen Transportverschijnselen I TU I TU Delft Delft, D.U.M. (1984) , D.U.M. (1984)
T68: T68: Mass Mass transfer operations transfer operations McGraw McGraw- -Hill Hill 2nd ed. (1968) 2nd ed. (1968)
WK92; WK92; J.A. J.A. Wesselingh Wesselingh, H.H. , H.H. Kleizen Kleizen Scheidingsprocessen Scheidingsprocessen Delft Delft Univ. Press Univ. Press
(1992) (1992)
ZH00 ZH00: R. : R. Zevenhoven Zevenhoven, K. Heiskanen , K. Heiskanen Particle Particle technology for technology for
thermal thermal power power engineers engineers part 1 & part 2, part 1 & part 2, post post- -graduate graduate course course
ene ene- -47.200, TKK, 47.200, TKK, Espoo Espoo, Sept./ , Sept./Oct Oct. 2000 . 2000
Z06 Z06: R. : R. Zevenhoven Zevenhoven, Massverfring & , Massverfring &
separationsteknik kursmaterial bo Akademi Univ. (2006) separationsteknik kursmaterial bo Akademi Univ. (2006)
96 96: G. hman Massverfring, bo Akademi : G. hman Massverfring, bo Akademi Univ Univ. (1996) . (1996)